Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology
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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 What is Research?
SECTION 2 Problems and Solutions
in Research
SECTION 3 Statistical Evaluation
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
3
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Chapter Objectives
Section 1: What is Research?
• Describe the process in which
psychologists approach a research issue
and conduct the research to test a
hypothesis or solve a problem.
Section 2: Problems and Solutions in
Research
• Discuss how psychologists must
recognize and resolve errors as they
conduct research.
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the information.
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3: Statistical Evaluation
• Recognize that psychologists must collect
and evaluate evidence to support their
hypotheses.
5
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Psychologists must first decide how to approach
the research issue. Then psychologists conduct
the research in one of a variety of ways to test
a hypothesis, solve a problem, or confirm
previous findings. 
Objectives
– Describe the process of psychological
research. 
– Name the different types of psychological
research.
7
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information. Section 1 begins on page 35 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– sample 
– experimental group 
– naturalistic
observation 
– control group
– case study 
– survey 
– longitudinal study 
– cross-sectional study 
– correlation 
– hypothesis 
– variable 
8
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information. Section 1 begins on page 35 of your textbook.
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
Introduction
• Jane Goodall observed the behavior of
chimpanzees in Tanzania, Africa, to
obtain data. 
• She observed the behavior of chimps over
a period of 30 years and provided much
information about the animals’ lives. 
• Whereas Goodall used the research
methods of naturalistic observation and
case study, other psychologists use
methods such as conducting experiments
and surveys.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Psychologists collect information
somewhat like most people do in
everyday life–only more carefully and
more systematically. 
• When you turn on the television and the
picture is out of focus, you experiment
with different knobs and dials until you
find the one that works. 
• When you ask a number of friends about
a movie you are thinking of seeing, you
are conducting an informal survey.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Of course, there is more to doing
scientific research than turning dials or
asking friends what they think. 
• Over the years psychologists, like other
scientists, have transformed these
everyday techniques for gathering
and analyzing information into more
precise tools.
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Pre-Research Decisions
• Researchers must begin by asking a
specific question about a limited topic
or hypothesis. 
• The next step is to look for evidence. 
• The method a researcher uses to collect
information partly depends on the
research topic. 
• Whatever approach to gathering data a
psychologist selects, certain basic
decisions must be made in advance.
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Samples
• Suppose a psychologist wants to know
how the desire to get into college affects
the attitudes of high school juniors
and seniors. 
• Instead of studying every junior and
senior in the country, the researcher
would select a sample, a relatively
small group out of the total population
under study.
sample
the small group of
participants, out of the total
number available, that a
researcher studies
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Samples (cont.)
• A sample must be representative of the
population a researcher is studying;
there are two ways to avoid a
nonrepresentative sample. 
• One is to take a purely random sample so
that each individual has an equal chance
of being represented. 
• The second way is to pick deliberately
individuals who represent the various
subgroups in the population being studied;
this is called a stratified sample.
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Methods of Research
• The goals of research are to describe
behavior, to explain its causes, to predict
the circumstances under which certain
behaviors may occur again, and to
control certain behaviors. 
• Psychologists use various methods
of research to accomplish each of
these goals.
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Naturalistic Observation
• Researchers need to know how people
and animals behave naturally, when they
are not conscious of being observed
during an experiment. 
• To obtain such information, a psychologist
uses naturalistic observation, where the
observation is as unobtrusive as possible.
naturalistic observation
research method in which the
psychologist observes the
subject in a natural setting
without interfering
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Case Studies
• A case study is an intensive study of a
person or group. 
• Most case studies combine long-term
observations with diaries, tests,
and interviews. 
• By itself, however, a case study does not
prove or disprove anything.
case study
research method that involves
an intensive investigation of
one or more participants
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Surveys
• The most practical way to gather data
on the attitudes, beliefs, and experiences
of large numbers of people is through
surveys. 
• A survey may consist of interviews,
questionnaires, or a combination of the
two; there are benefits and problems
with each method.
survey
research method in which
information is obtained by
asking many individuals a
fixed set of questions
18
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Longitudinal Studies
• In longitudinal studies, a psychologist
studies the same group of people at
regular intervals over a period of years to
determine whether their behavior and/or
feelings have changed and if so, how. 
