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III.BALANCINGCONSERVATIONAND
DEVELOPMENT
RetellingtheSameStoryinaSWChineseVillage:
Theimplementationofenvironmentandpoverty
programswithacommonagriculturaldevelopmentplot
Christine Jane Trac, MESc 2010
“The climate here is very particular, it isn’t hospitable for growing rice or wheat. For as long as I’ve been around
we’ve all grown corn; even when my mother was a young girl, they grew corn.” - =PSSHNLY PU *HV_P\ *\U
Introduction
(JJVYKPUN [V L]LU [OL LSKLZ[ MHYTLYZ»
YLJVSSLJ[PVUZ [OL HNYPJ\S[\YHS ÄLSKZ [OH[ KLJVYH[L
the mountain slopes in Caoxiu Cun have always
NYV^UJVYU-VYNLULYH[PVUZMHYT^VYROHZYL]VS]LK
HYV\UK[OLWSHU[PUNVMJVYUPUZWYPUNHUKP[ZOHY]LZ[
PU H\[\TU" \U[PS YLJLU[S` [OPZ JYVW OHZ KPJ[H[LK [OL
WH[[LYU VM HNYHYPHU SHUK \ZL HYV\UK [OPZ YLNPVU VM
:V\[O^LZ[*OPUH0U*HV_P\*\UJ\U$]PSSHNL[OL
UL^S` HKVW[LK WYHJ[PJL VM WSHU[PUN THNUVSPH [YLLZ
HUK NVVZLILYY` ]PULZ [OH[ OHZ LTLYNLK PU [OL WHZ[
decade tells a tale of two recent state projects that are
ZLLTPUNS`UL^I\[HJ[\HSS`MHTPSPHYTVKLSZ
:[H[LWYVNYHTZPU[OLUHTLVMLU]PYVUTLU[HS
protection and poverty alleviation in the recent
KLJHKL OH]L LMMLJ[LK JOHUNL PU ]PSSHNLZ HJYVZZ [OL
nation. In Caoxiu Cun, the displacement of corn is
[LSSPUN VM [OLZL LMMVY[Z ;OL JOHUNLZ ]PZPISL VU [OL
NYV\UK KV TVYL [OHU Q\Z[ KLZJYPIL [OL OV\ZLOVSKZ
[OH[ HYL JOHUNPUN [OLPY WSHU[PUN JOVPJLZ [OL` HSZV
YLÅLJ[[OLWVSP[PJZVM[OLJLU[YHSNV]LYUTLU[PU[OLZL
social and environmental efforts.
^P[OHUHJJV\U[VM[^VWYVNYHTZLUJV\YHNPUNJOHUNL
PUHNYPJ\S[\YHSWYHJ[PJLZPU[OPZWHY[PJ\SHY]PSSHNL;OPZ
HJJV\U[I\PSKZMYVTKH[HJVSSLJ[LKPUHUL[OUVNYHWOPJ
Z[\K` JVUK\J[LK PU *HV_P\ *\U MYVT 1\UL [OYV\NO
December of 2009. With this information, I discuss the
YVSLVM[OLZLWYVNYHTZPUHS[LYPUN[OLOV\ZLOVSKHUK
Y\YHSHNYPJ\S[\YL0HYN\L[OH[WYVNYHTZ[HYNL[PUNY\YHS
MHYTSHUK HWWS` H JVTTVU Z[YH[LN` ¶ KL]VS\[PVU VM
responsibility onto households – to achieve improved
LMÄJPLUJ`HUK\S[PTH[LS`[VKPYLJ[[OL[YHUZMVYTH[PVU
VM Z\IZPZ[LUJL MHYTSHUK [V ÄLSKZ VM JHZO JYVWZ H
[YHQLJ[VY` [OH[ YLZVUH[LZ ^P[O TVKLYU HNYPJ\S[\YHS
development.
9LJLU[/PZ[VY`VM7LHZHU[
Agriculture in Caoxiu Cun
-YVT [OL YLKPZ[YPI\[PVU VM ML\KHS SHUK [V
WLHZHU[ OV\ZLOVSKZ HUK [OLU [V P[Z JVSSLJ[P]PaH[PVU
[OLSHUKYPNO[ZVM*OPULZLWLHZHU[ZZOPM[LKKYHTH[PJHSS`
under the formidable leadership of Chairman Mao
)\[ KLZWP[L [OL [\T\S[\V\Z JOHUNLZ
0U[OPZHY[PJSL0ÄYZ[WYLZLU[HYLJLU[OPZ[VY`VM the cultivation of farmland in Caoxiu Cun remained
WLHZHU[HNYPJ\S[\YLPU*HV_P\*\UHUK[OLU0MVSSV^ YLSH[P]LS` Z[HISL >OPSL ]PSSHNLZ HJYVZZ [OL JV\U[Y`
H]PKS` WSHU[LK NYHPUZ HUK Z[YV]L MVY WYLWVZ[LYV\ZS`
OPNO`PLSKZ[VTLL[UH[PVUHSKLTHUKZ:OHWPYV
the cultivation of corn in Caoxiu Cun endured.
