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V. PROBLEMSOFTRANSLATION
CubanEnvironmentalParadigms:
ContemporaryAgricultureandColonialForestry
Dana Graef, PhD candidate
Introduction
:PUJL[OLLHYS`Z*\IHUHNYVLJVSVNPJHS
OPZ[VY`OHZILLUKVTPUH[LKI`[OLZ\NHY[YHKL"SHYNL
scale monoculture led to extensive deforestation
on the island and drove Cuban development and
PU[LYUH[PVUHSYLSH[PVUZ-\ULZ4VUaV[L:WHUPZO
colonial policy, American imperial interests, and
Soviet support of Cuba revolved around the extractive
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VM ZVJPHS HUK LJVSVNPJHS L_JOHUNL 0U[LYUH[PVUHS
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external demands for resources and local subsistence
imperatives. In this article, I draw from archival sources,
W\ISPZOLK YLZLHYJO HUK ÄLSK PU[LY]PL^Z [V JVUZPKLY
two moments of socio-environmental transition in
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ZHUK[OLZ\Z[HPUHISLHNYPJ\S[\YLTV]LTLU[[OH[
arose in the 1990s. [1] These periods represent the
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the Soviet Union. While forest conservation policies
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SVJHSSHUKV^ULYZ»HNLUJ`Z\Z[HPUHISLHNYPJ\S[\YL^HZ
WYVTV[LK I` [OL UH[PVUHS NV]LYUTLU[ LUJV\YHNPUN
residents to cultivate land for subsistence. These
cases illustrate distinct modes of interaction between
local subsistence needs and broader environmental
PUP[PH[P]LZ -VYLZ[ WYLZLY]H[PVU HUK Z\Z[HPUHISL
HNYPJ\S[\YLYLWYLZLU[[^VZ[YHPUZVMLU]PYVUTLU[HSPZT
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preservation in the tropics has been described as an
L_HTWSL VM NYLLU PTWLYPHSPZT .YV]L *\IHU
Dana Graef is a doctoral student in the combined
Anthropology and Forestry & Environmental Studies degree program. Her dissertation research examines environmentalism and agrarian change
in Cuba and Costa Rica. She was raised in Vermont
and received her undergraduate degree in Ecology
and Evolutionary Biology from Princeton University.
86 Volume 29, 2010
Z\Z[HPUHISLHNYPJ\S[\YLOHZILLUKLZJYPILKHZHMVYT
VMLJVSVNPJHSYLZPZ[HUJL[VNSVIHSJHWP[HSPZT-\ULZL[
al. 2002).
:\Z[HPUHISL(NYPJ\S[\YLPU*\IH
1990s – Present
The dissolution of the Soviet Bloc and
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of oil impeded the operation of farm machinery as
well as the transport of food from rural farms to urban
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in the countryside, as machines became inoperable.
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Cuban Environmental Paradigm