• These studies are time-consuming and
precarious; however, they are an ideal
way to examine consistencies and
inconsistencies in behavior over time.
longitudinal study
research method in which data is collected about
a group of participants over a number of years to
assess how certain characteristics change or
remain the same during development.
19
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Cross-Sectional Studies
• An alternative approach to gathering
data is cross-sectional studies. 
• In this study, psychologists organize
individuals into groups based on age. 
• Then, these groups are randomly
sampled, and the members of each
group are surveyed, tested, or
observed simultaneously.
cross-sectional study
research method in which data is collected
from groups of participants of different ages
and compared so that conclusions can be
drawn about differences due to age
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Correlations and Explanations
• A researcher may simply want to
observe people or animals and record
these observations in a descriptive study. 
• More often, however, researchers want to
examine the relationship between two
sets of observations; scientists use the
word correlation to describe how two
sets of data relate to each other.
correlation
the measure of a relationship
between two variables or sets
of data
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A Correlational Study
22
Experiments
• Experimentation enables the investigator
to control the situation and to decrease
the possibility that unnoticed, outside
variables will influence the results. 
• Every experiment has a hypothesis, or
an educated guess, about the expected
outcome–the researcher has some
evidence for suspecting a specific answer.
hypothesis
an educated guess about the
relationship between two
variables
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Experiments (cont.)
• In designing and reporting experiments,
psychologists think in terms of variables,
conditions and behaviors that are subject
to change. 
• There are two types of variables:
independent and dependent.
variable
any factor that is capable of
change
24
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Experiments (cont.)
• Participants who are exposed to the
independent variable are in the
experimental group. 
• Participants who are treated the same
way as the experimental group, except
that they are not exposed to the
independent variable, make up the
control group.
experimental group
the group to which an
independent variable is
applied
25
control group
the group that is treated in the
same way as the experimental
group except that the experimental
treatment is not applied
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Experimental Research
26
Experiments (cont.)
• By comparing the way control and
experimental groups behaved in an
experiment (statistically), the researchers
can determine whether the independent
variable influences behavior and how it
does so. 
• However, psychologists do not fully
accept the results of their own or other
people’s studies until the results have
been replicated–that is, duplicated by at
least one other psychologist with different
participants.
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Ethical Issues
• Ethics are the methods of conduct, or
standards, for proper and responsible
behavior. 
• The American Psychological Association
(APA) published a set of ethical principles
that govern psychologists’ research.
28
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain how
a psychologist might select a
sample for a survey.
A psychologist may select a random
sample from the population to be
studied or a stratified sample using
participants from subgroups of the
entire population.
29
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea In a chart
similar to the one shown on page 41
of your textbook, list and describe
the advantages and disadvantages
associated with each method of
research.
Answers should demonstrate an
understanding of the seven methods
of research discussed in this section.
30
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What preresearch decisions must a
psychologist make?
Some pre-research decisions that a
psychologist must make include: a
research question, selection of the
research method, and identification
of sample.
31
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Why should
psychologists question the results
of an experiment that they have
conducted for the first time?
Psychologists must question the
results of an experiment that they
have conducted for the first time
because they must look for errors in
conducting the research and for bias
in the sample.
32
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Predict the positive and negative
ways that the computer, the
Internet, or artificial intelligence
will affect psychological research.
33
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– The investigation of psychological issues
is a painstaking process. Psychologists
must recognize and resolve errors while
doing research. 
Objectives
– Summarize the methodological hazards of
doing research. 
– Examine experimental procedures
psychologists use to avoid bias.
35
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information. Section 2 begins on page 42 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– self-fulfilling prophecy 
– single-blind experiment 
– double-blind experiment 
– placebo effect
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
36
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information. Section 2 begins on page 42 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Once an expectation is set, we tend
to act in ways that are consistent with
that expectation. 
• A self-fulfilling prophecy involves having
expectations about a behavior and then
acting in some way, usually unknowingly,
to carry out that behavior.
self-fulfilling prophecy
a situation in which a researcher’s
expectations influence that person’s
own behavior, and thereby influence
the participant’s behavior
37
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Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
• Sometimes an experimenter’s behavior
may unwittingly influence the results. 
• One way to avoid this self-fulfilling
prophecy is to use the single-blind or
double-blind technique. 
• To study the effects of a particular
tranquilizer, a psychologist might give the
drug to an experimental group and a
placebo (a substitute for the drug that has
no medical benefits) to a control group.
