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Development and Management of Riparian Wildlife Habitat
by the Tennessee Valley Authority 1
Ronald J. Field and Roosevelt T. Allen
2
The Tennessee Valley Authority is responsible for
management of 11,200 miles of riverine or lacustrine shoreline in portions of seven States. The agency has undertaken
numerous projects including wetlands enhancement, manipulation of dewatering units, agricultural license restrictions,
and drawdown zone seeding, to improve these areas for wildlife populations.
11,280 miles of lacustrine and riverine shoreline (TVA 1984). Much of this land conforms to
the definition of riparian zone used by Thomas
et al. (1979). For uniformity, areas adjacent
to both impounded and freeflowing water will be
considered riparian for this paper.
The Tennessee River system transects
portions of the seven southeastern States of
Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Its major
tributaries, the Holston and French Broad, begin
in mountainous southwestern Virginia and North
Carolina and fall from 2600 feet to 1000 feet msl
from the headwaters to their confluence at
Knoxville where they form the Tennessee. From
there the river flows 650 miles to its junction
with the Ohio River in Paducah, Kentucky, at a
final elevation of 300 feet msl. Historically
the Tennessee was an undeveloped resource which
defied navigation because of abrupt fluctuations
in gradient, and several hazardous shoal areas
as shallow as 18 inches. The river seasonally
ravaged the Valley with floodwaters, scouring
erosive top soils from poorly managed farms to
deposit them in bottomlands further downstream
(McCarthy & Voightlander 1983).
The Office of Natural Resources and Economic
Development is responsible for providing environmental safeguards and enhancement of environmental quality within the riparian zones of the
346,000-acre area owned by TVA above normal
full pool level, as well as the 176,000 acres
of shoreline subject to annual flooding and drawdown (Fowler & Maddox 1974). These activities
are conducted through a series of Federal laws,
executive orders, and agency promulgated policies
and practices designed for environmental protection, and through programmatic projects designed
to develop or enhance natural resources in the
Tennessee Valley. These activities have been
previously discussed during this conference
(Allen and Field, 1985).
In 1933 legislation known as the Tennessee
Valley Authority Act was introduced by Senator
George Norris of Nebraska and signed into law
by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Act
directed the Tennessee Valley Authority to provide flood control, navigation, electrical power
production, fertilizer development, reforestation, agricultural and industrial development,
and to "aid further the proper use, conservation,
and development of the natural resources of the
Tennessee River drainage basin" (TVA Act of 1933).
ENHANCEMENT OF RIPARIAN ZONES FOR WILDLIFE
Because of the agency's role in conservation
and development of natural resources, TVA has,
for many years, been involved in the management of
riparian zones for numerous purposes. Development
of wildlife habitat in these areas is an integral
part of this role.
TVA operates across an 80,000 square mile,
201-county region. The nine mainstream reservoir and 23 tributary dam projects inundate
654,000 acres at full summer pool, creating
Dewatering Areas Management
Early in the history of TVA, biologists in
the Biological Readjustment Unit attempted to
evaluate how the conversion of the Tennessee River
into a chain of lakes affected water-related wildlife (Cahn 1938) and how forestry and agriculture
would affect upland species (TVA 1946). One of
the first major efforts to manage riparian zones
occurred in conjunction with establishment of
Kentucky Reservoir by constructing several miles
of low dikes and levees along the river. On
Wheeler Reservoir, similar structures were built
1
Paper presented at the Riparian Ecosystems
and their Management: Reconciling Conflicting
Uses Conference. [University of Arizona, Tucson,
April 16-18, 1985].
2
R. J. Field is Program Manager of Wildlife
Resources Development, TVA, Norris, Tenn.; R. T.
Allen, Divisional Environmental Coordinator, TVA,
Knoxville, Tenn.
265
after impoundment (Weihe & Hess 1944). They were
equipped with water control gates and massive
pumps with up to 52,000 gallon per minute water
movement capacity. The pumps were designed to
remove the shallow, impounded water from areas
behind these dikes during the spring and summer
seasons. Through this dewatering process breeding
habitat for the malaria vectoring Anopheles
quadrimaculatus mosquito was eliminated. Eight
of the dewatering units began operation during
1945, and two in 1949. The seasonal dewatering
of slightly more than 13,000 acres of fertile
bottomlands not only eliminated mosquito breeding
areas, it enabled extensive production of agricultural crops and native moist soil plants such as
smartweeds and millets (Weihe et al., 1950).
