Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology
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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 Physical and Sexual
Development
SECTION 2 Personal Development
SECTION 3 Social Development
SECTION 4 Gender Roles and
Differences
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
3
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Press the ESC key at any time to exit the presentation.
Chapter Objectives
Section 1: Physical and Sexual
Development
• Describe the physical development and
biological changes that all adolescents
experience. 
Section 2: Personal Development
• Outline the changes in patterns of
reasoning, moral thinking, and the
development of one’s identity during the
transition from childhood to adulthood.
4
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the information.
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3: Social Development
• Discuss the changes that adolescents
undergo in their social relationships. 
Section 4: Gender Roles and Differences
• Describe the physical and psychological
gender differences of males and females,
and discuss how beliefs about these
differences influence behavior.
5
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– All adolescents experience dramatic changes
in their physical size, shape, and capacities,
as well as biological development related
to reproduction. 
Objectives
– Describe the physical changes that
characterize adolescence. 
– Describe research related to the sexual
attitudes and roles of adolescents.
7
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information. Section 1 begins on page 93 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– initiation rites 
– puberty 
– menarche 
– spermarche 
– asynchrony
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
8
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information. Section 1 begins on page 93 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Adolescence is the transition period
between childhood and adulthood, and
while we all have an idea about what
adolescence is, defining it precisely
is difficult. 
• Some define it in psychological terms: a
time period of mixed abilities and
responsibilities in which childlike behavior
changes to adultlike behavior. 
• In some societies, adolescence is not
recognized as a separate stage of life.
9
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Introduction (cont.)
• In our own society, however,
adolescence is looked upon as a time
of preparation for adult responsibilities
(Hall, 1904). 
• There are many initiation rites, or
rites of passage, that mark admission
into adulthood.
initiation rites
ceremonies or rituals in which
an individual is admitted to
new status or accepted into a
new position
10
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Theories of Adolescence
• The contradictory views of society at
large are reflected not just in the
behavior of adolescents but in the
theories of psychologists. 
• G. Stanley Hall saw the adolescent as
representing a transitional stage in our
evolutionary development from beast
to human. 
• Margaret Mead, however, found that in
some cultures, adolescence is a highly
enjoyable time of life and not at all marked
by storm and stress.
11
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Theories of Adolescence (cont.)
• Other studies conducted since then have
tended to support Mead. 
• Although adolescence may not be as
crisis-ridden as some psychologists think,
few would deny that there is at least some
stress during that period. 
• Robert Havighurst (1972) pointed out that
every adolescent faces challenges in the
form of developmental tasks that must be
mastered.
12
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Physical Development
• Sexual maturation, or puberty, is the
biological event that marks the end
of childhood. 
• The growth spurt is a rapid increase in
weight and height. 
• Once their growth spurt begins, females
can grow as much as 2 to 3.5 inches
a year.
puberty
sexual maturation; the end of
childhood and the point where
reproduction is first possible
13
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Physical Development (cont.)
• During this growth spurt, a girl’s breasts
and hips begin to fill out, and she
develops pubic hair. 
• Between 10 and 17–often between 12
and 13–she has her first menstrual period,
or menarche. 
• Most societies consider menarche the
beginning of womanhood.
menarche
the first menstrual period
14
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Physical Development (cont.)
• At about 12, boys begin to develop pubic
hair and larger genitals. 
• Normally, between 12 and 13 they
achieve their first ejaculation, or
spermarche. 
• The rate and pattern of sexual maturation
varies so widely that it is difficult to apply
norms or standards to puberty.
spermarche
period during which males
achieve first ejaculation
15
Physical Development (cont.)
• This period of adolescent growth can be
an awkward one for both boys and girls
because of asynchrony–the condition
of uneven growth or maturation of
bodily parts. 
• As the adolescent grows older, however,
the bodily parts assume their correct
proportions.
asynchrony
the condition during
adolescence in which the
growth or maturation of bodily
parts is uneven
16
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Reactions to Growth
• In general, young people today are better
informed than they were two or three
generations ago. 
• Nevertheless, the rather sudden bodily
changes that occur during puberty make
all adolescents somewhat self-conscious. 
• Individual differences in growth
significantly affect the personality of
young adolescents. 
• Variations in the rate of development
continue to have an effect on males even
into their thirties.
17
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Reactions to Growth (cont.)
• With girls the pattern is somewhat
different. 
• Girls who mature early may feel
embarrassed rather than proud of their
height and figure at first; late-maturing
girls tend to be less quarrelsome and may
get along with their peers more easily. 
• Physical growth might have such
powerful psychological effects because
the psychological reactions to physical
growth may be the result of a self-fulfilling
prophecy.
18
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Average Annual Gains in Height
19
Sexual Development
• Adolescence is accompanied by
puberty, which is when individuals
mature sexually. 
• The physical changes that occur are
accompanied by changes in behavior. 
• Adolescence is also the time when an
individual develops attitudes about sex
and expectations about the gender role
he or she will fill. 
• Early sexual maturity and cultural patterns
of sexual behaviors have changed from
one generation to the next generation.
20
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Sexual Development (cont.)
Sexual Attitudes
• Attitudes affect the way we feel about
sex and the way we respond sexually. 
• In terms of attitudes about sexual
behavior, there has been a change. 
• The increase of sexual awareness and
activity of today’s teens has raised many
questions over the role of family, religion,
and government in providing information
and guidance about sex.