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a crucial shift in land policy that enabled the WVSPJPLZ VM MVYLZ[ JVUZLY]H[PVU -YVT [OL Z
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;OL VYNHUPJ HNYPJ\S[\YL TV]LTLU[ NHPULK V]LY [OL YPNO[ [V JSLHY SHUK -\ULZ 4VUaV[L PU[LYUH[PVUHS H[[LU[PVU MVY YLZVS]PUN [OL MHTPUL 1). While local landowners wished to convert their
`L[ MVVK ZV]LYLPNU[` YLTHPUZ H UH[PVUHS JVUJLYU MVYLZ[LK SHUK [V HNYPJ\S[\YL MVY Z\IZPZ[LUJL HUK
Recent hurricanes have decimated crops, and Cuba JVTTLYJPHS W\YWVZLZ JVSVUPHS NV]LYUTLU[ VMÄJPHSZ
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JOLTPJHS PUW\[Z VUL *\IHU UV[LK [OH[ ¸RUV^SLKNL
PZ [OL WYPTHY` PUW\[ MVY HNYPJ\S[\YL¹ PU *\IH [VKH` Eighteenth Century Colonial Forest
0U [OL Z\TTLY VM HUV[OLY THU X\LZ[PVULK Conservation [2]
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[OH[ K\L [V TH[LYPHS ZJHYJP[` ¸VYNHUPJ HNYPJ\S[\YL VM YLN\SH[PVUZ (U LKPJ[ PU UV[LK [OH[ P[ ^HZ
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even with a license, cedars could not be cut unless
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HUK ULJLZZP[` 1\SPH >YPNO[ YLJLU[S` HYN\LK prohibited. All households, no matter how small,
[OH[Z\Z[HPUHISLHNYPJ\S[\YLPU*\IHOHZILLUKYP]LU ^LYL VYKLYLK [V WSHU[ LPNO[ JLKHYZ [OH[ T\Z[ IL
primarily by the material lack of oil. While Cuban “cared for and always conserved for the service of
VYNHUPJHNYPJ\S[\YLYLZWVUKLK[VHJ\[LTH[LYPHSULLK [OL 2PUN HUK [OL W\ISPJ¹ *LKHY ^HZ WYVOPIP[LK MVY
V]LY[OLWHZ[[^LU[``LHYZHK`UHTPJHNYVLJVSVNPJHS \ZLPUI\PSKPUNZ^OLYLHUV[OLYZWLJPLZ^V\SKZ\MÄJL
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HUK 5.6 ^VYRLYZ OHZ LTLYNLK ;OL \UJLY[HPU[PLZ MVYLZ[ZMVY[OL\ZLVM[OLJVSVUPHSNV]LYUTLU[SVJHS
VMNSVIHS[YHKLOH]LKYP]LUHYLJVUJLW[\HSPaH[PVUVM YLZPKLU[ZKPKUV[OH]LLUV\NOZWHJLMVYHNYPJ\S[\YL
HNYPJ\S[\YLPU*\IH!P[OHZTV]LKMYVT[OLJV\U[Y`ZPKL HUK [OL` OHK KPMÄJ\S[` OHY]LZ[PUN [OL ^VVK [OH[
PU[V[OLJP[`MYVTSHYNLZJHSLTVUVJ\S[\YL[VZTHSS [OL` ULLKLK MVY [OLPY V^U SP]LSPOVVK HJ[P]P[PLZ -VY
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[V H MVJ\Z VU UH[PVUHS ZV]LYLPNU[` >OPSL WYL]PV\Z be “inconsiderately” cut down to obtain beeswax PKLHZ HUK WYHJ[PJLZ YLTHPU *\IHU \UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ H SVJHS Z\IZPZ[LUJL HJ[P]P[` BD;OL ZHTL KVJ\TLU[
VM HNYPJ\S[\YL OH]L ILLU JVTWSPJH[LK HUK PKLHZ VM VYKLYLK[OH[¸UVVULYLX\LZ[ZUVYZOV\SKWLYTPZZPVU
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WYHJ[PJLZ[OH[LTLYNLKMYVTULJLZZP[`0U VUL I\PSKPUNZ HUK THJOPULZ¯ILJH\ZL [V KV V[OLY^PZL
peri-urban farmer expressed the dominant view of would be to contribute to the destruction of the forests.”
