Contents_________________________________
Page
Chapter 1: Effects of Fire on Cultural Resources—Introduction..................... 1
by Kevin C. Ryan, Cassandra L. Koerner, Kristine M. Lee, and Nelson Siefkin
Introduction............................................................................................................................1
Cultural Resources................................................................................................................2
Legal Protection....................................................................................................................6
Cultural Resources Categorized.........................................................................................10
Tangible and Intangible Cultural Resources...............................................................10
Fire Management................................................................................................................10
Categories of Effects...................................................................................................11
What is the Objective of This Volume?................................................................................13
Chapter 2: Fire Behavior and Effects: Principles for
Archaeologists............................................................................................ 15
by Kevin C. Ryan and Cassandra Koerner
Fire Basics...........................................................................................................................16
Combustion.................................................................................................................17
Heat Transfer..............................................................................................................18
Fire Behavior Principles..............................................................................................20
The Many Scales of Fire.....................................................................................................22
Fire Behavior and Effects: Concepts and Models...............................................................23
Fire Environment.........................................................................................................23
Fire Intensity, Depth of Burn, and Fire Severity...................................................................37
Fire Intensity...............................................................................................................37
Depth of Burn..............................................................................................................39
Fire Severity................................................................................................................40
Integrating Fire Severity With Cultural Resources..............................................................41
Fire Regime.........................................................................................................................45
Fire Planning.......................................................................................................................48
Fire Planning Software................................................................................................52
Conclusions.........................................................................................................................55
Appendix 2-1—A Field Guide to Fire Severity Terminology and Classification...................56
Fire Characteristics: Fire Intensity Classes.................................................................56
Fire Characteristics: Depth of Burn Classes...............................................................67
Fire Severity Matrix.....................................................................................................75
Chapter 3: Fire Effects on Prehistoric Ceramics............................................. 85
by Trisha Rude and Anne Trinkle Jones
Materials and Mechanics of Pottery Construction...............................................................86
Pottery as Raw Material..............................................................................................87
Vessel Formation and Preparation for Firing..............................................................87
Decoration...................................................................................................................88
Clay Firing...................................................................................................................88
iv
Page
Firing Effects on Non-Clay Inclusions..................................................................................89
Pottery Use and Post-Depositional Changes..............................................................90
Fire Effects Research..........................................................................................................91
Fire Effects on Appearance.........................................................................................92
Fire Effects on Analytical Properties...........................................................................93
Conclusions.........................................................................................................................94
Chapter 4: Fire Effects on Flaked Stone, Ground Stone, and
Other Stone Artifacts..........................................................................................97
by Krista Deal
Introduction..........................................................................................................................97
Lithic Artifacts and Fire........................................................................................................98
Some Caveats............................................................................................................98
Flaked Stone.......................................................................................................................99
Chert: Flint, Jasper, Chalcedony, and Related Silicates.............................................99
Obsidian....................................................................................................................101
Basalt........................................................................................................................105
Quartz, Quartzite, Mudstone, Rhyolite, Siltstone, Slate, and Vitrified and Welded Tuff......105
Ground Stone....................................................................................................................106
Thermal Effects on Rock Used as Heating or Cooking Stones.........................................108
Other Stone Artifacts.................................................................................................109
Implications for Cultural Resource Protection and Fire Planning......................................110
Chapter 5: Fire Effects on Rock Images and Similar
Cultural Resources................................................................................... 113
by Roger E. Kelly and Daniel F. McCarthy
Introduction........................................................................................................................113
Setting and Placement..............................................................................................116
Heritage And Research Values..........................................................................................117
Fire Effects........................................................................................................................117
Field Examples..................................................................................................................122
Hawaii.......................................................................................................................122
Arizona......................................................................................................................122
Texas.........................................................................................................................124
California...................................................................................................................124
Colorado...................................................................................................................125
Utah..........................................................................................................................125