Several thousand acres of lands in the units were
licensed or transferred to the States or what is
now the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for the
management of waterfowl and other wildlife. These
units subsequently became a principal factor, in
combination with the deteriorating wetlands
habitat along the Gulf Coast, in establishing
the Tennessee River Valley as a major wintering
area for more than 1/2 million waterfowl annually,
on an area that had formally held fewer than
10,000 birds. By 1962, 68 percent of the wintering waterfowl in the States of Tennessee and
Alabama were located within the Tennessee Valley
(TVA 1962).
with backhoes, and some heavy equipment using
draglines were used to remove obstructing materials
from clogged ditches and repair eroded dikes.
Helicopters were used to reseed spoil banks.
Some timber salvage has been conducted to utilize
standing timber before further deterioration occurs.
Experiments are presently underway for reestablishing important bottomland hardwood stands in many
arPas where water damage has resulted in the loss
or removal of these species.
Drawdown Zone Management
The dewatering units located on Kentucky and
Wheeler Reservoirs are readily accessible to waterfowl migrating along the Mississippi Flyway. The
majority of the Tennessee River and its major tributaries, the Holston, French Broad, Clinch, and
Little Tennessee, however, lie between the
Mississippi and the Atlantic flyways. Their geographic location in the mountainous terrain of
Virginia and North Carolina, combined with their
major functions in flood storage and power production, long ago were identified as major impediments
to effective management of wildlife on these upper
reservoirs (Weihe 1946). The drawdown zone for
flood water storage on tributary reservoirs may
exceed 100 feet in some cases, making natural
growth and maintenance of either emergent or
submergent aquatic plants nearly impossible during
the fall migrating and wintering periods for
waterfowl. Consequently little food is present
and few waterfowl use the region, even though
Bellrose (1976) estimates that up to 3/4 million
waterfowl overfly these areas during annual
migrations.
A combination of factors, including design
of a detailed forest inventory procedure on TVA
lands (Field et al, 1985) and record high spring
water levels in 1983 and 1984, resulted in close
scrutiny of the more than 3,000 acres of bottomland hardwoods in the dewatering areas. Several
stands of timber were found to exhibit uneven
symptoms of water induced stress. Efforts were
quickly initiated to evaluate the extent of the
problem and attempt to identify the source. A
combination of techniques, including the use of
high altitude color infrared photography, elevation surveys, and onsite vegetation analysis and
inventory described elsewhere (Fowler et al.,
1985), was used.
This investigation resulted in the diagnosis
of a major problem within three of the ten dewatering units. Increasing populations of beavers
within the units had combined with siltation in
several drainage ditches or canals, to effectively
prevent removal of water from the seasonally
flooded timber duripg the spring. This inundation
during the growing season had caused tree mortality
in several areas, and as the dead trees fell across
drainage ditches, the problem was exacerbated. The
magnitude of the situation required an extensive
program of debris and silt removal to restore water
management capability, which resulted in approximately 62 miles of ditch and levee renovation, at
a cost of approximately $1.4 million. Fortunately,
the initiation of this project coincided with
passage of the 1983 Federal Jobs Bill (Public Law
98-8), and a large number of previously unemployed
workers were hired to execute the renovation with
minimum environmental disturbance. Following guidelines published by the International Association
of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (McConnell et al.,
1983), hand clearing operations, small tractors
266
Several techniques have been successfully
employed to address this situation for the benefit
of waterfowl and upland species. Fowler and Whelan
(1980) clearly showed the value of drawdown zone
seeding for deer on TVA reservoirs. Earlier work
by Fowler and Maddox (1974) and Fowler and Hammer
(1976) identified effective techniques for applying seed and fertilizer to both mudflats and steep
shorelines along reservoirs, using a barge mounted
hydroseeder or aquaseeder, an air cushion vehicle,
and a helicopter. Each exhibited some advantages
under specific conditions.
In 1982 TVA initiated a program on Douglas
Reservoir to establish suitable habitat and food
for migrating waterfowl. Initially the project
involved the hand clearing of woody vegetation
and use of a rice terrace plow to temporarily
retain standing water after the summer reservoir
drawdown. Areas adjacent to the temporary subimpoundment were seeded with a mixture of Japanese
millet and buckwheat in order to provide adequate
food for incoming birds. Portable pumps were used
to pump water up from the reservoir to flood the
sites.