21
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Sexual Development (cont.)
Sexual Attitudes
• Fear of sexually transmitted diseases
and the AIDS epidemic have also
impacted sexual attitudes. 
• Many teens are examining the risks of
sexual behavior and deciding that the
only safe choice is abstinence from
sexual intercourse.
22
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What do
menarche and spermarche have to
do with physical development?
Spermarche and menarche are
the beginning of reproductive
capability and are accompanied by
physical maturation.
23
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Create two
flowcharts similar to the one
shown on page 99 of your
textbook to characterize physical
changes in a male and female
adolescent and possible reactions
to those changes.
Flowcharts should demonstrate an
understanding of the physical
development that occurs during
adolescence.
24
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information According to
Margaret Mead, how does one’s
culture influence adolescent
development?
One’s culture affects the way in which
adolescence is viewed. In some
cultures it is a highly enjoyable and
celebrated time of life not marked
with storm and stress. Only in
industrialized societies does the
stress seem so pronounced.
25
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What are the
problems with defining the start and
end of adolescence? Why do these
problems exist?
The start and end of adolescence are
difficult to define because they vary
for each person. For example,
puberty generally begins earlier in
girls. The transition known as
adolescence also varies from culture
to culture.
26
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Section Assessment (cont.)
In many cultures, formal rites of
passage from childhood to adulthood
occur during adolescence. List ways
in your lives that the transition from
childhood to adulthood has been or
will be recognized and celebrated.
27
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– The transition from childhood to adulthood
involves changes in patterns of reasoning and
moral thinking, as well as the development of
one’s identity. 
Objectives
– Describe the cognitive and ideological
changes that characterize adolescence. 
– Outline the process by which adolescents find
a personal identity.
29
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information. Section 2 begins on page 101 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– rationalization 
– identity crisis 
– social learning theory
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
30
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information. Section 2 begins on page 101 of your textbook.
Introduction
• During adolescence, a sense of identity
and self-esteem are very important and
depend very much on friends. 
• Also during adolescence, many
changes are occurring in ways of
thinking and feeling.
31
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Introduction (cont.)
• Becoming an adult involves much more
than becoming physically mature,
although that is an important part of
the process. 
• The transition from childhood to
adulthood also involves changes in
patterns of reasoning and moral thinking,
and adjustments in personality and
sexual behavior.
32
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Cognitive Development
• During adolescence, the thinking
patterns characteristic of adults emerge.

• With comprehension of the hypothetical
comes the ability to understand abstract
principles and deal with analogies and
metaphors. 
• Not only is this capacity important for
studying higher-level science and
mathematics, but it also leads the
adolescent to deal with abstractions in his
or her own life such as ethics, conformity,
and phoniness.
33
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Cognitive Development (cont.)
• Understanding abstract principals allows
for introspection–examining one’s own
motives and thoughts. 
• These new intellectual capacities also
enable the adolescent to deal with
overpowering emotional feelings
through rationalization.
rationalization
a process whereby an individual seeks
to explain an often unpleasant emotion
or behavior in a way that will preserve
his or her self-esteem
34
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Cognitive Development (cont.)
• Just as there are variations in physical
maturity, so there are variations in
cognitive maturity. 
• In general, the rate of mental growth
varies greatly both among individual
adolescents and among social and
economic classes in this country. 
• Differences have also been noted among
nations.
35
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Cognitive Development (cont.)
• The change in thinking patterns is usually
accompanied by changes in personality
and social interactions as well. 
• For example, adolescents tend to become
very idealistic. 
• This is because, for the first time, they
can imagine the hypothetical–how things
might be.
36
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Cognitive Development (cont.)
• Dr. David Elkind (1984) described some
problems adolescents develop as a
result of immaturity and abstract thought
processes: 
– Finding fault with authority figures 
– Argumentativeness 
– Indecisiveness 
– Apparent hypocrisy 
– Self-consciousness 
– Invulnerability
37
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Moral Development
• Besides experiencing physical and
cognitive changes, some adolescents,
though by no means all, also go through
important changes in their moral thinking;
this moral development occurs in stages. 
• Many people never get beyond Stage 4,
and their moral thinking remains quite
rigid. 
• Reaching higher levels of moral thinking
involves the ability to abstract–to see a
situation from another’s viewpoint.
38
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Moral Development (cont.)
• Overall, psychologists agree that a
person’s moral development depends on
many factors, especially the kind of
relationship the individual has with his or
her parents or significant others. 
• Evidence shows that during high school,
adolescent moral development does not
progress much. 
• During college, however, when the
individual is away from home more and
experiencing different cultures and ideas,
more pronounced changes occur.
39
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Identity Development
• The changes adolescents undergo affect
many facets of their existence, so it is
hardly surprising that cumulatively they
have a shaping influence on personality. 
• Psychologists who have studied
personality changes in adolescence have
focused on the concept of identity. 
• One psychologist in particular, Erik
Erikson, has shown that the
establishment of identity is key to
adolescent development.
40
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Erikson’s Theory of the
Identity Crisis
• According to Erikson, building an identity
is a task that is unique to adolescence. 
• Children are aware of what other people
(adults and peers) think of them. 
• They know the labels others apply to them
(good, naughty, silly, talented, brave,
pretty, etc.). 
• They are also aware of their biological
drives and of their growing physical and
cognitive abilities.
