Presentation Plus! Understanding Psychology
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CHAPTER FOCUS
SECTION 1 Characteristics of
Psychological Tests
SECTION 2 Intelligence Testing
SECTION 3 Measuring Achievement,
Abilities, and Interests
SECTION 4 Personality Testing
CHAPTER SUMMARY
CHAPTER ASSESSMENT
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Press the ESC key at any time to exit the presentation.
Chapter Objectives
Section 1: Characteristics of
Psychological Tests
• Examine the characteristics that make a
psychological test useful: reliability,
validity, and standardization. 
Section 2: Intelligence Testing
• Explore the ways in which IQ tests are
used to measure intelligence and explain
the various theories of what constitutes
intelligence.
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the information.
Chapter Objectives (cont.)
Section 3: Measuring Achievement,
Abilities, and Interests
• Describe the various tests psychologists
have developed to assess special abilities
and experiences. 
Section 4: Personality Testing
• Explain how personality tests are used to
assess personality characteristics and
identify problems.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– To be useful, tests have to exhibit reliability,
validity, and standardization. 
Objectives
– Identify three ways of measuring reliability.
– Explain test standardization and how test
validity is assessed.
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
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– reliability 
– validity 
– percentile system 
– norms
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
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information. Section 1 begins on page 343 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Tests can be somewhat useful… 
– in predicting how well a person might do in a
particular career. 
– in assessing an individual’s desires, interests,
and attitudes. 
– in revealing psychological problems. 
• One virtue of standardized tests is that
they can provide comparable data about
many individuals.
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Introduction (cont.)
• Further, psychologists can use some
tests to help people understand things
about themselves more clearly. 
• One of the great dangers of testing is that
we tend to forget that tests are merely
tools for measuring and predicting human
behavior. 
• The fairness and usefulness of a test
depend on several factors: its reliability, its
validity, and standardization.
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Test Reliability
• The term reliability refers to a test’s
consistency–its ability to yield the same
result under a variety of different
circumstances.
reliability
the ability of a test to give the
same results under similar
conditions
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Test Reliability (cont.)
• There are three basic ways of determining
a test’s reliability: 
– test-retest reliability–If a person retakes the
test or takes a similar test within a short time
after the first testing, does he or she receive
approximately the same score? 
– inter-scorer reliability–The test yields the same
results when scored at different times by
different people. 
– split-half reliability–Divide the test in half and
scores each half separately; the two scores
are approximately the same.
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Test Reliability (cont.)
• In checking tests for reliability,
psychologists try to prevent variables
from influencing a person’s score. 
• All kinds of irrelevant matters can interfere
with a test.
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Judging Reliability
On the left, the test scores
obtained by seven individuals
are ordered on a scale. On the
right, the corresponding scores
on a second version of the
same test, given at a later time,
are ordered. In the upper
diagram, the two sets of scores
correspond very closely–
meaning that the test is highly
reliable.
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Test Validity
• A test may be reliable but still not valid. 
• Validity is the ability of a test to measure
what it is intended to measure. 
• Determining the validity of a test is more
complex than assessing its reliability. 
• One of the chief methods for measuring
validity is to find out how well a test
predicts performance–its predictive
validity.
validity
the ability of a test to measure
what it is intended to measure
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Judging Validity
The lower diagram might
represent the comparison of
scores on the “head size” test of
intelligence with school grades
on the right. (The “head size”
test is simply measuring the
size of a student’s head.) The
upper diagram might represent
the result of comparing the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale scores with school
grades.
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Standardization
• Tests must be standardized. 
• Standardization refers to two things. 
– First, standardized tests must be administered
and scored the same way every time. 
– Second, standardization refers to establishing
the norm, or average score, made by a large
group of people.
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Establishing Norms
• Once a test result is obtained, the
examiner must translate the score into
something useful. 
• When psychologists design a test to be
used in a variety of settings, they usually
set up a scale for comparison by
establishing norms.
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Establishing Norms (cont.)
• This is usually done by transforming raw
test scores into a percentile system,
which resembles what is called “grading
on the curve.” 
• In the percentile system, the scores
actually achieved on the test are placed in
order, ranging from the highest to the
lowest.
percentile system
ranking of test scores that
indicates the ratio of scores
lower and higher than a given
score.
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Establishing Norms (cont.)
• Each score is then compared with this
list and assigned a percentile according
to the percentage of scores that fall at or
below this point. 
• The test is given to a large representative
sample of the group to be measured. 
• Percentiles are then established on the
basis of the scores achieved by this
standardization group.
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Establishing Percentiles
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Establishing Norms (cont.)
• These percentiles are called the test’s
norms. 
• Most of the intelligence, aptitude, and
personality tests you will encounter have
been provided with norms in this way. 
• Norms refer only to what has been found
to be average for a particular group.
norms
standard of comparison for
test results developed by
giving the test to large, welldefined groups of people
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What is
meant when we ask about the
reliability or validity of a test?
Reliability refers to a test’s
consistency over time and across test
takers. Validity refers to a test’s ability
to assess what it was designed to
assess.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
diagram similar to the one on page
347 of your textbook, identify three
measures of a test’s reliability.