Christine Jane Trac is from Olympia, Washington. She
graduated from the University of Washington with
a BS in Environmental and Conservation Biology
and from Yale F&ES with a Master of Environmental
Science degree. Her research interests are broadly
focused on the social implications of conservation
programs and policies.
Corn was the staple food crop for collective
JVUZ\TW[PVU PU [OPZ ]PSSHNL \U[PS +LUN ?PHVWPUN
VWLULK *OPUH \W [V LJVUVTPJ YLMVYT [OH[
JH[HS`aLK H JOHUNL YLHJOPUN V\[ [V L]LU [OL Y\YHS
landscapes of the nation. In local narratives told by
*HV_P\LSKLYZ+LUNPZYLZWVUZPISLMVY^OLUHUK^O`
SPMLPTWYV]LK(YV\UK[OLSH[L ZHUKLHYS` Z
Tropical Resources Bulletin 49
Christine Jane Trac
Figure 1. Planted
houpu.
land was reallocated to individual households,
MHYTLYZ ILNHU YHPZPUN WPNZ MHTPSPLZ JV\SK HMMVYK [V
eat rice, and a new variety of hybrid corn, suitable for
MLLKPUNSP]LZ[VJR^HZPU[YVK\JLK[V[OLÄLSKZ6]LY
the years, as households increased the number of
WPNZYHPZLKHJVUNY\V\ZPUJYLHZLPU[OLJ\S[P]H[PVUVM
hybrid corn continued until households seeded most
of their land with it. In the recent history of Caoxiu
*\U JVYU OHY]LZ[Z ZOPM[LK MYVT MLLKPUN WLHZHU[
TV\[OZ[VMLLKPUN[OLPYSP]LZ[VJR"^P[O[OPZ[YHUZP[PVU
WLVWSL NYHK\HSS` WOHZLK V\[ JVYU MYVT [OLPY KPL[Z
HUK NHPULK LUV\NO HJJLZZ [V JHZO [V THRL YPJL
purchased-at-market the staple food. Hybrid corn has
ILLUM\UKHTLU[HS[V[OLOV\ZLOVSKMVYZ\WWVY[PUNH
livestock sector that in turn has proved important to
the nutrition and economy of the household.
implementation in Caoxiu Cun.
Grain-for-Green (also known as the Sloping
Land Conversion Program)
.YHPUMVY.YLLU ^HZ JVUJLP]LK HM[LY
JH[HZ[YVWOPJÅVVKZOP[*OPUHPU[OLZ\TTLYVM *VUZPZ[LU[ ^P[O [OL ILSPLMZ [OH[ KLMVYLZ[H[PVU HSVUN
[OL \WWLY YLHJOLZ VM *OPUH»Z THQVY YP]LY Z`Z[LTZ PZ
[V ISHTL MVY [OL KV^UZ[YLHT KPZHZ[LYZ [OL WYVNYHT
MVJ\ZLZWYLKVTPUHU[S`VU[OLJVU]LYZPVUVMTHYNPUHS
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AO\ L[ HS 0U PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM [OL
.YHPUMVY.YLLU WYVNYHT YLHJOLK *HV_P\ *\U HUK
all households became immediate participants. To
LUJV\YHNLWHY[PJPWH[PVU[OLWYVNYHTZ\IZPaLZMHYTLYZ
:P[\H[PUN-VYLZ[Y`HUK7V]LY[`>P[OPU ^P[OJHZOZ\IZPKPLZ94)T\HWWYV_PTH[LS`
T\"T\$OLJ[HYLHUKMYLL[YLLZLLKSPUNZ;OL
the Farm
conditions of the subsidies, however, are dependent
;OPZ YLJLU[ OPZ[VY` VM HNYPJ\S[\YL YLJV\U[Z upon how the land is converted.