38
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Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling
Prophecy (cont.)
• The next step would be to compare their
performances on a series of tests. 
• This is a single-blind experiment. 
• The participants are “blind” in the sense
that they do not know whether they have
received the tranquilizer or the placebo.
single-blind experiment
an experiment in which the
participants are unaware of
which participants received
the treatment
39
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Avoiding a Self-Fulfilling
Prophecy (cont.)
• The researcher also may not know who
takes the drug or the placebo. 
• After she scores the tests, she goes back
to the pharmacist to learn which
participants took the tranquilizer and
which took the placebo. 
• This is a double-blind experiment.
double-blind experiment
an experiment in which neither the
experimenter nor the participants
know which participants received
which treatment
40
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Single and Double Blind Experiments
41
The Milgram Experiment
• In the 1960s Stanley Milgram wanted to
determine whether participants would
administer painful shocks to others
merely because an authority figure had
instructed them to do so. 
• The volunteers did not realize the shocks
were false because the learners displayed
distress and pain, screaming and begging
for the electric shocks to stop. 
• Although the task did not seem easy,
most of the volunteers delivered a full
range of the electric shocks.
42
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• The results implied that ordinary
individuals could easily inflict pain on
others if such orders were issued by a
respected authority. 
• Later, Milgram informed the volunteers
that they had been deceived and that no
shocks had actually been administered. 
• This was a good example of a single-blind
experiment because the participants were
unaware that they were not administering
a shock.
43
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The Milgram Experiment (cont.)
• Critics raised the following questions: 
– How would you feel if you had been one of
Milgram’s participants? 
– Did Milgram violate ethical principles when he
placed participants in a position to exhibit
harmful behavior? 
– Was the deception Milgram used appropriate? 
• Before the start of any experiment today,
the experimenter is required to submit a
plan to a Human Subjects Committee that
can either approve or reject the ethics of
the experiment.
44
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The Placebo Effect
• When researchers evaluate the effects
of drugs, they must always take into
account a possible placebo effect. 
• The placebo effect is a change in
a patient’s illness or physical state
that results solely from the patient’s
knowledge and perceptions of
the treatment.
placebo effect
a change in a participant’s illness or
behavior that results from a belief
that the treatment will have an effect,
rather than the actual treatment
45
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The Placebo Effect (cont.)
• The placebo is some sort of treatment,
such as a drug or injection, that
resembles medical therapy yet has no
medical effects.
46
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Explain
how psychologists try to avoid
the self-fulfilling prophecy.
Psychologists try to avoid the selffulfilling prophecy by using single-blind
and double-blind experiments.
47
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Use a
diagram similar to the one shown
on page 45 of your textbook to
outline an experiment discussed
in this section.
Answers should reflect an
understanding of the steps
involved in a scientific experiment.
48
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What questions
about the Milgram experiment did
critics raise? How are today’s
experiments restricted in regards
to ethics?
Critics raised questions about the
Milgram experiments. How would you
feel if you had been a participant?
Were ethical principals violated? Was
deception warranted? Experiments
can be rejected or approved today
based on the ethics involved.
49
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically How can the
expectations of the participants
bias the results of an experiment?
How can the expectations of the
experimenter bias the results of
the experiment?
Participants and researchers will tend
to create self-fulfilling prophecies
when they create expectations about
the results of a study.
50
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Debate the ethical implications of
using placebos in research
studies. Extend the debate to
medical research in addition to
psychology.
51
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Psychologists must collect and evaluate
evidence to support their hypotheses. 
Objectives
– Recognize types of descriptive statistics. 
– Describe inferential statistics.
53
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information. Section 3 begins on page 47 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– statistics 
– descriptive statistics 
– frequency distribution 
– normal curve 
– central tendency 
– variance 
– standard deviation 
– correlation coefficient 
– inferential statistics
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
54
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information. Section 3 begins on page 47 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Although people may use statistics to
distort the truth, people may also use
statistics honestly to support their
hypotheses. 
• In order to allow statistics to validly
support a hypothesis, psychologists
must collect meaningful data and
evaluate it correctly.
55
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Introduction (cont.)
• How many times have you been told
that in order to get good grades, you
have to study? 
• A psychology student named Kate has
always restricted the amount of TV she
watches during the week, particularly
before a test. 