HNYVLJVSVNPJHS Z\Z[HPUHIPSP[` PU *\IH! ¸[V JSVZL V\Y
J`JSL¹ VM YLZV\YJL \ZL MVJ\ZPUN PU^HYKZ (UV[OLY ;VWKV^ULMMVY[Z[VYLN\SH[LKLMVYLZ[H[PVUM\LSLK
Cuban expressed the view that socialism may not be SHUKV^ULYZ» MY\Z[YH[PVU HUK OHK SPTP[LK Z\JJLZZ 0U
innately environmental, but no version of socialism H SL[[LY ^YP[[LU PU H MHYTLY JVTWSHPULK [OH[
JHU Z[VW ILPUN LU]PYVUTLU[HSPZ[! ¸[OL JOHSSLUNL PZ “industrious cultivators” from Havana had their “arms
[V IYPUN [OL LU]PYVUTLU[HS J\S[\YL [V [OL THZZLZ¹ crossed,” unable to cultivate the fertile land due to
I\YLH\JYH[PJ MVYLZ[ WVSPJPLZ BD ;OL ZHTL MHYTLY
The initiation of the Special Period represented Z\NNLZ[LK[OH[YLN\SH[PVUZOHKKYP]LU\W[OLWYPJLVM
H ZPNUPÄJHU[ ZLWHYH[PVU UV[ VUS` MYVT *\IH»Z YLJLU[ ^VVK! ¸ZPUJL [OLYL OH]L ILLU YLN\SH[PVUZ VY ZPUJL
ties with the Soviet Union, but from centuries of close there has been a subinspector, the price of wood
L_JOHUNL^P[OJVSVUPHSHUKPTWLYPHSWV^LYZ>OPSL OHZ KV\ISLK¯BILJH\ZLD ^L KVU»[ OH]L HU`^OLYL
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SVJHS WYVK\J[PVU K\YPUN [OL SH[L LPNO[LLU[O JLU[\Y` of a bureaucratic reach, with the comment that
Tropical Resources Bulletin 87
Dana Graef
¸HSS VM [OL BMVYLZ[D N\HYKZ VM [OL ^VYSK HUK HSS VM L_PZ[Z MVY THU»Z MH]VY VU [OL Z\YMHJL VY ILULH[O
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who cut down trees and destroy what they wish.” links between the colony and the metropole, he
wrote that it was necessary to eliminate “all ideas of
:WHUPZOMVYLZ[Y`YLN\SH[PVUZPUSH[LLPNO[LLU[O distance, and to confound the differences between
century Cuba seem to support the historian Richard climates and products with reciprocal necessity.”
.YV]L»Z HZZLY[PVU [OH[ ¸[OL O`WV[OLZPZ VM H W\YLS` ;OPZ[PNO[LULKYLJPWYVJP[`^HZKLYP]LK[OYV\NO[YHKL
destructive environmental imperialism does not :WLJPÄJHSS` WYVK\J[Z IYV\NO[ MYVT :WHPU [V [OL
HWWLHY [V Z[HUK \W H[ HSS ^LSS¹ *VSVUPHS JVSVU` PUJS\KLK ¸NYHPUZ IYV[OZ MH[ ZHS[LK TLH[
policies of family-level afforestation and attempts to PYVUHUKTL[HS^VYRZHS[LKÄZOWV[H[VLZ]LNL[HISLZ
SPTP[SHUKJVU]LYZPVUMYVTMVYLZ[Z[VÄLSKZHYLHSPNULK YPJL JYHJRLYZ VUPVUZ HUK V[OLY ZTHSS [OPUNZ [OH[
with modern notions of environmental restoration :WHPUJV\SKHK]HU[HNLV\ZS`Z\WWS`¹0UYL[\YU*\IH
and biodiversity conservation. However, the Spanish could provide “coffee, tobacco, cacao, cotton, wax,
JYV^U»Z TV[P]H[PVU MVY MVYLZ[ JVUZLY]H[PVU HUK ^VVKZZ\NHYZHUKOVUL`Z¹0UKL)LYHaHZ»]PL^[OPZ
YLZ[VYH[PVU ^HZ L_WSPJP[S` \[PSP[HYPHU! JVUZLY]H[PVU L_JOHUNL ^V\SK SLHK [V YLSH[PVUZOPWZ ¸ZV PU[PTH[L
TLHU[ZLSLJ[P]L\ZLI`[OLWYP]PSLNLK\UKLYYLN\SH[LK between the Metropole and the Colony - by one
circumstances. Colonial policies of selective forest ULLKPUN [OL V[OLY [OH[ P[ ^V\SK IL KPMÄJ\S[ [V IL
\ZL HSZV SLK [V JSHZZPÄJH[VY` KP]PZPVUZ VM [OL *\IHU ZLWHYH[LKK\L[V[OL\UP[`VMOHIP[ZJ\Z[VTZYLSPNPVU