Test-retest reliability measures the test’s
ability to produce a measurement (score)
that is stable over time. Inter-scorer reliability
refers to the test’s ability to yield the same
results when scored at different times by
different people. Split-half reliability is
measured by dividing the test in half and
scoring each half separately. The two scores
should be approximately the same.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What does it
mean if a test is standardized? Why
do we standardize tests?
Standardized tests are administered
and scored the same way each time
and norms have been established.
Tests are standardized to prevent
errors in assessing the test taker.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think an
intelligence test would be a valid
test for measuring a person’s
knowledge of a foreign language?
Explain.
No, an intelligence test does not
relate specifically to knowledge of or
ability to learn a foreign language.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Write an explanation of percentile
ranking.
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Several IQ tests are used to measure
intelligence, although there are many views
about what constitutes intelligence. 
Objectives
– Explain the various views of intelligence.
– Identify two kinds of IQ tests.
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information. Section 2 begins on page 348 of your textbook.

Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– intelligence 
– two-factor theory 
– triarchic theory 
– emotional intelligence

– intelligence quotient (IQ) 
– heritability 
– cultural bias
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
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information. Section 2 begins on page 348 of your textbook.
Views of Intelligence
• Psychologists do not agree on the
meaning of the word intelligence. 
• Most believe that intelligence is the ability
to acquire new ideas and new behavior and
to adapt to new situations. 
• Over the years, psychologists have
presented several different views of
intelligence.
intelligence
the ability to acquire new
ideas and new behavior, and
to adapt to new situations
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Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
• British psychologist Charles Spearman
proposed his two-factor theory of
intelligence in 1904. 
• The first factor, g, represents a person’s
general intelligence. 
• A second factor, s, represents a person’s
specific mental abilities, such as verbal or
math skills.
two-factor theory
proposes that two factors
contribute to an individual’s
intelligence
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Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
(cont.)
• Spearman believed that every individual
had a certain level of general
intelligence. 
• Critics argue that g does not measure
many other kinds of mental abilities such
as motor, musical, or creative abilities.
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Thustone’s Theory of Intelligence
• A major opponent of Spearman’s theory
was L.L. Thurstone (1938). 
• After running tests, Thurstone concluded
that there was no evidence for the general
intelligence that Spearman had identified. 
• Instead, Thurstone proposed that
intelligence is composed of seven primary
mental abilities.
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Thurstone’s Seven Primary Mental
Abilities
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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple
Intelligences
• Psychologist Howard Gardner (1983)
rejected the traditional idea of
intelligence as primarily the ability to
think logically. 
• Gardner argues for a broader perspective
that includes eight types of intelligence.
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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple
Intelligences (cont.)
• Gardner’s eight types of intelligence are: 
– verbal ability 
– logical-mathematical reasoning skills 
– spatial ability 
– musical ability 
– body-kinesthetic ability 
– interpersonal skills 
– intrapersonal skills 
– naturalist intelligence
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Gardner’s Theory of Multiple
Intelligences (cont.)
• Gardner is also considering a ninth
intelligence, “existential intelligence.”

• Gardner’s research on the results of brain
disease convinced him that humans
possess these eight different and often
unrelated intellectual capacities or
“intelligences.” 
• Critics of Gardner’s theory argue that
some of what Gardner called “intelligence”
are really skills.
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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
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Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
• Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed a
triarchic theory, or three-part theory, of
intelligence. 
• Sternberg proposed that intelligence can
be divided into three ways of processing
information.
triarchic theory
term 2
proposes that intelligence can text
be divided into three ways of
processing information
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Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence
• The first way is using analytical
thinking skills, or the ability to solve
problems. 
(cont.)
• The second way is applying creative
thinking to solving problems and the ability
to deal with new situations. 
• The third is using practical thinking skills to
help adjust to and cope with one’s
environment. 
• Sternberg’s theory makes it difficult to
actually measure intelligence, at least with
traditional types of measurements.
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Emotional Intelligence
• Another type of “intelligence” has been
raised in the popular press and television. 
• Called emotional intelligence, it is related
to Gardner’s concepts of interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligences.
emotional intelligence
includes four major aspects of
interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligences
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Emotional Intelligence (cont.)
• Emotional intelligence has four major
aspects (Mayer & Salovey, 1997): 
– the ability to perceive and express emotions
accurately and appropriately 
– the ability to use emotions while thinking 
– the ability to understand emotions and use the
knowledge effectively 
– the ability to regulate one’s emotions to
promote personal growth 
• Some psychologists, however, argue that
emotional intelligence is simply a
measurement of extroversion.
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The Development of Intelligence
Tests
• Among the most widely used and widely
disputed tests are those that are designed
to measure “intelligence” and yield an “IQ”
score. 
• Alfred Binet, a French psychologist,
worked with Theodore Simon to develop a
useful intelligence test. 
• Binet assumed that whatever intelligence
was, it increased with age.
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The Development of Intelligence
Tests (cont.)
• By asking the same questions of many
children, Binet determined the average
age at which a particular question could
be answered. 
• If a child of 12 could answer the 9-yearold-level questions but not the questions
for 10-year-olds and 11-year-olds, he or
she was said to have a mental age of 9. 
• Thus a slow learner was one who had a
mental age that was less than his or her
chronological age.