41
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Erikson’s Theory of the
Identity Crisis (cont.)
• To achieve some sense of themselves,
most adolescents must go through what
Erikson termed an identity crisis–a time
of inner conflict during which they worry
intensely about their identities. 
• Several factors contribute to the onset of
this crisis.
identity crisis
a period of inner conflict
during which adolescents
worry intensely about who
they are
42
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Erikson’s Theory of the
Identity Crisis (cont.)
• According to Erikson, adolescents face
a crisis of identity formation versus
identity confusion. 
• The task of adolescents is to become a
unique individual with a valued sense of
self in society. 
• Adolescents need to organize their needs,
abilities, talents, interests, background,
culture, peer demands, and so on, to find
a way to express themselves through an
identity in a socially acceptable way.
43
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Marcia’s View of the Identity Crisis
• Erikson’s theory finds support in the work
of another psychologist, James Marcia. 
• According to Marcia (1966), Erikson is
correct in pointing to the existence of an
adolescent identity crisis. 
• That crisis arises because individuals
must make commitments on such
important matters as occupation, religion,
and political orientation.
44
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Marcia’s View of the Identity
Crisis (cont.)
• Using the categories of “crisis” and
“commitment,” Marcia distinguished four
attempts to achieve a sense of identity: 
– identity moratorium adolescents 
– identity foreclosure adolescents 
– identity confused or diffused adolescents 
– identity achievement adolescents 
• These categories must not be too rigidly
interpreted.
45
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Adolescent Identity Categories
46
Marcia’s View of the Identity
Crisis (cont.)
• Although Erikson and Marcia insist that all
adolescents experience an identity crisis,
not all psychologists agree. 
• Many psychologists believe that
adolescence is not so strife-ridden and
constitutes a relatively smooth transition
from one stage of life to the next. 
• One of the reasons Erikson may have
arrived at his view is that he focused his
study on disturbed adolescents who
sought clinical psychiatric treatment.
47
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Social Learning View
• Psychologists and social scientists
seeking an alternative to Erikson’s theory
have offered several other explanations
for adolescent identity formation. 
• A.C. Peterson (1988), for example,
argues that crisis is not the normal state
of affairs for adolescents. 
• When crises develop the cause is
generally a change in the external
circumstances of an individual’s life rather
than a biological factor.
48
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Social Learning View (cont.)
• Human development, in Albert Bandura’s
view, is one continuous process. 
• At all stages, including adolescence,
individuals develop by interacting
with others. 
• His approach is usually referred to as the
social learning theory of development
(Bandura, 1977).
social learning theory
Albert Bandura’s view of
human development;
emphasizes interaction
49
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Social Learning View (cont.)
• Margaret Mead also stressed the
importance of the social environment in
adolescent identity formation. 
• She concluded, like Bandura, that human
development is more a continuous
process than one marked by radical
discontinuity. 
• The identity crisis, then, is by no means a
universal phenomenon.
50
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Social Learning View (cont.)
• Personality development in adolescence
is a complex phenomenon. 
• It involves not only how a person
develops a sense of self, or identity,
but how that person develops
relationships with others and the skills
used in social interactions. 
• No one theory can do justice to all that
is involved in the process of personality
development.
51
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Describe
the social learning theory.
The social learning theory states that
human development is a continuous
process that occurs as humans
interact with others.
52
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Use a chart
similar to the one shown on page
108 of your textbook to describe
the characteristics of each category
of Marcia’s identity theory.
Charts should contain the
characteristics of all four categories:
identity moratorium adolescents;
identity foreclosure adolescents;
identity confused or diffused
adolescents; and identity achievement
adolescents.
53
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is an
example of rationalization and a
reason it might occur?
Answers will vary. For example, a
student who fails a test says that the
test covered material that was not
discussed in class.
54
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What factors may
help adolescents in their search for
an identity? How might adolescents
discover occupations, religions, or
political orientations that are right
for them?
Answers will vary; they might include
support and respect from parents or
other adults, manageable crises, and
acceptance by peers.
55
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Classify examples of typical
teenage events under the two
categories of Crisis and
Continuous Process.
56
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Adolescents undergo many changes in their
social relationships, adjusting to new
relationships with parents and the influence
of peers. 
Objectives
– Describe the role of family and peers during
adolescence. 
– Discuss difficulties that some adolescents
encounter.
58
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information. Section 3 begins on page 109 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– clique 
– conformity 
– anorexia nervosa 
– bulimia nervosa
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
59
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information. Section 3 begins on page 109 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Adolescents experience various changes
in their social relationships. 
• No longer a child though not yet an adult,
the teenager must find a new role in the
family–one that parents are not always
ready to accept. 
• He or she must also adjust to new, often
more intense relationships with peers.
60
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The Role of the Family
• Families in the United States
experienced marked changes in the past
several decades. 
• With many marriages ending in divorce,
fewer and fewer American families have
the pre-1970s norm of a wage-earning
father working outside the house and a
mother working within the home. 
• Regardless of these changes, one of the
principal developmental tasks for
adolescents is becoming independent of
their families.
61
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The Role of Peers
• Adolescents can trust their peers not to
treat them like children. 
• Teenagers spend much of their time with
friends–they need and use each other to
define themselves. 
• Besides class, personal characteristics
are very important in determining whether
an adolescent will be accepted by a
peer group. 
• Today many peer groups adopt very
distinct styles to express themselves.