Washington...............................................................................................................127
Kentucky...................................................................................................................127
Nevada......................................................................................................................127
Field Examples: Observations..................................................................................127
Mitigation and Protection...................................................................................................127
Restoration and Stabilization.............................................................................................130
Resources Available..........................................................................................................130
v
Page
Chapter 6: Fire Effects on Materials of the Historic Period.......................... 131
by Charles Haecker
Types of Fire Damage.......................................................................................................132
Historic Structures.............................................................................................................132
Native Materials Structures.......................................................................................132
Structures Using Manufactured Materials.................................................................136
Historic Artifacts.................................................................................................................137
Glass.........................................................................................................................137
Metal.........................................................................................................................140
Miscellaneous Artifacts.............................................................................................142
Summary...........................................................................................................................142
Chapter 7: The Effects of Fire on Subsurface Archaeological Materials.... 143
by Elizabeth A. Oster, Samantha Ruscavage-Barz, and Michael L. Elliott
Fire and Cultural Sites.......................................................................................................143
Fire Effects and Subsurface Cultural Resources: Previous Research..............................144
Post-Fire Studies of Archaeological Sites.................................................................145
Experimental Studies Dealing with the
Effects of Heat on Artifacts, Ecofacts, and Datable Materials...................................146
Thermal Alteration of Cultural Materials and Features..............................................147
Dendrochronology.............................................................................................................150
Radiocarbon Dating (14C)..................................................................................................150
Archeomagnetic Dating.....................................................................................................150
Obsidian Hydration............................................................................................................150
Case Study: Investigation of Subsurface Heating Effects at Bandelier National
Monument, New Mexico..............................................................................................151
Thermal Alteration of Ecofacts and Cultural Materials..............................................152
Correlation Between Heating Effects on Archaeological Materials and Visible
Changes in the Surrounding Matrix..........................................................................153
Correspondence Between SHE Study Fire Effects and Effects Noted in
Experimental Fires....................................................................................................154
Alteration of Datable Materials..................................................................................154
Potential for Detecting Ancient Fires, and Correspondence of Surface
and Subsurface Burn Severity Data..........................................................................155
Summary and Conclusions...............................................................................................155
Postscript..................................................................................................................156
Chapter 8: Effects of Fire on Intangible Cultural Resources:
Moving Toward a Landscape Approach................................................. 157
byJohn R. Welch
Fire Policy and Standard Practice in Cultural Resource Management.............................158
Approach, Scope, and Goals....................................................................................159
Why Consider Fire Effects on Intangible Cultural Resources?..........................................161
Cultural Resources in Local and Management Community Context.................................163
Local Communities...................................................................................................163
Management Communities.......................................................................................163
vi
Page
Landscapes as Common Ground......................................................................................164
Beyond Compliance and Materials Science......................................................................165
Steps and Stumbling Blocks in Inter-Community Collaboration...........................................166
People First...............................................................................................................167
One Local Community at a Time...............................................................................167
Deal Face Up............................................................................................................167
The Sooner the Better...............................................................................................168
Go to the Source.......................................................................................................168
Respect Tribal Sovereignty.......................................................................................168
Summary and Recommendations.....................................................................................168
Concluding Thoughts.........................................................................................................170
Chapter 9: Implications of Fire Management on Cultural Resources......... 171
by Rebecca S. Timmons, Leonard deBano, and Kevin C. Ryan
Planning............................................................................................................................172
Risk Management.............................................................................................................175
Wildland Fire Management Recommendations................................................................180
Prescribed Fire..................................................................................................................182
Prescribed Fire Management Recommendations.....................................................185
Fire Rehabilitation.............................................................................................................186
Fire Rehabilitation Recommendations......................................................................186
Fire Use.............................................................................................................................186
Fire Use Recommendations.....................................................................................186
Summary...........................................................................................................................190
References........................................................................................................................192
Glossary............................................................................................................................209
Index..................................................................................................................................223
vii