HULUK\YPUNZ[VY`VMJVYUJ\S[P]H[PVUM\UKHTLU[HS[V
>OLU .YHPUMVY.YLLU ^HZ ÄYZ[ PU[YVK\JLK
subsistence and market mechanisms of the households PU*HV_P\*\U0U[OLWHZ[[LU`LHYZ]PZPISLJOHUNLZ [V *HV_P\ ZLLKSPUNZ VM R\KPUNJOH Ilex latifolia), a
to cropland that correspond to a reduction in corn bitter tea tree, were distributed free to participants,
HUK PUJYLHZL PU WSHU[PUN VM [YLLZ HUK ]PULZ YLÅLJ[ OV^L]LYYLWVY[LKKPMÄJ\S[`^P[OZ\JJLZZM\SWSHU[PUN
[OL PUÅ\LU[PHS PTWYPU[ VM [^V PU[LYLZ[PUN LMMVY[Z PU VM [OL ZWLJPLZ YLZ\S[LK PU ]PSSHNL^PKL HNYLLTLU[ [V
[OPZ ]PSSHNL ;OL ÄYZ[ PZ H THZZP]L Z[H[LZWVUZVYLK instead independently purchase and plant houpu
JVUZLY]H[PVUZL[HZPKLWYVNYHT[VYL[\YUJYVWSHUK[V (4HNUPMVSPH VMÄJPUHSPZ /V\W\ PZ H THNUVSPH [YLL
MVYLZ[SHUK<JOPKHL[HS"[OLZLJVUKHWV]LY[` JVTTVUS` J\S[P]H[LK MVY P[Z TLKPJPUHS IHYR -PN\YL
HSSL]PH[PVU WYVNYHT KL]V[LK [V LZ[HISPZOPUN H YV\[L )`KLÄUP[PVUVM[OL:[H[L-VYLZ[Y`(KTPUPZ[YH[PVU
MVY JHZO NLULYH[PVU 0U [OL MVSSV^PUN WHYHNYHWOZ 0 OV\W\ Z[HUKZ X\HSPM` HZ ºLJVUVTPJ MVYLZ[» @L[
WYV]PKLTVYLKLZJYPW[PVUVM[OLZLWYVNYHTZHUK[OLPY [OLZL WSHU[PUNZ PU *HV_P\ ^LYL YLJVNUPaLK HZ
50 Volume 29, 2010
The Implementation of Environmental and Povery Programs in a SW Chinese Village
ºLJVSVNPJHSMVYLZ[»NYHU[PUNOV\ZLOVSKZHULPNO[`LHY ;OL JVYL JVTWVULU[ VM [OL WYVNYHT ¶ LZZLU[PHSS`
MVY LJVSVNPJHS YH[OLY [OHU Ä]L`LHY MVY LJVUVTPJ [OL WHY[ [OH[ PZ L_WLJ[LK [V IYPUN OV\ZLOVSKZ V\[
Z\IZPK`WLYPVKHZZ[PW\SH[LKI`[OLWYVNYHT
of poverty and to the fruition of wealth – invests
PU OV\ZLOVSK J\S[P]H[PVU VM H MY\P[PUN JHZO JYVW
(ZPKLMYVT[OL]HS\LNP]LUI`[OLNV]LYUTLU[ NVVZLILYY` Actinidia chinensis). Prior to the
Z\IZPK`OV\W\HSZVZLSSZ^LSSH[THYRL[[OV\NO[OL PU[YVK\J[PVU VM [OPZ WYVNYHT ZVTL OV\ZLOVSKZ OHK
IHYR PZ OHY]LZ[LK VUS` HM[LY `LHYZ VM NYV^[O 0U HSYLHK` WSHU[LK NVVZLILYY` ]PULZ HM[LY ZLLPUN [OL
P[ ^HZ W\YJOHZLK I` TPKKSLTLU MVY 94) Z\JJLZZVMHULPNOIVYPUN]PSSHNL[OH[WSHU[LK[OLZHTL
QPU SI HUK MYVT L_WLYPLUJL [OL ]PSSHNLYZ OH]L ]HYPL[`VMNVVZLILYY`-PN\YL5VULOV^L]LYOHK
found the rate has stayed fairly stable, unlike that YPZRLK Z\WWSHU[PUN HSS VM [OLPY JVYU HUK J\S[P]H[PUN
VM[OLR\KPUNJOH[LHSLH]LZ0[PZMVY[OPZYLHZVU[OH[ [OH[ JYVWSHUK ^P[O H UL^ MY\P[ JVTTVKP[`" H[ SLHZ[
ILMVYL .YHPUMVY.YLLU ILNHU PU *HV_P\ H OHUKM\S UV[ \U[PS [OL WV]LY[` HSSL]PH[PVU WYVNYHT Z\WWVY[LK
of households already cultivated houpu. They used to [OPZ OV\ZLOVSK KLJPZPVU )` 6J[VILY L]LY`
plant houpu mainly on peripheral areas just outside OV\ZLOVSK^HZLUNHNLKPU[OLWSHU[PUNVMNVVZLILYY`