• She has a friend, though, who does not
watch TV before a test but who still does
not get good grades. 
• This fact challenges Kate’s belief.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Although Kate hypothesizes that among
her classmates, those who watch less TV
get better grades, she decides to
conduct a survey to test the accuracy of
her hypothesis. 
• Kate asks 15 students in her class to write
down how many hours of TV they
watched the night before a psychology
quiz and how many hours they watched
on the night after the quiz.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Kate collects additional data. 
• She has her participants check off familiar
products on a list of 20 brand-name items
that were advertised on TV the night
before the quiz. 
• Kate also asks her participants to give
their height. 
• When the data are turned in, Kate finds
herself overwhelmed with the amount of
information she has collected.
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Introduction (cont.)
• How can she organize it all so that it
makes sense? 
• How can she analyze it to see whether it
supports or contradicts her hypothesis? 
• The answers to these questions are found
in statistics, a branch of mathematics
that enables researchers to organize and
evaluate the data they collect.
statistics
the branch of mathematics
concerned with summarizing
and making meaningful inferences
from collections of data
59
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Descriptive Statistics
• When a study such as Kate’s is
completed, the first task is to organize the
data in a brief, clear, and logical format. 
• Descriptive statistics is the listing and
summarizing of data in a practical,
efficient way, such as through graphs
and averages.
descriptive statistics
the listing and summarizing of
data in a practical, efficient way
60
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Distributions of Data
• One of the first steps that researchers
take to organize their data is to create
frequency tables and graphs. 
• Tables and graphs provide a rough picture
of the data. 
• Are the scores bunched up or spread out?
What score occurs most often? 
• Frequency distributions and graphs
provide researchers with their initial
“peek” at the data.
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Distributions of Data (cont.)
• Kate is interested in how many hours of
TV her participants watched the night
before and the night after the quiz. 
• She uses the numbers of hours of TV
viewing as categories, and then she
counts how many participants reported
each category of hours before and after
the quiz. 
• Kate has created a table called a
frequency distribution.
62
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Distributions of Data (cont.)
• A frequency distribution is a way
of arranging data so that we know
how often a particular score or
observation occurs. 
• With her information, Kate could figure
out percentages.
frequency distribution
an arrangement of data
that indicates how often
a particular score or
observation occurs
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Distributions of Data (cont.)
• It is often easier to visualize frequency
information in the form of a graph. 
• Histograms show frequency distribution
by means of rectangles whose widths
represent class intervals and whose
areas are proportionate to the
corresponding frequencies. 
• Another kind of graph is the frequency
polygon or frequency curve.
64
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Distributions of Data (cont.)
• Imagine that Kate could measure how
much TV everyone in Chicago watched
one night. 
• A few people would watch little or no TV, a
few would have the TV on all day, while
most would watch a moderate amount
of TV. 
• Therefore, the graph would be highest in
the middle and taper off toward the tails,
or ends, of the distribution, giving it the
shape of a bell.
65
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Distributions of Data
66
Distributions of Data (cont.)
• This curve is called the normal curve (or
bell-shaped curve). 
• Many variables, such as height, weight,
and IQ, fall into such a curve if enough
people are measured. 
• The normal curve is symmetrical.
normal curve
a graph of frequency distribution
shaped like a symmetrical,
bell-shaped curve; a graph
of normal distribution
67
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Measures of Central Tendency
• Most of the time, researchers want to do
more than organize their data; they want
to be able to summarize information
about the distribution into statistics. 
• One of the most common ways of
summarizing is to use a measure of
central tendency–a number that
describes something about the
“average” score.
central tendency
a number that describes
something about the
“average” score of a
distribution
68
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Measures of Central Tendency (cont.)
• The mode is the most frequent score; in
a graphed frequency distribution, the
mode is the peak of the graph. 
• When scores are put in order from least to
most, the median is the middle score;
since the median is the midpoint of a set
of values, it divides the frequency
distribution into two halves. 
• The mean is what most people think of as
an “average” and is the most commonly
used measure of central tendency.
69
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A Frequency Polygon
70
Measures of Variance
• Distributions differ in terms of how “spread
out” or how variable the scores are. 
• Measures of variance provide an index
of how spread out the scores of a
distribution are. 
• Two commonly used measures of
variance are the range and the standard
deviation.
variance
a measure of difference,
or variance
71
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Measures of Variance (cont.)