62
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The Role of Peers (cont.)
• Belonging to a clique (a group within a
group) is very important to most
adolescents and serves several functions. 
• Most obviously, perhaps, it fulfills the need
for closeness with others. 
• In addition, it gives the adolescent a
means of defining himself or herself, a
way of establishing an identity.
clique
a small, exclusive group of
people within a larger group
63
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The Role of Peers (cont.)
• Of course, there are drawbacks to this
kind of social organization. 
• One of the greatest is the fear of being
disliked, which leads to conformity–the
“glue” that holds the peer group together. 
• Group pressures to conform may also lead
young people to do more serious things
that run contrary to their better judgment.
conformity
acting in accordance with
some specified authority
64
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The Role of Peers (cont.)
• Despite their tendency to encourage
conformity, peer groups are not always
the dominant influence in an
adolescent’s life. 
• Both parents and peers exercise
considerable influence in shaping
adolescent behavior and attitudes. 
• When it comes to basic matters, however,
involving marriage, religion, or educational
plans, adolescents tend to accept their
parents’ beliefs and to follow their advice
(Offer & Schonert-Reichl, 1992).
65
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The Role of Peers (cont.)
• Peer groups, then, do not pose a threat
to parental authority. 
• Even though parents spend less time with
their adolescent children as the latter
mature, their influence is still strong. 
• On the other hand, psychologist Judith
Rich Harris claims that peer groups, not
parents, teach children how to behave in
the world (Harris, 1998). 
• Many psychologists passionately criticize
Harris’s theory.
66
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Difficulties During Adolescence
• Adolescence is a time of transition; there
are many developmental tasks to be
mastered, but adolescence is not distinct
from other periods of life in this respect. 
• The adolescent must cope with a great
array of profound changes involving his
or her mind, body, emotions, and
social relationships. 
• It is natural and normal that most
adolescents should experience some
temporary psychological difficulties.
67
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Difficulties During Adolescence (cont.)
• The illusion of invulnerability–“Others
may get caught, but not me!”–is a part of
adolescent egocentrism. 
• This illusion may lead adolescents to
do things with their peers they would not
do alone. 
• This troubled minority often “acts out”
problems in one of several ways. 
• Unfortunately, troubled adolescents
do not simply “outgrow” their problems
but carry them into later life if they are
not treated.
68
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Arrests Per 100,000 Juveniles
Ages 10-17
69
Teenage Depression and Suicide
• According to Kathleen McCoy (1982), the
phenomenon of teenage depression is
much more widespread than most
parents or educators suspect. 
• Many events can cause depression,
including the loss of a loved one through
separation, family relocation, divorce,
or death. 
• Another form of loss that causes
depression is the breakdown of the
family unit, often as a result of separation
and divorce.
70
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Teenage Depression and Suicide (cont.)
• Unlike depressed adults, who usually
look and feel sad or “down,” depressed
teenagers may appear to be extremely
angry. 
• The best way to deal with teenage
depression is to communicate with the
teenager about his or her problems. 
• Sometimes a caring, listening parent or a
responsive, sensitive friend can help the
youth deal with his or her concerns.
71
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Eating Disorders
• Eating disorders such as anorexia
nervosa and bulimia nervosa affect
many teenagers and young adults,
especially females. 
• A serious eating disorder, anorexia
nervosa, is characterized by refusing to
eat and not maintaining weight.
anorexia nervosa
a serious eating disorder
characterized by a fear of gaining
weight that results in prolonged selfstarvation and dramatic weight loss
72
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Eating Disorders (cont.)
• When faced with the pressures of
adolescence, some people develop
abnormal eating patterns. 
• Another serious disorder, bulimia
nervosa, is characterized by binge eating
followed by purging–vomiting, using
laxatives, or rigorous dieting and fasting–to
eliminate the calories taken in during
the binge.
bulimia nervosa
a serious eating disorder
characterized by compulsive
overeating usually followed by selfinduced vomiting or laxative abuse
73
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Eating Disorders (cont.)
• People suffering from bulimia nervosa
are excessively concerned about body
shape and weight. 
• Bulimics usually engage in this behavior
in private. 
• Some psychologists suggest that bulimia
may result from a teen’s feeling of
alienation during adolescence or a need
to find approval from others.
74
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What are
the symptoms of anorexia nervosa
and bulimia nervosa?
Symptoms of anorexia nervosa
include refusing to eat and not
maintaining weight. Symptoms of
bulimia nervosa include binge eating
followed by purging to eliminate the
calories taken in.
75
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
graphic organizer similar to the
one shown on page 115 of your
textbook, identify and describe
three difficulties that adolescents
might encounter.
Graphic organizers should reflect an
understanding of the difficulties
adolescents may encounter. An
understanding of the causes and
treatments of these difficulties should
also be apparent.
76
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How does
the influence of parents over
their children change during
adolescence?
Parents’ influence especially over
social situations generally diminishes
during adolescence. However,
adolescents still want their parents’
support, advice, and acceptance.
77
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Why do
adolescents form cliques? Do you
think cliques serve a positive or
negative purpose? Explain your
answers.
Answers will vary. Cliques may serve
both positive and negative purposes.
They allow an adolescent to grow
socially and to form close friendships.
Their negatives include blind
conformity and rigid thinking.
78
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Give specific examples of
behavior that indicates conformity
and behavior that indicates
nonconformity.