[OLPYJYVWSHUK"I\[UV^YV^ZHUKYV^ZVM[OPZUH[P]L ZLLKSPUNZVU[OLPYYLJLU[S`OHY]LZ[LKJVYUÄLSKZ;OL
species take up considerable tracts of cropland once WHY[PJPWH[PVU^HZPTTLKPH[L)V_LZVMSPX\PKMLY[PSPaLY
YLZLY]LK MVY JVYU -PN\YL ;OL PTTLKPH[L LMMLJ[Z ^LYL KPZ[YPI\[LK H[ ÄYZ[ [OLU ZLLKSPUNZ H JV\WSL VM
VM[OPZSHUKJVU]LYZPVUWYVNYHT^LYLVI]PV\Z¶SLZZ days later, and by the end of the week, the farmers
corn, more trees. Every household participated in the OHKWSHU[LKHSS[OLZLLKSPUNZ[OL`OHKILLUHSSVJH[LK
SHUK JVU]LYZPVU [OH[ ^V\SK \S[PTH[LS` NYHU[ [OLT H +\YPUN [OL ÄYZ[ [OYLL `LHYZ [OL NVVZLILYY` ]PULZ
ZL]LU[`Ä]L `LHY SLHZL [V [OPZ UL^S` MVYLZ[LK SHUK JHU IL PU[LYJYVWWLK HTVUN JVYU I\[ [OL WYVNYHT
Households converted substantial fractions of their stipulates that after three years the land must be fully
JYVWSHUK^OPJOOHZNYHU[LK[OLTTVYLZLJ\YL[LU\YL KLKPJH[LK [V WSHU[PUN VUS` NVVZLILYY` ]PULZ *VYU
over it.
must be abandoned, and livestock will have to (1)
be raised from corn product purchased in town, and/
or (2) decrease in number. Even the households of
Poverty Alleviation
=PSSHNL.YV\W[OH[WYL]PV\ZS`JSHPTLK[OLLSL]H[PVU
0U SH[L Z\TTLY ?PJHV ^HZ THYRLK and conditions of their cropland would not support
as a model site for poverty alleviation by the local [OL ZLSLJ[LK ZWLJPLZ VM NVVZLILYY` WHY[VVR PU [OL
NV]LYUTLU[ HUK JV\U[`SL]LS )\YLH\ VM -PUHUJL WSHU[PUN;OPZ ^PKLZWYLHK PU]VS]LTLU[ L]LU HTPKZ[
Figure 2. Household
farmland in June.
Alternating rows of
corn and potato (left)
and rapeseed (right).
Houpu occupies the
peripheral farmland
in the back near the
edge of the private
household forest.
Tropical Resources Bulletin 51
Christine Jane Trac
ZRLW[PJPZT TPNO[ IL L_WSHPULK I` VUL ]PSSHNLY;OPZ
]PSSHNLYL_WSHPUZ[OH[WSHU[PUNNVVZLILYYPLZPZPUMHJ[
PSSVNPJHS[OH[P[PZVUS`HNVVKJYVWPM[OL`HYLHISL[V
ZLSSHSSVMP[:PUJLP[PZU»[ZVTL[OPUN[OH[JHUILZ[VYLK
MVYSVUNWLYPVKZVM[PTLP[PZU»[WHY[PJ\SHYS`\ZLM\SMVY
[OL OV\ZLOVSK )\[ ZPUJL [OL` T\Z[ WSHU[ [V NL[ [OL
WYVNYHTZ\IZPK`[OL`HSSWSHU[
9L[LSSPUN[OL:HTL:[VY`VM
Agricultural Development
Employing a common strategy
;V H SHYNL L_[LU[ [OL PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM
.YHPUMVY.YLLU HUK WV]LY[` HSSL]PH[PVU PU *HV_P\
Cun has worked to shape households in a fashion
ZPTPSHY[V[OLHNYPJ\S[\YHSHUKSHUKYLMVYTZILNPUUPUN
PU ;V PUJYLHZL WYVK\J[P]P[` HUK LMÄJPLUJ`
VM [OL OV\ZLOVSK [OL YLMVYTZ MVJ\ZLK NYLH[S` VU
KLJLU[YHSPaH[PVU VM WYVWLY[` YPNO[Z HUK N\HYHU[LLPUN
land tenure.