Initial efforts in the 740-acre area were
moderately successful and encouraging. Although
unusually dry weather and porous soil inhibited
water retention, informal surveys suggested
increased use of the area by both migrant waterfowl
and deer. Efforts were consequently expanded and
row crop licensing, be reviewed by a wildlife
biologist. In tracts of sufficient size, configuration, or placement to be important, special
requirements such as buffer strips of unmowed
natural vegetation adjacent to the reservoir,
maintenance of ditches or gullies in native vegetation, or leaving a percentage of grain crops
for wildlife use, are incorporated within the
license agreement. Agency lands licensed for
livestock pasturage are also being reviewed to
determine whether rest-rotation grazing schemes
(Kauffman and Krueger 1984) may be practical on
these areas.
sand bags were used to build low dikes in runoff
areas, thus creating 12 shallow ponds or sloughs
ranging in size from 1/10 to 4 acres. These areas
contained large quantities of natural moist site
vegetation, which was supplemented with seeded
cereal crops. Surveys during September 1984
indicated several thousand shore and wading birds,
including great egrets, white ibises, and herons;
900-1000 wood ducks, and large numbers of teal,
mallards, and Canada geese, made extensive use
of the area. A major increase in white-tailed
deer use of the project area also occurred, which
was attributed to availability of natural and
domestic food plants. A total of 22 deer were
legally harvested from the 740-acre area in 1984,
the first year of open hunting on the site.
Other Projects
Nolichucky Project
A major project on one of the second order
tributaries of the Tennessee is TVA's Nolichucky
Waterfowl Sanctuary and Environmental Study Area
in eastTennessee. The Nolichucky Dam, built in
1913 as a small hydroelectric project, initially
impounded some 21,750 acre feet of water covering
approximately 635 surface acres (TVA, 1972). Mica
and feldspar mining operations in the North
Carolina watershed, however, caused extensive
siltation in the reservoir, gradually reducing
storage capacity. By 1970 less than 25 percent
of this storage remained, and by 1980, 90 percent
had been eliminated. In 1972, TVA retired the
facility and designated the 1,000-acre project
as a waterfowl sanctuary and environmental study
area. Water levels were manipulated using a 2~foot
scheduled drawdown to seasonally expose 70 acres
of mudflats. These areas were seeded to millet,
buckwheat, sorghum, and other cereals, and
reflooded during the fall and winter for migrating waterfowl. The mudflats also supported numerous native species including smartweeds and sedges.
Concomitantly, upland areas adjacent to the reservoir were planted to hedgerows of autumn olive,
sawtooth oak, and bicolor lespedeza, and nest
boxes were built and placed for bluebirds, wood
ducks, and other species. The result has bee~
an influx of breeding wood ducks, with 1983 nighttime float counts as high as 3.5 broods and 38
birds per mile of impounded water, and winter~ng
waterfowl counts ranging between 2,000 and 3,000
birds.
Numerous other less conspicuous but very
important projects have been established on TVA's
riparian lands for the benefit of wildlife. These
include Valley-wide wood duck habitat evaluation
and cooperative wetlands mapping with the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service in the National Wetlands
Inventory program.
Another important action has been the establishment of two eagle sanctuaries covering
approximately 1000 acres of land and water surface on TVA's Land Between The Lakes (LBL). These
sanctuaries were established in 1974 and 1981 to
secure an area frequented by relatively large
numbers of wintering bald and golden eagles. An
average of 50 eagles, at times ranging as high as
85, winter on the 170,000 LBL area and a communal
roost has been documented within one of the
sanctuary areas.
Establishment of these sanctuaries has been
an integral aspect of TVA's raptor restoration and
management projects. These include a cooperative
bald eagle restoration effort involving State,
other Federal agencies, and private conservation
organizations which have resulted in the release
through hacking of 12 young and 2 rehabilitated
adult bald eagles at LBL since 1980, and an additional 8 bald, 24 golden eagles, 131 ospreys, and
8 peregrine falcons at other sites. This project
resulted during 1984 in the first successful nesting of a captive reared bald eagle in the wild
(Hammer et al., 1984).
CONCLUSION
Agricultural Practices
Nearly 20,000 acres of TVA's reservoir lands
are licensed to local farmers for hay/pasture or
row crop production. In many areas soils are
highly erosive and most are subject to irregular
inundation during periods of unusually high water.
Poor farming practices, historically a problem in
the Tennessee Valley, have sometimes been employed
on these licensed lands, resulting in soil erosion
and decreased water quality in adjacent reservoirs.