• The range uses only a small amount of
information, and it is used only as a
crude measure of variance. 
• The standard deviation is a better
measure of variance because, like the
mean, it uses all the data points in
its calculation.
standard deviation
a measure of variability that
describes an average
distance of every score from
the mean
72
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Standard Deviation
73
Correlation Coefficients
• A correlation coefficient describes the
direction and strength of the relationship
between two sets of observations. 
• Coefficients can have positive and
negative correlations. 
• A scatterplot is a graph of participants’
scores on the two variables.
correlation coefficient
describes the direction and
strength of the relationship
between two sets of variables
74
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Inferential Statistics
• Psychologists also want to make
generalizations about the population
from which the participants come. 
• Using inferential statistics, researchers
can determine whether the data they
collect support their hypotheses, or
whether their results are merely due to
chance outcomes.
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to
determine whether research data
support a hypothesis or whether
results were due to chance
75
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A Scatterplot
76
Probability and Chance
• When a researcher completes an
experiment, he or she is left with lots
of data to analyze. 
• The researcher must determine whether
the findings from the experiment support
the hypothesis or whether the results are
due to chance. 
• To do this, the researcher must perform a
variety of statistical tests, called measures
of statistical significance.
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Statistical Significance
• For many traits in a large population,
the frequency distribution follows a
characteristic pattern, called the
normal curve. 
• When psychologists evaluate the results
of their studies, they ask: Could the
results be due to chance? 
• What researchers really want to know is
whether the results are so extreme–or so
far away from the normal curve–that they
are more likely due to chance.
78
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Statistical Significance (cont.)
• The problem is that this question cannot
be answered with a yes or no. 
• This is why researchers use some
guidelines to evaluate probabilities. 
• When the probability of a result is whatever
level the researcher sets, we say that the
result is statistically significant. 
• It is important to remember that probability
tells us how likely it is that an event or
outcome is due to chance, but not whether
the event is actually due to chance.
79
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What is the
difference between a frequency
distribution and a histogram?
Between a normal curve and a
scatterplot?
A frequency distribution is a table listing the
frequency with which a particular score
occurs. A histogram is the graphical
representation in bar format of the frequency
distribution. A normal curve is a bell-shaped
frequency distribution. A scatterplot is a graph
consisting of coordinates whose values
represent two variables under study.
80
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using an
organizer similar to the one shown
on page 54 of your textbook, list
and describe the measures of
central tendency.
The mean is an arithmetic average.
The median is the middle score.
The mode is the most frequent score.
81
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the
importance of the normal curve?
The normal curve is a graph that has
the ability to predict what percentage
of the cases falls within each
segment of the curve.
82
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What does
correlation tell you about the
relationship of two variables?
A correlation describes the strength
and direction of the relationship
between two variables.
83
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Section Assessment (cont.)
How do the research methods
used in psychology compare with
the methods used in other fields?
In what ways are they similar? In
what ways are they different?
84
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Section 1: What Is Research?
• Researchers begin their research by
asking a specific question about a limited
topic; determining the validity of a claim,
hypothesis, or theory; and choosing an
unbiased sample. 
• Psychologists use several methods of
research to accomplish their research
goals. These methods include naturalistic
observation, case studies, surveys, and
experiments. 
• Psychologists follow a set of ethical
principles that govern their research.
86
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Section 2: Problems and Solutions in
Research
• In a self-fulfilling prophecy, an
experimenter has expectations about a
participant’s behavior and then acts in
some way, usually unknowingly, to
influence that behavior. 
• In single-blind experiments, the participants
do not know which participants have
received the treatment. 
• Researchers can avoid a self-fulfilling
prophecy by using the double-blind
technique in their experiments.
87
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Section 2: Problems and Solutions
in Research (cont.)
• When researchers evaluate the effects of
drugs, they must always take into account
a possible placebo effect.
88
Section 3: Statistical Evaluation
• Researchers use descriptive statistics to
organize data in a practical, efficient way. 
• Descriptive statistics include distributions of
data, measures of central tendency,
measures of variance, and correlation
coefficients. 
• Researchers use inferential statistics to
make generalizations about the population
from which the participants come.
89
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Section 3: Statistical Evaluation (cont.)
• Researchers perform a variety of statistical
tests, called measures of statistical
significance, to determine whether findings
from their experiment support the
hypothesis or whether the results are due
to chance.