79
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Females and males have physical and
psychological gender differences. Our beliefs
about what we think it means to be male or
female influence our behavior. 
Objectives
– Explain the difference between gender
identity and gender role. 
– Describe gender differences in personality
and cognitive abilities.
81
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. Section 4 begins on page 116 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– gender identity 
– gender role 
– gender stereotype 
– androgynous 
– gender schema
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
82
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. Section 4 begins on page 116 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Many people just take for granted the
differences between boys and girls,
claiming that “boys will be boys,” or
something similar. 
• Pick up a magazine, turn on the TV, or
look outside your window–gender
stereotypes are everywhere. 
• Some parents dress baby girls in pink and
boys in blue, give them gender-specific
names, and expect them to act differently.
83
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to display the information.
Introduction (cont.)
• The first question asked of new parents
is “Is the baby a boy or a girl?” 
• Your gender greatly influences how you
dress, move, work, and play. 
• It can influence your thoughts and others’
thoughts about you. 
• Are there significant psychological
differences between males and females? 
• Do children learn gender identities or are
they born different?
84
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to display the information.
Gender Roles
• Gender identity and gender roles are two
different, though closely related, aspects
of our sexual lives. 
• Gender identity is one’s physical and
biological makeup. 
• It is your awareness of being male
or female.
gender identity
the sex group (masculine or
feminine) to which an
individual biologically belongs
85
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to display the information.
Gender Roles (cont.)
• A person’s gender role is defined partly
by genetic makeup but mainly by the
society and culture in which the
individual lives. 
• The gender role is a standard of how a
person with a given gender identity is
supposed to behave.
gender role
the set of behaviors that
society considers appropriate
for each sex
86
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to display the information.
Gender Roles (cont.)
• Gender roles vary from one society to
another, and they can change over time
within a given society. 
• Sometimes gender roles become so rigid
that they become gender stereotypes.
gender stereotype
an oversimplified or
distorted generalization
about the characteristics
of men and women
87
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to display the information.
Gender Roles (cont.)
• Given these changing standards of
acceptable gender roles, psychologist
Sandra Bem argues that people should
accept new androgynous roles. 
• These roles involve a flexible combination
of traditionally male and female
characteristics.
androgynous
combining or confusing
traditionally male and female
characteristics
88
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to display the information.
Gender Roles (cont.)
• Bem researched various traits for both
men and women in a questionnaire
called the Bem Sex Role Inventory. 
• In later studies, Bem found that the
people whose responses indicated
androgynous preferences were indeed
more flexible. 
• Androgyny is becoming an accepted ideal
in our culture. 
• In some ways, this shift toward more
freedom in gender roles has resulted in
greater personal responsibility.
89
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to display the information.
Gender Differences
• Psychologists have found that most people
do see differences between genders. 
• Are these differences, though, real or
imagined? 
• Are these differences the result of cultural
stereotypes, or do they show up in the
actual behaviors of boys and girls?
90
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to display the information.
Gender Differences in Personality
• Are there differences between the sexes? 
• Studies have found that besides the
obvious physical differences, differences
between males and females do exist. 
• One study found that males are more
confident than females, especially in
academic areas or in tasks stereotyped as
“masculine,” such as math and science. 
• Many studies have also found that
aggression is one of the areas with
the most significant differences
between genders.
91
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to display the information.
Gender Differences in
Personality (cont.)
• Differences in aggressive behavior
can be observed by watching children
at play. 
• Studies on identical twins show that men
have lower levels of a neurotransmitter,
serotonin, than women (Berman, Tracy, &
Coccaro, 1997). 
• Lower levels of serotonin have been
associated with higher levels of
aggression; this might cause the physical
aggression in boys.
92
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to display the information.
Gender Differences in
Personality (cont.)
• Another gender difference can often
be detected in male and female
communication styles. 
• As far as nonverbal communication goes,
women are more likely to show
submission and warmth, whereas men
display more dominance and status. 
• More women than men, though, are
sensitive to nonverbal cues (Briton &
Hall, 1995).
93
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to display the information.
Gender Differences in
Cognitive Abilities
• Janet Hyde and Marcia Linn (1988)
examined 165 studies on verbal ability,
finding that no measurable differences
in verbal skills exist between males
and females. 
• When researchers examined
mathematical ability, they discovered no
significant differences between male and
female abilities.
94
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to display the information.
Gender Differences in
Cognitive Abilities (cont.)
• When researchers examine specific
topics and age trends, some differences
do appear. 
• For example, males and females perform
about the same in problem solving until
high school. 
• In conclusion, there are very few cognitive
differences between males and females.
95
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to display the information.
Test Yourself
Which two figures on the right are the same
as the figure on the left?
96
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to display the answer.
Test Yourself
Study the box below for approximately 1 minute.
Then proceed to the next slide.
97
Test Yourself
Mark the objects that are in the same position as
they were in the the previous figure.
Complete
98
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to display the answer.
Origins of Gender Differences
• How gender differences develop is one
of the many questions that falls into the
nature versus nurture issue. 
• While some argue that differences
between sexes are biological, others
propose that we learn gender differences
from our environment. 
• Today most psychologists agree that
nature and nurture interact to influence
gender differences.
99
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Biological Theory
• The biological theory of gender role
development emphasizes the role of
anatomy, hormones, and brain
organization. 
• Supporters of this theory point out that
regardless of what parents do, boys seem
to prefer trucks, while girls prefer to play
with dolls. 