Consequently in 1982, TVA implemented a program
designed to curtail riparian zone erosion and
simultaneously enhance lands under agricultural
license for wildlife. A policy was established
which required that each tract of land subject to
267
TVA has been active in the management of
riparian lands under its ownership since its
inception in 1933. Many of the techniques that
have been used have involved innovative approaches
to management of vegetation, and consequently
wildlife, in conjunction with water level manipulations. Other efforts have concentrated on protection of riparian habitat. Additional techniques
including comprehensive land use planning and
compartmental forest management have been discussed
elsewhere (Field et al., 1985) and blend well with
the overall conservation and development responsibility of the Tennessee Valley Authority. These
techniques, and others yet to be developed, contribute to the maintenance of environmental quality in
the Tennessee River Valley.
LITERATURE CITED
Allen, R. T., and R. J. Field. 1985. Riparian
Zone Protection by TVA: An Overview of
Policies and Programs. Proc. of 1985 Riparian
Ecosystem Management Conference (In Press).
Bellrose, Frank C., 1976. Ducks, Geese and Swans
of North America. A Wildlife Management
Institute Book sponsored jointly with the
Illinois Natural History Survey. Stackpole
Books. Harrisburg, PA. 544 pp.
Cahn, A. R., 1938. The work of the TVA in relation
to the wildlife resources of the Tennessee
Valley. Jl. of the Tenn, Acad. of Sci.
13(3):174-179.
Field, R. J., D. C. Forbes, and L. M. Doyle, 1985.
Multiple-use management on Tennessee Valley
Authority lands. Trans. 50th North Am.
Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf. (In Press).
Fowler, D. K. and J. B. Maddox, 1974. Habitat
improvement along reservoir inundation zones
by barge hydroseeding. Jl. Soil & Water Cons.
29(6):263-265.
Fowler, D. K. and D. A. Hammer, 1976. Techniques
for establishing vegetation on reservoir
inundation zones. Jl. Soil & Water Cons.
31(3):116-118.
Fowler, D. K. and J. B. Whelan, 1980. Importance
of inundation zone vegetation to white-tailed
deer. Jl. of Soil & Water Cons. 35(1):30-33.
Fowler, D. K., W. K. James, and D. Becker, 1985.
Use of infra-red photography to identify
bottomland hardwood stands damaged by standing
water. Presentation at 1985 Soil Cons. Soc.
of Amer. annual meeting (In preparation).
Hammer, D. A., J. L. Mechler, M. E. Cope, and R. L.
Lowe, 1984. Successful wild nesting of a
three-year old captive reared bald eagle
(Abstract). Raptor Research Foundation
annual meeting, Blacksburg, VA.
Kauffman, J. B. and W. C. Kreuger, 1984. Livestock impacts on riparian ecosystems and
streamside management implications • • • a
review. Jl. Range Management 37(5):430-437.
268
McCarthy, D. M. and C. W. Voightlander, Editors,
1983. The first fifty years: changed land,
changed lives. State-of-the-environment in
the Tennessee Valley--1983. Tennessee Valley
Authority, Knoxville, TN. 212 pp.
McConnell, C., A. Burns, E. Claire, D. Huff,
J. Karr, G. Montgomery, D. Parsons, J. Sedell,
and M. Seehorn, 1983. Stream obstruction
removal guidelines. International Assoc. of
Fish & Wildlife Agencies, The Wildlife Society,
and The Am. Fisheries Soc., Bethesda, MD.
10 pp.
Tennessee Valley Authority Act (PL 48-58, 18 May
1933).
Tennessee Valley Authority 1946. Biological
Readjustment Division. Annual report, fiscal
year 1946. Rept. 190-46. Norris, TN.
Tennessee Valley Authority 1962. Annual report
FY 1962. Division of Forestry Development.
Norris, TN.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1972. Environmental
Statement: Rehabilitation of Nolichucky
Project. TVA-OHES-EIS-72-2. Chattanooga, TN.
17 pp & appendix.
Tennessee Valley Authority. 1984. TVA Handbook.
Knoxville, Tennessee. 261 pp.
Thomas, J. W., C. Maser, and J. E. Rodiek. 1979.
Wildlife Habitats in Managed Rangelands--The
Great Basin of Southeastern Oregon. Riparian
Zones. USDA Forest Service General Technical
Report PNW-80. 18 pp.
Weihe, A. H. 1946. Improving Conditions for
Migratory Waterfowl on TVA Impoundments.
Jl. Wildlife Mgt. 10(1):4-8.
Weihe, A. H. and A. D. Hess, 1944. Mutual
interests of wildlife conservation and
malaria control on impounded waters.
Jl. Wildlife Mgmt. 8(4):275-283.
Weihe, A. H., E. R. Cady and P. Bryan, 1950.
Waterfowl on the Tennessee River impoundments.
Trans. 15th North Am. Wildlife Conf.
15:111-117.