)` KL]VS]PUN YLZWVUZPIPSP[` MVY YLMVYLZ[H[PVU
VU[VOV\ZLOVSKZ.YHPUMVY.YLLUKPZ[PUJ[S`KP]LYNLZ
MYVT JVU]LU[PVUHS LMMVY[Z [OH[ [LUK [V LUNHNL PU
community-level interactions for shared environmental
Z[L^HYKZOPW;OLZOPM[PUNVMºMVYLZ[SHUK»VU[VMHYTSHUK
has made individual households accountable for the
V\[JVTLZ"M\Y[OLY[OLPKLHVMHULJVUVTPJMVYLZ[OHZ
THKL P[ HK]HU[HNLV\Z [V [OPUR VM JYVWSHUK[\YULK
MVYLZ[PULJVUVTPJHSS`LMÄJPLU[[LYTZ>OH[PZTVYL
MVYLZ[PUN[OLSHUKL_[LUKZMVYLZ[SLHZLZ[VHNYPJ\S[\YHS
SHUK NP]PUN OV\ZLOVSKZ TVYL ZLJ\YL [LU\YL VU
[OLPY MHYTSHUK;OL WV]LY[` HSSL]PH[PVU WYVNYHT OHZ
M\Y[OLYLK LJVUVTPJ [YLH[TLU[ VM [OL HNYPJ\S[\YHS
ZLJ[VYI`WYVTV[PUNM\SSJVTTVKP[`WYVK\J[PVUV]LY
OV\ZLOVSKZ\IZPZ[LUJLKLTHUKZ)V[OWYVNYHTZOH]L
made cropland into a space that is economically
WYVK\J[P]L ¶ Z\WWVY[PUN TVUL[HY` ]HS\H[PVU VM SHUK
WYVK\J[P]P[` YH[OLY [OHU [OL PU[LUKLK LJVSVNPJHS
health of the land or the security of the household. The
THNUVSPH[YLLZHUKNVVZLILYY`]PULZVMIV[OWYVNYHTZ
HYL MV\UK LUJYVHJOPUN [OL OV\ZLOVSK HNYPJ\S[\YHS
ZLJ[VY H ZLJ[VY [OH[ OHZ ILLU [YLH[LK HZ ZVTL[OPUN
[OH[JHUILTHKLWYVK\J[P]LHUKLMÄJPLU[)`THRPUN
the household dependent on the cultivation of houpu
HUKNVVZLILYYPLZ[OLZL[^VWYVNYHTZOH]LLMMLJ[P]LS`
devolved responsibility onto the household. With that,
the successful cultivation of these cash crops appears
TVYL TLHUPUNM\S MVY HNYPJ\S[\YHS KL]LSVWTLU[ [OHU
for forest conservation or poverty alleviation.
*VTTVU ^P[O HNYPJ\S[\YHS YLMVYT [OL
[^V WYVNYHTZ OH]L HSS VM [OL JOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ VM H
NV]LYUTLU[ ZJOLTL [OH[ JYLH[LZ [OL TVKLYU ZLSM
YLSPHU[ PUKP]PK\HS ;YPHU[PHÄSSV\ HUK 5PLSZLU Moreover, it simultaneously drives peasants to selfTHUHNL *OPUH»Z MVYLZ[Z HUK WV]LY[` :\IZPKPLZ PU
HNYPJ\S[\YHS KL]LSVWTLU[ PU [OL WHZ[ KLJHKL OH]L
JVTL [V YLWSHJL H SVUNOLSK HNYPJ\S[\YHS [H_ Z`Z[LT
to relieve the stress on household economy, and as
Figure 3. Gooseberry
harvest in the neighboring village. Successful
cultivation of gooseberries in this village
pushed the efforts to introduce gooseberry vine
plantations to Caoxiu
Village.