• Supporters of this idea claim that
differences in gender are the result of
behaviors that evolved from early men
and women.
100
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Psychoanalytical Theory
• According to Sigmund Freud, when a
child identifies with a parent of the same
sex, gender identity results. 
• Little boys identify with their fathers, while
girls identify with their mothers. 
• This identification process occurs when
children are between 3 and 5 years
of age. 
• Critics argue that identification seems to
be the result, rather than the cause, of
gender typing (Maccoby, 1992).
101
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Social Learning Theory
• The social learning theory emphasizes
the role of social and cognitive processes
on how we perceive, organize, and
use information. 
• For example, children learn their gender
roles by observing and imitating models,
such as their parents, friends, peers,
and teachers. 
• These models respond to and reward
certain behaviors in boys and different
behaviors in girls.
102
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to display the information.
Cognitive-Developmental Theory
• The cognitive-developmental theory
proposes that children acquire gender roles
by interacting with their environment and
thinking about those experiences. 
• As they do this, children learn different
sets of standards for male and female
behavior (Bem, 1981). 
• To learn about gender, a child must first see
himself or herself as male or female. 
• Then the child begins to organize behavior
around this concept.
103
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to display the information.
Cognitive-Developmental Theory (cont.)
• The child may begin to acquire
preferences consistent with his or her
perceived gender. 
• Eventually that child forms a gender
schema. 
• A gender schema is a mental
representation of behavior that helps a
child organize and categorize behaviors.
gender schema
a set of behaviors organized
around how either a male or
female should think and behave
104
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to display the information.
Changing Gender Roles
• The roles of women and men in society
are changing. 
• For example, before the 1960s in
the United States, few women
sought careers. 
• Most women grew up expecting to marry
and quit work to raise children. 
• By the mid-1980s, though, this
had changed.
105
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to display the information.
Changing Gender Roles (cont.)
• Despite the fact that more women are in
the workforce, studies have shown that,
in general, women do not advance as
quickly as men and women occupy lower
levels of leadership positions. 
• Also, men and women may differ in
their ambition. 
• That is, women may have been taught by
society to set different goals.
106
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to display the information.
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What is a
person’s gender schema?
A gender schema is one’s mental
picture of how males and females
should think and behave.
107
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using an
organizer similar to the one shown
on page 122 of your textbook, list
and characterize three theories
explaining the origins of gender
differences.
Answers will vary. Answers may
include Biological Theory,
Psychoanalytical Theory, Social
Learning Theory, or CognitiveDevelopmental Theory.
108
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information According to
the social learning theory, how do
children learn gender roles?
According to the social learning
theory, children learn gender roles
from observing and imitating models,
such as parents and teachers.
109
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Why might many
people disagree with or oppose
biological theories of gender
differences?
Answers will vary. Some opposition
comes from those who theorize that
gender roles are learned or that
people can change or learn different
gender roles.
110
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Using books for small children,
work in groups to identify how
gender roles are defined. How
does the portrayal of male and
female characters affect how
children view male and female
roles? Report your findings.
111
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Section 1: Physical and Sexual
Development
• In his theory of adolescence, G. Stanley
Hall portrayed the adolescent as existing
in a state of great “storm and stress.”
Other psychologists and social scientists,
such as Margaret Mead, regard
adolescence as a relatively smooth
continuous development out of childhood
and into adulthood. 
• The onset of puberty marks the end of
childhood; both boys and girls experience a
growth spurt just before puberty.
113
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to display the information.
Section 1: Physical and Sexual
Development (cont.)
• The rate and pattern of sexual maturation
varies so widely that it is difficult to apply
norms or standards to puberty.
114
Section 2: Personal Development
• During adolescence, most people reach
the stage of formal operations thinking in
which thinking becomes abstract and less
concrete. 
• According to Erik Erikson, building an
identity is a task that is unique to
adolescence; most adolescents must go
through an identity crisis, a time of inner
conflict during which they worry intensely
about their identities.
115
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Section 3: Social Development
• One of the principal developmental tasks
for adolescents is becoming independent
of their families. 
• Belonging to a peer group fulfills the need
for closeness with others and gives the
adolescent a means of establishing an
identity. 
• Parents and peers exercise influence in
shaping adolescent behavior and attitudes.
116
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Section 4: Gender Roles and
Differences
• During adolescence, individuals develop
attitudes about gender and expectations
about the gender role they will fill. 
• Most psychologists agree that nature and
nurture interact to influence gender
differences. 
• The roles of men and women in society
are changing.
117
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the information.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
1. Belonging to a(n) __________
is important to
clique
most adolescents and serves several functions.
2. A person’s physical and biological makeup is his
or her ______________.
gender identity
3. According to Erik Erikson, adolescents go through
a(n) _____________,
identity crisis a time of inner conflict in
which they worry about their identities.
4. _______________
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder in which
an individual refuses to eat and loses weight.
5. The biological event that marks the end of
childhood is __________.
puberty
119
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
6. Albert Bandura’s belief that individuals develop by
interacting with others is referred to as the
social learning theory of development.
__________________
7. Feet that are too large for the body is an example
asynchrony or the condition of uneven growth
of __________,
or maturation of bodily parts.
8. A person’s __________
gender role is the standard of how a
person with a given gender identity is supposed to
behave.