90
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Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
1. Statistics
_______ is a branch of mathematics that helps
researchers organize and evaluate data.
single-blind experiment only the
2. In a(n) ___________________,
participants of the experiment do not know
whether they are in the experimental group or the
control group.
variance indicate how spread out the
3. Measures of _______
scores of a distribution are.
normal curve.
4. A bell-shaped curve is a(n) ______
control group includes the
5. In an experiment, the ___________
participants who are not exposed to experimental
variables.
92
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Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
placebo effect is a change in a patient’s
6. The ____________
physical state that results from the patient’s
perceptions of the treatment.
distribution to
7. Researchers use a(n) frequency
_________________
arrange data so that they know how often a
particular observation occurs.
8. Researchers generally select a(n) sample
______, which
is a relatively small group of the total population
that is being studied.
93
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
double-blind experiment neither the
9. In a(n) ____________________,
participants nor the experimenter knows whether
the participants are in the experimental group or
the control group.
study a researcher studies a
10. In a(n) longitudinal
______________,
group of people over a period of years.
94
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Recalling Facts
What are two ways that a researcher
can avoid a biased sample?
A biased sample can be avoided by
using a random sample so that each
individual has an equal chance of
being represented. A researcher can
also avoid a biased sample by using a
stratified sample. In a stratified
sample, subgroups in the population
are proportionately represented.
95
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Recalling Facts
When do researchers use
naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observations are useful
for observing visible behaviors in a
natural setting where the human or
animal is unaware of, or not bothered
by, the experimenter.
96
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
How does a self-fulfilling prophecy
present a problem for researchers?
Participants or experimenters may
have expectations about the research
or experiment that can influence or
bias the results.
97
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Using a graphic organizer similar to
the one on page 56 of your textbook,
identify and explain the kinds of
descriptive statistics.
Graphic organizers should include the
following: distributions of data
(frequency distributions), measures of
central tendency (mean, median, and
mode), measures of variance, and
correlation coefficients.
98
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Why do researchers use inferential
statistics? How do inferential
statistics describe data differently
than descriptive statistics?
Researchers use inferential statistics to
show that the data verifies or refutes
the hypothesis. Descriptive statistics
describe the characteristics of a
sample; they list and summarize the
data. Inferential statistics are numerical
methods that help the researcher make
generalizations about the sample.
99
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
Review the graphs to
the right, then answer
the questions that
follow.
100
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
What does each of the
graphs illustrate?
the number of cellular
subscribers between
1988 and 1998;
percentages of
respondents who use
cell phones while
driving; percentages
by age group who own
or use cell phones
101
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
Which age group
owns or uses the
most cellular phones?
ages 45–54
102
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
How has the number
of cellular subscribers
changed since 1988?
The number of cellular
subscribers has
increased steadily.
103
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
Do most cell-phone
owners talk on the
phone while driving?
How often do they use
their phones while
driving?
No; most use phones
on few trips.
104
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting Graphs
What arguments
might these statistics
be used to support or
refute?
outlawing car phones,
buying stock in cell
phones, popularity of
cell phones
105
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to display the answer.
I am the numerical method used to
determine whether research data
support a hypothesis or whether
results were due to chance.
inferential statistics
106
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the
Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find
interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites
correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://psychology.glencoe.com
For the next seven days, observe how
statistics are used in the media. In your
journal, describe the examples you find.
Record examples of surveys, studies, and
experiments in which you have participated.
Explain the researcher’s hypothesis for one
of the items listed.
Gather the height and shoe size from every
member of your family. Graph the
information in your journals. Consider if any
useful insights can be made from this data.
The Case of
Clever Hans
Read the case study presented on
page 46 of your textbook. Be prepared
to answer the questions that appear
on the following slides. A discussion
prompt and additional information
follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
How did Mr. von Osten test his
hypothesis?
He trained Hans initially by raising and lowering
his foot the correct number of times for the
number he was shown. Hans soon learned to tap
his foot the correct number of times in response
to various math problems.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
What errors did von Osten make
while testing his hypothesis?
He did not set up controls to eliminate other
explanations for Hans’s ability.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
Critical Thinking If Pfungst had not
come along and found the truth, how
could we discover today how Hans
answered the questions?