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The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
• The Binet test currently used in the United
States is a revision created at Stanford
University–the Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale (Terman & Merrill, 1973). 
• The Stanford-Binet, like the original test,
groups test items by age level.
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The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
(cont.)
• The IQ, or intelligence quotient, was
originally computed by dividing a child’s
mental age by chronological age and
multiplying by 100. 
• Although the basic principles behind the
calculation of IQ remain, scores are
figured in a slightly different manner
today.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
standardized measure of
intelligence based on a scale
in which 100 is average
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The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
(cont.)
• Researchers assign a score of 100 to the
average performance at any given age. 
• Then, IQ values are assigned to all the
other test scores for this age group. 
• Today, instead of the Stanford-Binet test,
the Otis-Lennon Ability Test is often
used. 
• This test seeks to measure the cognitive
abilities that relate a student’s ability to
learn and succeed in school.
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The Wechsler Tests
• Three frequently used intelligence tests
are: 
– the revised versions of the Wechsler-Adult
Intelligence Scale, now called WAIS-R
(Wechsler, 1981) for adults 
– the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children,
now called WISC-III (Wechsler, 1981) for
children 6 to 16 years old 
– the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scales of
Intelligences (WPPSI-R) for children 4 to 61/2
years old
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The Wechsler Tests (cont.)
• In addition to yielding one overall score,
the Wechsler tests yield percentile
scores in several areas. 
• These ratings are used to compute
separate IQ scores for verbal and
performance abilities. 
• This type of scoring provides a more
detailed picture of the individual’s
strengths and weaknesses than a single
score does.
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Sample Items on the Wechsler Tests
51
The Uses and Meanings of IQ Scores
• In general, the norms for intelligence
tests are established in such a way that
most people score near 100. 
• IQ scores are quite accurate in predicting
which people will do well in schools,
colleges, and universities. 
• Critics of IQ testing wonder, however,
whether such tests actually measure
“intelligence” or just the ability to take a
test.
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Distribution of IQ Scores
53
Controversy Over IQTesting
• Much of the debate about IQ testing
centers around the following issues: do
genetic differences or environmental
inequalities cause two people to receive
different scores on intelligence tests?
54
Nature vs. Nurture
• To determine whether genetics or
environment affects scores on intelligence
tests, researchers study the results from
testing of people with varying degrees of
genetic relationship. 
• In regard to intelligence, researchers have
found a high degree of heritability. 
• The question of cultural bias in intelligence
tests has also been controversial.
heritability
the degree to which a
characteristic is related to
genetic, inherited factors
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Nature vs. Nurture (cont.)
• The best way to study the effect of nature
and nurture is to study identical twins who
have been separated at birth and raised in
different homes. 
• Dr. Tom Bouchard, who has studied more
than 100 sets of twins since 1979,
concluded that IQ is affected by genetic
factors. 
• Regarding environment, studies show that
brothers and/or sisters raised in the same
environment are more likely to have
similar IQs than siblings raised apart.
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Nature vs. Nurture (cont.)
• Some researchers study the effects of the
environment on IQ factors by focusing on
preschool programs. 
• Each year of school missed may drop a
person’s IQ as much as 5 points (Ceci,
1991). 
• The richness of the home environment, the
quality of food, and the number of brothers
and sisters in the family all affect IQ. 
• Both heredity and environment have an
impact on intelligence.
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Cultural Bias
• A major criticism of intelligence tests is
that they have a cultural bias. 
• Psychologists admit that some tests have
been biased because they assess
accumulated knowledge, which is
dependent on a child’s environment and
opportunities in that environment.
cultural bias
an aspect in an intelligence
test in which wording used
in questions may be more
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familiar to people of one
social group than to another
social group
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Cultural Bias (cont.)
• As a consequence, efforts have been
made to make the tests less biased. 
• However, it is unlikely that a test will ever
be developed that will be completely free
of cultural bias. 
• All tests are based on the assumptions of
a particular culture.
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The Dove Counterbalance
Intelligence Test
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What are
the two-factor and triarchic
theories of intelligence?
The two-factor theory identifies a
general intelligence, g factor, and a
second factor, s, that represents a
person’s specific abilities. The triarchic
theory identifies three parts to
intelligence: analytical thinking,
creative thinking, and practical
thinking.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
chart similar to the one on page
357 of your textbook, describe
how the two major tests of
intelligence are scored.
Stanford-Binet: Mental
age/Chronological age x 100
Wechsler: an overall score and
percentile scores in vocabulary,
information, arithmetic, picture
arrangement, and so on.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What are
Gardner’s eight types of
intelligence?
Gardner’s eight types of intelligence
are verbal/linguistic, logicalmathematical, spatial, musical, bodykinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal, and naturalist.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Which has the
greatest effect on intelligence–
nature or nurture? Explain.
Answers will vary. Heredity likely
determines a basic range for
intelligence, but nurture affects where
in that range a person falls.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Give examples of people you know who,
without testing, appear to have a high level of
intelligence for each type.
verbal/linguistic
body-kinesthetic
logical-mathematical interpersonal
spatial
intrapersonal
musical
naturalist
How did you identify the person?
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Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Psychologists have developed tests to assess
special abilities and experiences. 
Objectives
– Identify the most widely used aptitude tests,
achievement tests, and interest tests. 