LU]PYVUTLU[ >OPSL ZVTL [YLLZ ^LYL KLZPNUH[LK SHUN\HNL SH^Z HUK NV]LYUTLU[ ^OPJO HYL [OL
for the crown, other species were acceptable for [PLZ[OH[IPUKO\THUZMYVT[OLJYHKSL[V[OLNYH]L¹
SVJHS \ZL ;OL ZWLJPLZ TVZ[ \ZLM\S MVY ZOPWI\PSKPUN
· LZWLJPHSS` JLKHY · ^LYL Z\IQLJ[ [V [OL TVZ[ >OPSL [OL ZVSPKPM`PUN \UP[` [OH[ KL )LYHaHZ
KL[HPSLKYLN\SH[PVUZ>OPSL:WHUPZOWVSPJPLZVMMVYLZ[ MVYLZH^ HZ H JVUZLX\LUJL VM YLJPWYVJHS ULJLZZP[`
conservation may not have been environmentally ultimately proved divisive, environmental and
destructive, they do represent a utilitarian, selective ZVJPHS JVUZLX\LUJLZ VM [OL JVSVUPHS YLSH[PVUZOPW
view of nature. Trees were not conserved for WLYZPZ[LK SVUN HM[LY :WHUPZO Y\SL ^HZ V]LY[OYV^U PU
[OLPY LJVSVNPJHS ]HS\L I\[ MVY M\[\YL O\THU \ZL )` KL]V[PUN SHUK [V Z\NHYJHUL TVUVJ\S[\YL
MVY PU[LYUH[PVUHS L_WVY[ *\IH UV SVUNLY WYVK\JLK
Z\MÄJPLU[ MVVK MVY P[Z WVW\SH[PVU +\YPUN [OL SH[L
;YHQLJ[VYPLZVM*\IHU.SVIHSPaH[PVU
:V]PL[ WLYPVK *\IH PTWVY[LK IL[^LLU ¶ In 1791, the Haitian revolution led to of caloric intake per person (Moskow 1999, 127).
[OL L_VK\Z VM WSHU[H[PVU THUHNLYZ MYVT /HP[P (ZHJVUZLX\LUJLVM[OL*\IHU¶:V]PL[YLSH[PVUZOPW
KLZ[HIPSPaPUN [OL ^VYSK»Z SHYNLZ[ Z\NHY WYVK\JLY H[ the dynamics of food security on the island were
[OL [PTL -\ULZ 4VUaV[L *VUZLX\LU[S` profoundly unbalanced. The crisis of the Special Period
*\IH Z\YNLK PU PTWVY[HUJL HZ H SVJ\Z VM Z\NHYJHUL YLZ\S[LK MYVT \UZ[HISL L_[LYUHS L_JOHUNL! *\IH»Z
WYVK\J[PVU0USHUKV^ULYZ^VU[OLÄNO[^P[O reliance on Soviet support was not reciprocated.
:WHPU MVY WLYTPZZPVU [V JSLHY [OLPY SHUK PUP[PH[PUN H
period of expansive deforestation across the island ;OL ZL]LYL JVUZLX\LUJLZ VM L_[LYUHS
-\ULZ 4VUaV[L :WHPU UV SVUNLY ]HS\LK YLSPHUJLOH]LSLK[VHOLPNO[LULKH^HYLULZZVMMVVK
Cuba for selective forest use, but for potential WYVK\J[PVU ^P[OPU UH[PVUHS IVYKLYZ -HYTLYZ KYH^
WSHU[H[PVUZ ;OYV\NOV\[ [OPZ [YHUZP[PVU :WHUPZO L]LUZTHSSLYIV\UKHYPLZVMZLSMZ\MÄJPLUJ`![OLNVHS
JVSVUPHS WV^LYZ JVU[PU\LK [V JVUJLW[\HSPaL *\IHU VM HNYVLJVSVN` VUL Z\NNLZ[LK PU PZ [V ¸M\SÄSS
natural resources for their productive and extractive the entire cycle on the farm.” In the current mode of
]HS\LHZWHY[VMHNSVIHSZ`Z[LTVMJVTTVKP[`ÅV^Z *\IHULU]PYVUTLU[HSPZTWLYJLW[PVUZVMHNYPJ\S[\YHS
Z\Z[HPUHIPSP[` KYH^ PUJYLHZPUNS` PU[LYUHS IV\UKHYPLZ
0U [OL :WHUPHYK (U[VUPV KL )LYHaHZ of production. Due to the Special Period, “it was a
SHPK V\[ OPZ YLJVTTLUKH[PVUZ MVY Z[YLUN[OLULK Z[YLUN[O[VSVVRPU^HYKZ¹VULTHUUV[LKPU @L[
Cuban–Iberian relations under the new framework [OPZUL^¸LU]PYVUTLU[HSJ\S[\YL¹KYH^ZMYVTNSVIHS
VM HNYHYPHU L_[YHJ[PVU BD /L ^PZOLK [V PTWLKL RUV^SLKNLVMHNYVLJVSVNPJHS[LJOUPX\LZ0U[LYUH[PVUHS
the relationship between Cuba and the Americas, HNLUJPLZ ZLLRPUN [V PTWYV]L MVVK ZLJ\YP[` PU *\IH