The best way to discover how Hans performed
his feat would be to train another horse, closely
following von Olsten’s method, then using
controls similar to Pfungst’s to find the other
explanations for its ability.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
Discuss the following:
Why are carefully controlled studies
necessary to avoid deceiving the public?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
The Clever Hans case has a parallel in the
late twentieth century. Autism is a disability
that in its severest form causes otherwise
intelligent children to be unable to
communicate with the outside world. A
technique from Australia called facilitated
communication was widely reported in the
media as a means of allowing autistic
children to communicate with the outside
world.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
– Facilitated communication involves a facilitator
supporting the hand and arm of the autistic individual
while he or she types on a computer keyboard. 
– The messages display on a computer monitor. 
– Media coverage showed previously nonverbal
individuals typing complete sentences and thoughts.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
The Case of
Clever Hans
– Repeated studies have unanimously concluded that
the autistic individual is reacting to tactile clues from
the facilitator. 
– For example, when a child and facilitator were shown
the same picture and asked to name the item, the child
named the object correctly. 
– However, when the child and facilitator are shown
different pictures, the child typed the name of the
facilitator’s object.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 46 of your textbook.
Continued on next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. naturalistic
observation 
2. case study 
3. surveys
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. the labels on the
cans 
2. changes in facial
expressions or
body language or
words used 
3. Researcher
cannot identify
the products, so it
is less likely that
bias will be
introduced.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. $30,000 
2. The median is the
center point–the
number of
employees paid
more than the
median equals
the number of
employees paid
less. 
3. $55,540.54 
4. total income
divided by total
employees 
5. mean income
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Survey
From the Classroom of James Matiya
Carl Sandburg High School, Orland Park, IL
In this activity, you are asked to conduct a survey.
You should ask four people of different age groups
to read the paragraph on the following slide and
declare whether the substance should be banned or
not. After conducting the survey, you should
combine your answers with your classmates. Tally
your answers and then calculate mean, mode, and
median. Separate and tally the answers between
males and females, different age groups, and
different class levels. Discuss the results as a class.
Continued on next slide.
Survey
From the Classroom of James Matiya
Carl Sandburg High School, Orland Park, IL
Ban Dihydrogen Monoxide!
This substance has been found in many different forms. It may be
found in solid states, gaseous states, and frozen states. In the solid
state, people have been known to lose their lives to falling parts of it.
In the frozen state, it is responsible for the death and injury of
millions of people. It has destroyed millions of miles of roads as well.
In the gaseous state, people have been burned, have difficulty
breathing, and it has made people extremely warm even to the point
of becoming physically sick. Government agencies monitor the levels
of this substance. The substance has been used as an industrial
coolant, especially in nuclear power plants. It has been found along
the highways in different sizes of containers, despite the fact that it
may cause erosion to the soil and will weaken the effectiveness of
cars’ brakes. Would you support a ban of this substance?
In 1967, Neal Miller and Leo DiCara stunned
the psychological and medical world by
reporting that they had trained rats to control
their heart rates. All attempts to replicate
Miller and DiCara’s study failed, however–
including their own. What went wrong? To
date, nobody has found an answer.
Milgram’s experiment was conducted in
Germany and Japan. Both cultures rate high
in measures of respect for and compliance
with authority. The German and Japanese
participants showed an even higher rate of
obedience–more than 80 percent for both
groups.
• The Internet gives us greater access to information
than ever before. 
• Some researchers and students are using the Internet
to conduct surveys. 
• Recent surveys posted to the Internet include surveys
about absolute pitch, taste preferences, dating
preferences, creativity, and visual perceptions. 
• Go online to find sample surveys. 
• What potential sampling problems exist with these
online surveys?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 48 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
What statistics are kept for your
favorite sport (other than baseball)?
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Jane Goodall
1934–
Click the picture to listen to
a biography on Jane
Goodall. Be prepared to
answer questions that
appear on the next two
slides.
This feature is found on page 36 of your textbook.
Jane Goodall
1934–
What did Jane Goodall
especially like about
naturalistic
observations?
She loved the variety each
day brought.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 36 of your textbook.
Jane Goodall
1934–
What behaviors
previously thought to be
only human did Goodall
observe?
She saw chimps hunting,
using tools, and one group
killing another group even
though the first group wasn’t
threatened.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 36 of your textbook.
End of Custom Shows
WARNING! Do Not Remove
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shows and return to the main presentation.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.