– Explain the application of aptitude tests,
achievement tests, and interest tests.
67
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Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– aptitude test 
– achievement test 
– interest test
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
68
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information. Section 3 begins on page 359 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Intelligence tests are designed to
measure a person’s overall ability to
solve problems that involve symbols
such as words, numbers, and pictures. 
• Psychologists have developed other tests
to assess special abilities and
experiences. 
• These include aptitude tests, achievement
tests, and interest tests.
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Aptitude Tests
• Aptitude tests attempt to discover a
person’s talents and to predict how well he
or she will be able to learn a new skill. 
• They are assessed primarily in terms of
their predictive validity. 
• Two such tests are the Differential
Aptitude Test (DATE) and the General
Aptitude Test Battery (GATB).
aptitude test
estimates the probability that
a person will be successful in
learning a specific new skill
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Aptitude Tests (cont.)
• The GATB is the most widely used of
these tests. 
• The SAT and the American College Test
(ACT) are general aptitude tests. 
• These tests were designed to predict a
student’s success in college.
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The GATB
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Achievement Tests
• Achievement tests are designed to
measure how much a person has
already learned in a particular area. 
• Such tests not only enable an instructor to
assess a student’s knowledge, but they
also help students assess their progress
for themselves.
achievement test
measures how much a person
has learned in a given subject
or area
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Achievement Tests (cont.)
• The distinction between achievement
and aptitude tests has become
somewhat blurred. 
• The distinction between the two types of
tests rests more on purpose and
validation than on content. 
– If a test is used to predict future ability, it is
considered an aptitude test. 
– If it is used to assess what a person already
knows, it is an achievement test.
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Achievement Tests (cont.)
• Computers are often used to administer
achievement tests. 
• One computer-based method is called
“adaptive testing” or “tailored testing”
(Weiss & Vale, 1987). 
– With an adaptive test the order of questions is
changed by the computer as it adapts the test
to the individual’s performance. 
– The purpose of this testing method is to
measure your ability by finding the difficulty
level where you correctly answer most, but not
all, of the problems (70 percent, for example).
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Interest Tests
• The instruments for measuring interests
are fundamentally different from the
instruments for measuring abilities. 
• The answers to questions on an interest
or a personality test, however, are not
scored as right or wrong. 
• The essential purpose of an interest test
is to determine a person’s preferences,
attitudes, and interests.
interest test
measures a person’s
preferences, attitudes, and
interests in certain activities
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Interest Tests (cont.)
• Most interest tests compare the test
taker’s responses to the responses given
by people in clearly defined groups, such
as professions or occupations. 
• When constructing the widely used
Campbell Interest and Skill Survey
(Campbell, 1992), psychologists
compared the responses of people who
are successfully employed in different
occupations to the responses of “people
in general.”
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Interest Tests (cont.)
• The Kuder Preference Record (KRP) is
based on the same principle. 
• The purpose of these measures is to help
people find the career that is right for
them. 
• It is important to note that although
interest tests can be of great value to
people who are undecided about the
career path they should take, tests
provide only one source of information on
career choice.
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The KPR
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Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary Write a
short paragraph explaining what
aptitude, achievement, and interest
tests are designed to measure.
Aptitude tests can be used to help a person
discover his or her talents and to predict the
ability of a person to learn a new skill.
Achievement tests measure how much a
person has already learned in the area being
tested. Interest tests assess a person’s
preferences, attitudes, and interests.
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Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
diagram similar to the one on page
362 of your textbook, identify why an
individual might take an aptitude,
achievement, or interest test.
aptitude test–career direction;
achievement test–demonstrate the
body of knowledge that has been
learned; interest test–categorize
likes and preferences to help
determine career direction
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information What is the
content validity of a test? What is
the predictive validity of a test?
Content validity refers to the test’s
ability to measure correctly the body
of knowledge the participant has
already learned; predictive validity
refers to the test’s ability to assess
the person’s likely success.
82
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically Do you think a
person should base his or her
career choice on the results of an
interest test? Why? Explain your
reasons.
Answers will vary. Career choices
should not be made based on one
set of tests; it will, however, provide
direction to narrow down one’s career
choices.
83
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Create a list showing the three
types of tests, giving an example
of each, and explaining when each
would be used.
84
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Reader’s Guide
Main Idea
– Personality tests are used to assess personality
characteristics and to identify problems. 
Objectives
– Identify the most widely used personality
tests. 
– Describe the use of personality tests.
86
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information. Section 4 begins on page 363 of your textbook.
Reader’s Guide (cont.)
Vocabulary
– personality test 
– objective test
– projective test
Click the Speaker button
to listen to Exploring
Psychology.
87
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. Section 4 begins on page 363 of your textbook.
Introduction
• Psychologists and psychiatrists use
personality tests to assess personality
characteristics. 
• These also help to identify problems and
psychological disorders, as well as to
predict how a person might behave in the
future. 
• Some of these tests are objective tests,
while others are projective tests.
personality tests
assesses personality
characteristics and identifies
problems
88
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to display the information.
Objective Personality Tests
• Some of the most widely used tests in
personality testing are based on simple
pencil-and-paper responses. 