120
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
9. Oversimplified or prejudiced opinions and
attitudes concerning the way men or women
gender stereotypes
should behave are called __________________.
10. An adolescent’s fear of being set apart from
others leads to __________
conformity among peer group
members.
121
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answers.
Recalling Facts
Describe G. Stanley Hall’s theory of
adolescence. Does the research of
Margaret Mead support his position?
Explain.
Hall explained adolescence as representing a
transition from beast to human, during which
the person experiences great “storm and
stress.” Margaret Mead disagreed with this
view and considered adolescence as a
normal period of growth from childhood to
adulthood. She theorized that the storm and
stress is a cultural phenomenon.
122
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
When Sandra Bem discusses
androgyny, is she talking about
gender role or gender identity?
She is referring to one’s gender role.
123
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Explain what Jean Piaget means by
“formal operations” thinking. How
does this change in cognitive ability
affect an adolescent?
Formal operations thinking is more
abstract and allows adolescents to
improve their problem-solving
capabilities. They are able to
contemplate the consequences of
their actions and rationalize their
behavior.
124
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Use a chart similar to the one on page
124 of your textbook to explain the
identity formation theory of each of the
following: Erik Erikson, James Marcia,
Albert Bandura, and Margaret Mead.
Erikson and Marcia: adolescents form
their identity after experiencing an
identity crisis, a time of inner conflict;
Bandura: individuals develop their
identity by interacting with others; Mead:
individuals develop their identity through
social interaction.
125
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
How does the biological theory of
gender development explain the
differences in gender?
The biological theory emphasizes the
role of anatomy, hormones, brain
organization, and evolutionary forces
as the source of gender-role
development.
126
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
Review the graphs below, and then answer the questions that
follow.
127
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
What is the major cause of death for
people between the ages of 5 and 24?
motor vehicle crashes
128
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
How do the causes of death for the 5–24
age group compare to that of the 25 and
older age group?
The leading cause of death for the 5–24 age
group is motor vehicle crashes, while
cardiovascular disease is the leading cause
of death for people ages 25 and older.
129
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Building Skills
Interpreting a Graph
How do some of the thought processes of
adolescents help explain the leading
causes of death in young people?
The abstract thought processes of
adolescents can often result in feelings of
invulnerability, which lead to risk taking and
self-destructive behavior.
130
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
I first described formal operations
thinking–the thinking pattern that
emerges during adolescence.
Jean Piaget
131
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar
to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the
Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find
interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites
correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://psychology.glencoe.com
According to psychologist Erik Erikson,
building an identity is a task that is unique
to adolescence. Write in your journal two
paragraphs that argue in favor of Erikson’s
point of view.
Research your own growth through puberty.
Write when your growth spurt occurred and
how much you grew during that time. Also,
write how you felt during this time of
physical growth.
Select an issue about which you have mixed
feelings. Write about the issue, expressing
your feelings and examining your motives.
Ask: How does this process help you reach
a conclusion about the issue?
Make a list of the ways in which your
parents have been involved in your life.
Then make a list of the ways you would like
them to be involved in your life.
Ask: What can you do to bridge any gaps
between the two lists?
Write a description of yourself as though
you were introducing yourself to a foreign
pen pal. Review your descriptions and circle
every word or phrase that describes your
gender. Underline words or phrases that
describe your talents, temperament, or
values.
Early Maturation
Read the case study presented on
page 100 of your textbook. Be
prepared to answer the questions that
appear on the following slides. A
discussion prompt and additional
information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
How was a 9-year-old child able to
give birth?
She suffered from a hormone imbalance that
resulted in precocious puberty.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
What are the psychological causes
of precocious puberty?
The psychological causes include stressors
revolving around family, social relationships, and
relationships with peers.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
Critical Thinking What considerations
might a psychologist take into account
when treating a child suffering from
precocious puberty?
Psychologists would focus primarily on selfesteem issues. They would also treat symptoms
of moodiness, depression, or aggressiveness.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
Discuss the following:
Why does early maturation tend to be
more difficult for females than for males?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
For the past century, especially in
industrialized countries, the onset of
puberty has been occurring at earlier
ages in both females and males.
Improved health care and better nutrition
are generally cited as the reasons for this
change.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
– One problem for adolescents who experience earlyonset puberty is that they have not really finished
being children when their bodies are thrust into
puberty. 
– Self-esteem suffers, especially in females. 
– Their peers often reject them. 
– Like most adolescents, those with precocious
puberty want to fit in with their peers.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Early Maturation
– Some studies indicate that early maturation propels
females to socialize with older, more physically mature
adolescents. 
– These relationships make the early-maturing females
more susceptible to sexual pressure and deviant
behaviors.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 100 of your textbook.
Continued on next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. increased height and
weight, development
of pubic hair, changes
in oil/sweat glands 
2. testosterone for
males, estrogen for
females 
3. self-consciousness,
negative body image,
depression, increased
confidence,
excitement
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. invulnerability 
2. indecisiveness 
3. They are
embarrassed by
changes in their
bodies; they
think everyone is
thinking about
them.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. similar dress, similar
ways of talking 
2. They can be
relatively safe
environments to try
new things, take
different roles, and
get feedback and
support. 
3. They require
conformity and
discourage
adolescents from
leaving the group. 