ZLLRPUN[VLT\SH[L[OLJSVZLULZZVM)YP[PZO¶1HTHPJHU OH]LJVU[YPI\[LKM\UKPUNHUKWYVQLJ[HZZPZ[HUJLMYVT
YLSH[PVUZ (U[VUPV KL )LYHaHZ ]PL^LK [OL UH[\YHS (\Z[YHSPH *HUHKH .LYTHU` [OL <UP[LK 2PUNKVT
^VYSKMYVTH\[PSP[HYPHUWLYZWLJ[P]LKLZJYPIPUNUH[\YL and the United States. In this way, the trajectories of
as subject to human desires. He noted that “nature environmentalism in Cuba have shifted from externally
88 Volume 29, 2010
Cuban Environmental Paradigm
imposed colonial policies for selective extraction
to national policies that incorporate international
LU]PYVUTLU[HS PKLHZ PU[V SVJHS HNYPJ\S[\YHS
practices. While some Cubans view the transition to
HNYVLJVSVNPJHSTL[OVKZHZH[LTWVYHY`ZVS\[PVUV[OLY
MHYTLYZ L_WYLZZ [OL ÄYT ILSPLM [OH[ HNYVLJVSVNPJHS
[LJOUPX\LZ OH]L LUHISLK NYLH[LY H\[VUVT` HUK
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Acknowledgments
Research for this article was carried out in Cuba
HUK :WHPU K\YPUN [OL Z\TTLY VM ^P[O M\UKPUN MYVT
[OL ;YVWPJHS 9LZV\YJLZ 0UZ[P[\[L [OL 7YVNYHT MVY (NYHYPHU :[\KPLZ HUK H ;PURLY -PLSK 9LZLHYJO .YHU[ MYVT [OL
Council for Latin American and Iberian Studies at Yale. I
^V\SK SPRL [V [OHUR 5 +LSHÄLSK HUK / 1\TW MVY WH[PLU[
and helpful editorial comments, and my advisors, M. Dove
and E. Mayer, for their advice. Any errors are my own.
Endnotes
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PU*\IHHYLUV[H[[YPI\[LK(SSX\V[LZHYLMYVTÄLSK^VYRPU
the summer of 2009. All archival research was conducted
H[[OL.LULYHS(YJOP]LVM[OL0UKPLZ(YJOP]V.LULYHSKL
0UKPHZOLYLHM[LY(.0PU:L]PSSL:WHPU0OH]L[YHUZSH[LK
X\V[LZMYVTPU[LY]PL^ZHUKHYJOP]LZMYVT:WHUPZOPU[V
,UNSPZO
BD-VSSV^PUNOPZ[VYPJHSJVU]LU[PVUZMVYHYJOP]HSTH[LYPHS
details are provided in footnotes.
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-VUZKL]PLSH`6UKLH4HYX\LZKLSH;VYYL-VYLZ[LKPJ[
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source.
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from the same source.
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*\IH!(U,U]PYVUTLU[HS/PZ[VY`:PUJL *OHWLS/PSS5VY[O*HYVSPUH!<UP]LYZP[`VM5VY[O
Carolina Press.
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University Press.
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Premat, A. 2009. State power, private plots and the
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*P[`HUK:VJPL[`!
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Archival sources
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.LULYHSKL0UKPHZ:L]PSSL:WHPU
<S[YHTHY5V3L[[LYMYVT(U[VUPVKL)LYHaH
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Seville, Spain.
Published Sources
*Y\a4*HUK9:mUJOLa(NYPJ\S[\YHS`*P\KHK!
Una Clave para la Sustentabilidad. La Habana,
*\IH!-\UKHJP}U(U[VUPV5\|La1PTtULaKLSH
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Tropical Resources Bulletin 89