• Objective tests are forced-choice tests;
that is, a person must select one of a
small number of possible responses.
objective test
a forced-choice test (in which a
person must select one of
several answers) designed to
study personality characteristics
89
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to display the information.
The MMPI
• One of the most widely used tests for
general personality assessment is the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory (MMPI). 
• The MMPI was revised, updated, and
published in 1990, resulting in the
MMPI-2. 
• The test consists of 567 statements to
which a person can respond true, false,
or cannot say.
90
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to display the information.
The MMPI (cont.)
• The items on the MMPI reveal habits,
fears, delusions, sexual attitudes, and
symptoms of psychological disorders. 
• Psychologists originally developed the
test to help diagnose psychiatric
disorders. 
• Although the statements that relate to a
given characteristic are scattered
throughout the test, the answers to them
can be pulled out and organized into ten
clinical scales.
91
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to display the information.
The MMPI (cont.)
• In creating the original MMPI, the test
makers did not try to think up statements
that would identify depression, anxiety,
and so forth. 
• They also retained for the test those
questions that discriminated among
groups such as depressed people, well
adjusted people, and so on. 
• As a result, many of the items on the test
may cause critics to question the test’s
validity.
92
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to display the information.
The MMPI (cont.)
• The subject of thousands of studies, the
MMPI has been one of the most frequently
used psychological tests (Lubin, Larsen, &
Matarazzo, 1984). 
• Most psychologists believe that scores on
the MMPI should be supplemented and
confirmed with interviews and observation
for proper diagnosis.
93
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to display the information.
MMPI Scales
94
MMPI Scales (cont.)
95
The CPI
• Similar to the MMPI is the California
Psychological Inventory (CPI), developed
to assess the “normal person.” 
• The CPI is used to predict things like
adjustment to stress, leadership, and job
success. 
• Although it is known to be fairly valid and
reliable, the CPI can prove faulty for an
individual. 
• The test results may point out that the
individual has a problem when that
individual really does not have a problem.
96
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to display the information.
The Meyers-Briggs Test
• Another popular personality test is the
Meyers-Briggs test. 
• The test focuses on how a person takes in
information and makes decisions, and the
person’s basic day-to-day lifestyle. 
• This test characterizes personality on four
different scales: 
– extrovert vs. introvert 
– intuitive vs. sensing 
– feeling vs. thinking 
– judging vs. perceptive
97
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The Meyers-Briggs Test (cont.)
• The creators of the Meyers-Briggs test
believe that each person’s personality is
a combination of these characteristics. 
• The purpose of the test is to offer test
takers an evaluation of their personalities
so that they may better understand how
they relate to others and how others relate
to them. 
• With this knowledge, the creators of the
test hope to help people live more
productive, rewarding lives.
98
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to display the information.
Projective Personality Tests
• Unlike objective tests, projective tests
encourage test takers to respond freely,
giving their own interpretations of various
test stimuli. 
• These tests are open-ended examinations
that invite people to tell stories about
pictures, diagrams, or objects.
projective tests
an unstructured test in which a
person is asked to respond freely,
giving his or her own interpretation
of various ambiguous stimuli
99
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to display the information.
Projective Personality Tests (cont.)
• The idea is that because the test material
has no established meaning, the test
taker will project his or her unconscious
feelings onto the test items.
100
The Rorschach Inkblot Test
• The best-known and most widely discussed
projective measure is the Rorschach
inkblot test, developed by Swiss
psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921. 
• Rorschach created 10 cards with inkblot
designs and a system for interpreting
responses. 
• To administer the test, a psychologist
hands the ink blots one by one to the test
taker, asking the person to say what he or
she sees.
101
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to display the information.
The Rorschach Inkblot Test (cont.)
• The psychologist then asks certain
general questions in an attempt to
discover what aspects of the ink blot
determined the person’s response. 
• The theory underlying the test is that
anything that someone does or says will
reveal an aspect of that person’s
personality. 
• Many researchers have criticized the
Rorschach, charging that the scoring
systems are neither reliable nor valid.
102
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to display the information.
The TAT
• The second most widely used projective
measure was developed by Henry
Murray (1943). 
• The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
consists of a series of 20 cards containing
pictures of vague but suggestive
situations. 
• The individual is asked to tell a story
about the picture, indicating how the
situation shown on the card developed,
what the characters are thinking and
feeling, and how it will end.
103
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to display the information.
The TAT (cont.)
• The TAT is used to urge clients to speak
freely about their problems. 
• As with the Rorschach, there are many
different scoring systems for the TAT. 
• The test can also be used to assess
personality problems of individuals.
104
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to display the information.
Approaches to Reducing Test Anxiety
105
Section Assessment
Review the Vocabulary What is the
difference between objective and
projective tests?
Objective personality tests force
participants to select an answer
among the various choices.
Projective tests are open-ended and
allow the participant to formulate his
or her own responses.
106
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Visualize the Main Idea Using a
chart similar to the one on page
368 of your textbook, identify the
characteristics of the Rorschach
inkblot test and the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT).
The information in your charts should
demonstrate an understanding of the
Rorschach test and the TAT.
107
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Recall Information How does the
CPI differ from the MMPI? How
does the CPI differ from the
Meyers-Briggs test?