4. parents, the media,
religious beliefs
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. psychoanalytical theory 
2. social learning theory 
3. gender roles are biological
or they are learned from
society and culture
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
From the Classroom of Gary Cockman
Davison High School, Davison, MI
Goal: To introduce Lawrence Kohlberg’s
theory on moral development
Continued on next slide.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
From the Classroom of Gary Cockman
Davison High School, Davison, MI
1. Divide up and work in pairs. You will be part of an
experiment. Roll up your sleeves to the elbow, if
necessary. 
2. One person will be the experimenter and the other
will be the participant. You will trade roles later in the
experiment. 
3. The experimenters are to use their index finger and
thumb to hold the participant’s skin on the bottom of
their forearm.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
From the Classroom of Gary Cockman
Davison High School, Davison, MI
4. Begin pinching harder as you count to 15. 
5. Reverse roles and repeat Steps 3 and 4. 
6. On a piece of paper, write the answers to the
following questions. Do NOT put your names on the
paper. 
A. Did you participate in the experiment? 
B. If you did, why? 
C. Did you fully participate or did you only pretend to
pinch harder? Why did you make this choice?
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development
From the Classroom of Gary Cockman
Davison High School, Davison, MI
7. Collect the papers. 
8. Show Kohlberg’s phases of moral development and
explain each of the six stages. Read some of the
responses to question C aloud. Identify the stage of
moral development that best fits the statement.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Some experts view G. Stanley Hall’s
Adolescence, published in 1904, as the
beginning of developmental psychology. His
Senescence (1922) marked one of the first
pioneering efforts to study the elderly.
Lawrence Kohlberg
Erik Erikson
Click the hyperlink to go to the information about the person.
Kohlberg theorized that humans progress from
one stage of moral development to the next in
the same sequence, not skipping any stage or
returning to any previously completed stage.
Kohlberg’s theory seems to apply across
cultures. Cross-cultural studies have been done
in Britain, Canada, Honduras, India, Israel,
Turkey, Taiwan, the United States, and the
Yucatan region of Mexico.
Explain that Erik Erikson came out of a school
known today as the Neo-Freudians. This is the
name given to the theorists who expanded upon
and revised psychoanalytic theory from the late
1930s to the early 1950s. Neo-Freudians
disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on instinctual
energy and childhood sexuality. They looked
instead for more complex human motivations,
such as societal factors, than five inches in one
year.
Historical and cross-cultural studies of eating
disorders indicate that in societies that view
the primary role of women as biological
(procreation), the rates of anorexia are
significantly lower than in societies that value
women for their looks. For example, the
incidence of anorexia in Arabic countries is
less than in European countries.
Emotions and Biology
The teen years often bring emotional turmoil. A study
published in 1998 used MRI scans to compare the
emotions of healthy 10- to 18-year-olds with those of
normal adults. The neuropsychologists looked for
differences in activity in the amygdala and the frontal
lobe. Teens showed a higher level of brain activity in the
amygdala, which is the part of the brain associated with
base instincts and “gut” reactions, while adults showed
a higher level of brain activity in the frontal lobe, which
is responsible for rational thinking and reasoning. The
findings link emotionally immature reasoning of
adolescents to a biological cause.
Management and Gender
• Studies have found that female managers tend to be
more results-oriented, while men tend to focus more
on analysis and strategic planning. 
• Female managers are consistently rated higher in
empathy, people skills, and collaborative working
skills. 
• Male managers rate more highly on overall decision
making, understanding of organization dynamics, and
ability to perform financial analysis.
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information.
• David Elkind identified three types of stressful
situations: Type A are foreseeable and avoidable
(riding a roller coaster, driving recklessly). 
• Type B are not foreseeable or avoidable (death of a
loved one, accidents). 
• Type C are foreseeable but not avoidable (exams, the
consequences of coming home past curfew). 
• Elkind found that Type B was the most stressful. 
• Research which type of stress is most difficult to
manage and how you manage the different types.
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information.
• Schemas are ways of organizing information. 
• As a part of a culture, we tend to share similar experiences
with people around us.As a result, cultural schemas arise. 
• Psychological research indicates that American culture has
a dominant gender schema. 
• That is, we tend to emphasize gender roles and gender-role
stereotyping. 
• Visit a large toy store and find examples of gender-role
stereotyping. Share your findings with the class. As a class,
discuss whether the emphasis on gender creates
stereotypes that need not exist.
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information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 105 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Why do you think the study found that
parent’s high standards and respect for
their son’s decision-making ability were
more important to self-esteem than good
looks? Do you think a study conducted with
females would have the same results? Why
or why not?
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information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 115 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Why did American stars affect the way that
girls from Fiji viewed their bodies?
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information.
Erik Erikson
1902–1994
Click the picture to listen to
a biography on Erik
Erikson. Be prepared to
answer questions that
appear on the next two
slides.
This feature is found on page 106 of your textbook.
Erik Erikson
1902–1994
How did Erikson’s
upbringing affect his choice
of a career?
He did not feel that he
belonged because he was
mocked by Jewish peers for
not looking like a Jew and by
non-Jewish peers for his
religion. His own experience
seems to be a prime motivator
for his interest in psychology.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 106 of your textbook.
Erik Erikson
1902–1994
How is Erikson’s stages of
development theory
reflected in the quote?
Erikson saw life as a process
of continual development. At
each stage, humans face
different challenges. How they
respond shapes not only their
identity but affects those within
their sphere of influence.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 106 of your textbook.
End of Custom Shows
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