Unlike the MMPI, the CPI does not
have any of the questions that reveal
psychological illnesses. The CPI
measures traits such as responsibility,
self-control, and tolerance. The
Meyers-Briggs test characterizes
personality on four different scales.
108
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Think Critically What are the
advantages and disadvantages of
using objective personality tests
versus projective personality
tests?
Objective personality tests are more reliable
because inter-scorer reliability is much
higher. They can also identify personality
disorders more specifically than projective
tests. The primary disadvantage is that they
force people to make a choice when none
of the options may truly reflect the person’s
personality.
109
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to display the answer.
Section Assessment (cont.)
Rate the MMPI, CPI, Rorschach,
and TAT tests for reliability and
validity. Use rating scales from
high to low.
110
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Section 1: Characteristics of
Psychological Tests
• There are three basic ways of determining
a test’s reliability–test-retest, scorer or
inter-scorer, and split-half reliability. 
• One of the chief methods for measuring
validity is to find out how well a test
predicts performance. 
• Tests must be standardized–they must be
administered and scored the same way
every time, and they must have
established norms.
112
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to display the information.
Section 2: Intelligence Testing
• Charles Spearman proposed that two
factors contributed to a person’s
intelligence. 
• L.L. Thurstone proposed that intelligence
is composed of seven primary
mental abilities. 
• Howard Gardner proposed that there are
eight types of intelligence. 
• Two major intelligence tests are the
Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler tests.
113
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Section 2: Intelligence Testing (cont.)
• Much of the debate about IQ testing
centers around whether genetic
differences or environmental inequalities
affect performance on intelligence tests.
114
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to display the information.
Section 3: Measuring Achievement,
Abilities, and Interests
• Aptitude tests attempt to discover a
person’s talents and to predict how well he
or she will be able to learn a new skill. 
• Achievement tests are designed to
measure how much a person has already
learned in a particular area. 
• Interest tests are used to determine a
person’s preferences, attitudes,
and interests.
115
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to display the information.
Section 4: Personality Testing
• Personality tests can be objective
or projective. 
• One of the most widely used objective
personality tests is the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).
• The two major projective personality tests
are the Rorschach inkblot test and the
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
116
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to display the information.

Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Reviewing Vocabulary
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
1. A test’s __________
norms
are the percentiles
established on the basis of the scores achieved
by a standardization group.
2. The ability of a test to measure what it is intended
validity
to measure is its __________.
3. Researchers have found a great degree of
heritability a measure of the degree to which a
__________,
characteristic is related to genetic factors.
theory of intelligence proposes that
4. The tiarchic
___________
intelligence can be divided into three ways of
processing information.
118
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
5. In a(n) __________
projective test, a person is asked to give
his or her own interpretations of various test
stimuli.
Cultural bias occurs when the wording used in
6. __________
questions may be more familiar to people of one
cultural group than to another.
7. The ability of a test to yield the same result under
a variety of different circumstances is its
reliability
__________.
emorional intelligence is related to
8. A person’s __________________
concepts of interpersonal and intrapersonal
intelligences.
119
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to display the answers.
Reviewing Vocabulary (cont.)
Use the correct term or concept to complete the following
sentences.
Intelligence is the ability to acquire new ideas
9. __________
and new behavior and to adapt to new situations.
objective test, a person must select
10. In a(n) __________
one of a small number of possible responses.
120
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to display the answers.
Recalling Facts
What is the validity of a test? How is
the validity of a test determined?
Validity is the ability of a test to
measure what it is intended to
measure. One way of determining
validity is to find out how well a test
predicts future performance.
121
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Explain what norms are. How are
norms established?
Norms are standards of comparison
for test results. Norms are percentiles
established on the basis of the scores
achieved by a large representative
sample of the group to be tested.
122
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Using a chart similar to the one
below, explain the following views of
intelligence: Thurstone’s, Gardner’s,
and Sternberg’s.
Thurstone–claimed intelligence is composed of seven
primary mental abilities and that measurement of
intelligence should involve all seven factors.
Gardner–rejected the traditional idea that intelligence is
primarily the ability to think logically. He has identified
eight types of intelligence that include thinking ability
but extend to such areas as musical ability, bodykinesthetic abilities, and intrapersonal skills.
Sternberg–introduced a triarchic model of intelligence
that identified three ways of processing information:
analytical, creative, and practical.
123
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
Explain the difference between an
aptitude test and an achievement
test. Give an example of each type
of test.
Aptitude tests, such as the SAT, are
designed to predict how well a person
will be able to learn a new skill.
Achievement tests, such as final
exams, are designed to measure how
much a person already knows about
a subject.
124
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to display the answer.
Recalling Facts
What are the two basic types of
personality tests? What are some of
the differences between the types?
Give an example of each test.
Objective personality tests, such as the
MMPI, require the individual to select one
answer from a small number of given
choices; they usually have only one
method of scoring. Projective personality
tests, such as the TAT, consist of openended questions to which individuals
respond freely; they often have several
possible methods of scoring.
125
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Relationships
Review the cartoon on page 371 of your
textbook, then answer the questions that
follow.
126
Building Skills
Relationships
Which person shown in the cartoon is the
“brains of this outfit”?
The man on the right with cards in his hands
is the “brains of this outfit.”
127
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Relationships
How does this cartoonist illustrate the
characters’ intellects?
The cartoonist tries to illustrate personality
traits in the physical traits of each character.
128
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to display the answer.
Building Skills
Relationships
What “view” of intelligence might this
cartoon illustrate? Explain your answer.
129
We are the two major controversies
surrounding intelligence testing.
What are we?
We are degree of heritability (nature
vs. nurture) and cultural bias.
130
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to display the answer.
Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
Explore online information about the
topics introduced in this chapter.
Click on the Connect button to launch your browser and go to the
Understanding Psychology Web site. At this site, you will find
interactive activities, current events information, and Web sites
correlated with the chapters and units in the textbook. When you
finish exploring, exit the browser program to return to this
presentation. If you experience difficulty connecting to the Web
site, manually launch your Web browser and go to
http://psychology.glencoe.com
Suppose you were asked to select the best
person to be your teacher from among a
group of applicants. How would you go
about making the selection? Write your
answer in your journal.
Review the tests you have taken in the last
few weeks and answer the following
questions: Would the test pass a check for
inter-scorer and split-half reliability? Can a
test that does not meet the goals for
reliability still be valid?
Write you reaction to the following statement:
“Intelligence tests don’t measure ability; they
measure developed ability.”
Use the basic descriptions of personality
discussed in the Exploring Psychology
feature on page 363 of your textbook to
describe your basic personality type.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
Read the case study presented on
page 358 of your textbook. Be
prepared to answer the questions that
appear on the following slides. A
discussion prompt and additional
information follow the questions.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
Why was the WAIS-R used in
this instance?
The WAIS-R is considered highly reliable in
identifying conditions of mental handicap.
Prosecutors wanted to show that the victim was
incapable of giving meaningful consent to sexual
relations because of a mental disability. They
wanted to prove the accused was guilty of
statutory rape.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
Why did the defense on this case want
the alleged victim to retake the test?
The defense wanted to attack the reliability of the
test. They were hoping to see inconsistencies in
the test scores of the woman, which would mean
the defendant could be set free.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
Critical Thinking What might
significantly different results on the
WAIS-R have meant in this case?
Since the test indicated borderline mental
handicap, if its reliability could be questioned,
the defense could contend that the victim
had consented.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
Discuss the following:
Why are psychologists asked to give
psychological tests to various parties in
legal cases?
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
The Psychological Corporation is the
business that markets the WAIS, as well
as many other psychological
testing instruments.
The most recent product developments
include the WAIS-III. The third edition of
the test has been rigorously tested for
validity and standardization.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
– It reflects the age and abilities of today’s population.

– The published norms for the test have been expanded
so that it is now useful to people up to 89 years
of age. 
– In older test takers, the WAIS-III is often paired with the
WMS-III, which tests memory. 
– The WMS-III can be used with 16- to 89-year-olds.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
WAIS-R: Is It Reliable?
– It tests immediate memory, which is recall of
information just learned; delayed memory, which is the
ability to remember things 25 to 35 minutes after
learning; and working memory. 
– These two tests have been co-normed so that the
relationship between intellectual functioning and
memory can be examined.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information. This feature is found on page 358 of your textbook.
Continued on next slide.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. Marcus does not get the
same scores each time. 
2. The test score vary too
widely; they should be
stable over time. 
3. Each judge awards the
skater a different score. 
4. The result depends more
on the judge than on the
participant. 
5. Other possible reliability
problems are tests that
contain cultural bias, or
the questions are not
consistent throughout
the test.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. This type of problem would
utilize analytical
intelligence. 
2. When folding a piece of
paper into an interesting
shape you are utilizing
creative intelligence. 
3. It illustrates practical
intelligence. 
4. No, because existing tests
do not measure creative or
practical intelligence.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. The stack of books,
because achievement
measures what a person
knows. 
2. The image of the musician
playing without practice
represents aptitude
or ability. 
3. It measures a person’s
ability to learn a new skill. 
4. The image and question
involving the bicycle assess
a person’s interests. 
5. An interest test measures
interest, attitudes, and
preferences.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
Continued on next slide.
Answers:
1. It may seek to identify
habits, attitudes,
symptoms of
psychological
disorders, and traits. 
2. They are used to
assess personality
characteristics and
problems. 
3. Some would say the
objective personality
test would be best
because it will get
results that can be
compared to other
workers.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to
display the answers.
The EQ Factor
Introduction
Use the Reader’s Dictionary that appears
on the next slide to help explain unfamiliar
terms as you read the article on pages
372–373 of your textbook. Be prepared to
answer the questions that follow.
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Reader’s Dictionary
gratification: pleasure
emotional intelligence:
how the mind processes
feelings; the ability of a
person to understand his or
her feelings
buoyant: cheerful, having a
positive outlook
resilient: ability to adjust or
overcome trouble
quaint: old-fashioned or
unfamiliar
neuroscientists: scientists
who study the nerves and
nervous tissue and their
relation to behavior and
learning
evolutionists: those who
support the theory that species
of living things change over
long periods of time
neocortex: the back portion of
the cerebral cortex that is only
found in mammals
Continued on next slide.
This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Analyzing the Article
What is the purpose of the marshmallow
test? How does it demonstrate EQ?
It is designed to see if young children can
delay gratification. The ability to delay
gratification is a triumph of the reasoning
brain over the impulsive one. It is a sign
of emotional intelligence.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Analyzing the Article
CRITICAL THINKING Is EQ the same as
morality? How are they related? Do you
think you can teach EQ to children?
No, emotional skills are morally neutral. Emotional
intelligence can work with moral values to create
great good, but without moral values, it can be used
to do great harm. Like intelligence, some level of EQ
capacity is inborn, but the capacity can be nurtured
or ignored.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Discussion
What link does the author propose
between those who delayed gratification
on the marshmallow test and academic
achievement?
Those who were able to delay gratification as
young children scored much higher on the SATs
when they were teenagers.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Discussion
What parts of the brain work together to
allow for mature emotional responses?
Emotional life grows out of the amygdala in the
limbic system and the neocortex. The more
connections between the limbic system and the
neocortex, the more emotional responses
are possible.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
The EQ Factor
Discussion
Why does the author say that we need
emotional reflexes?
We need emotional reflexes to allow us to make
decisions by unconsciously eliminating many of
the choices.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on pages 372–373 of your textbook.
Honesty Test
From the Classroom of Doug Terry
Columbus High School, Columbus, NE
The test that your teacher will be handing out
is just for fun. You will grade the test yourself
and will not have to share the results.
Continued on next slide.
Honesty Test
From the Classroom of Doug Terry
Columbus High School, Columbus, NE
After taking the test use the scoring
method that your teacher will provide.
Consider the results and your ranking and
then discuss with your classmates the
fairness of objective testing.
Anne Anastasi was the third woman to be
elected president of the American
Psychological Association. One of her major
contributions to psychology is the validity
concepts of psychological testing. She
defined validity as “what the test measures
and how well it does so.” The basic
categories of validity that she identified are
content, predictive, concurrent, and construct.
Many of her concepts are still used today.
The Chinese used aptitude tests as civil service
exams more than 4,000 years ago. The first modern
tests were devised by European Sir Francis Galton.
His techniques, used at the World Fair in Chicago in
1883 and the International Health Exhibition in
London in 1884, do not resemble the tests used
today. His “test” included measuring muscle
strength, the size of people’s heads, reaction time,
various thresholds, and so on. From his tests, he
proposed that intelligence was completely inherited.
Multiple Choice Tests
A recent study conducted by American College
Testing (ACT), consisting of eight courses in five
schools, indicates that multiple choice format
tests are better predictors of how someone will
do in college English courses than essay tests.
Inter-scorer error on essay tests and the limited
number of items that can be assessed through
essay tests are cited as primary reasons for this
finding.
Cultural Literacy
• In his book, What Every American Needs to
Know, E.D. Hirsch argues that a key to
success is a good understanding of the
predominant culture. 
• He called such knowledge cultural literacy. 
• Cultural literacy includes common events and
language shared by members of the culture.
Continued on next slide.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
information.
Cultural Literacy
• The basic facts of science, politics, literature,
art, history, entertainment, sports, and
geography are all part of what Hirsch means
by cultural literacy. 
• Who determines what should be included in
tests of cultural literacy? 
• How do such tests exclude groups who do
not speak the “cultural language”?
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information.
Personality Testing at Work
• A headline in a Denver paper claimed that
industrial/organizational psychology, including
personality testing, could “take the guesswork
out of hiring.” 
• What dangers do you see in basing hiring
decisions on personality tests? 
• How good a predictor is a test like MeyersBriggs on the likelihood of finding the right
person for the job?
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information.
• Find three pictures of males and three
of females. 
• In each group of three, one person should look
frightened, stressed, or angry; one should look
happy or excited; and one should have a
pleasant, neutral look. 
• Find five friends to participate in this activity. 
• Show each of your friends the three pictures
that match his or her gender.
Continued on next slide.
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information.
• Ask your friend to put themselves in the place of
the person in the picture and describe what is
happening. 
• As your friend describes what is happening,
write down any words or phrases that express
emotion. 
• After you have collected the responses consider
the questions on the next slide.
Continued on next slide.
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information.
• How many of the participants used words or
phrases that expressed emotion when describing
what was happening in the picture? 
• What types of emotional words or phrases did
they use? 
• What conclusions can you draw about the
participant’s emotional intelligence? 
• Was this a valid test of emotional intelligence?
Why or why not?
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information.
• Read the Psychology and You feature on
page 355 of your textbook. 
• Discuss the following:
Is IQ a good predictor of success in
school? Why is this so?
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information.
Howard Gardner
1943–
Click the picture to listen to
a biography on Howard
Gardner. Be prepared to
answer questions that
appear on the next
two slides.
This feature is found on page 350 of your textbook.
Howard Gardner
1943–
What are the
criticisms of
Gardner’s theory?
Critics claim that his theory is
weak and that students should
not be used as guinea pigs to
test a weak theory. Verbal and
math skills are still required to
be successful in life.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 350 of your textbook.
Howard Gardner
1943–
How do teachers
implement Gardner’s
theory in the classroom?
They teach the same topic
using many different
approaches that allow
students to demonstrate their
strengths in learning through
one or more methods.
Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the
answer. This feature is found on page 350 of your textbook.
End of Custom Shows
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