52 Volume 29, 2010
The Implementation of Environmental and Poverty Programs in a SW Chinese Village
ZLLU ^P[O .YHPUMVY.YLLU HUK WV]LY[` HSSL]PH[PVU
WYVNYHTZ Z\IZPKPLZ HYL N\PKPUN H WHY[PJ\SHY ZVY[ VM
SHUK \ZL 4HRPUN JSLHYS` LJVUVTPJ JVU[YPI\[PVUZ
[V KPYLJ[ [OL HNYPJ\S[\YHS ZLJ[VY VM OV\ZLOVSKZ
[OL NV]LYUTLU[ KLTVUZ[YH[LZ P[Z JVU]PJ[PVU [OH[
HNYPJ\S[\YHS KL]LSVWTLU[ PZ JVYL [V ZVJPHS HUK
LJVUVTPJ KL]LSVWTLU[ ?\ L[ HS /V^L]LY
[OPZ ZHTL HWWSPJH[PVU VM HNYPJ\S[\YHS KL]LSVWTLU[
PU .YHPUMVY.YLLU YLWYLZLU[Z JHZO JYVW J\S[P]H[PVU
rather than reforestation, and thus this environmental
LMMVY[ HWWLHYZ VUS` [V IL H JVU]LUPLU[ KPZN\PZL MVY
KL]LSVWTLU[,ZJVIHY Supporting the Subsistence base
(S[OV\NO [OL ZOPM[ [V O`IYPK JVYU PU *HV_P\
*\UTHYRZHNYPJ\S[\YHSYLMVYTHUKYLÅLJ[ZHJOHUNL
PU*OPUH»ZWVSP[PJHSJSPTH[L[OLJ\S[P]H[PVUVMJVYUYLNHYKSLZZVM[OL]HYPL[`PZYLWYLZLU[H[P]LVMJVUZPZ[LU[
Z\IZPZ[LUJL WYHJ[PJLZ;OV\NO O`IYPK JVYU YLWSHJLK
[OL M\UKHTLU[HS MVVK WYVK\J[ NYV^U MVY OV\ZLOVSK
JVUZ\TW[PVUPU[OLZP[MVZ[LYLKHUV[OLYMVVKWYVKuct now central to these peasant households – pork.
Pork is valuable because it not only offers a source
of protein but, additionally, a source of cash cultiva[PVU VM O`IYPK JVYU MVY YHPZPUN SP]LZ[VJR OHZ JVU[YPI\[LKNYLH[S`[V[OLTP_LKZ\IZPZ[LUJLJOHYHJ[LYVM[OL
OV\ZLOVSK0[OHZKVULZVI`ZPT\S[HULV\ZS`LUNHNPUN[OLOV\ZLOVSKPU[OLTHYRL[ZLJ[VYHUKZ\WWVY[PUN
a subsistence sector. With corn the household never
renders itself completely vulnerable to risk. With the
PU[YVK\J[PVUVMOV\W\[OYV\NO.YHPUMVY.YLLUHUK
NVVZLILYY`[OYV\NOWV]LY[`HSSL]PH[PVU[OLKPZWSHJLTLU[ VM JVYU OHZ YLÅLJ[LK H JSLHY TV]LTLU[ MYVT
Z\IZPZ[LUJL WYHJ[PJLZ [V^HYKZ THYRL[ LUNHNLTLU[
The role of subsidies has been to displace any perJLP]LKYPZRPUZ\WWSHU[PUNJVYU^P[OMVYLZ[SHUKVYMY\P[
WYVK\J[PVUPUVYKLY[VN\PKL[OLOV\ZLOVSKMHYT[V
TVYLLJVUVTPJHSWYHJ[PJLZ)\[HJJVYKPUN[V5L[[PUN
[OLOV\ZLOVSKTH`IL[OLTVZ[LU]PYVUTLU[HSS`LMÄJPLU[HUKJVUZPKLYH[L\UP[;OLYLMVYLPU[OL
interest of environmental conservation we should,
perhaps, support the subsistence sector and not allow
the capitalist scheme to extend to all ends. This chalSLUNLZ ^OL[OLY HNYPJ\S[\YHS KL]LSVWTLU[ TL[OVKZ
can effectively direct environmental or social efforts
PU[OLTVZ[ILULÄJPHSKPYLJ[PVU4H`IL^LZOV\SKIL
SVVRPUN[V[OLZ\IZPZ[LUJLZLJ[VYYH[OLY[OHU[OLTHYket, to address social concerns such as poverty and
environmental concerns such of forest restoration.
Conclusion
In this paper, I have attempted to reveal how
*OPUH»ZTVKLYUHWWYVHJO[VLU]PYVUTLU[HSHUKWV]LY[`WYVNYHTZYLZVUH[L^P[OZPTWSLHNYPJ\S[\YHSKL]LSVWTLU[HUKOV^[OPZZ[YH[LN`OHZPTWSPJH[PVUZMVY[OL
OV\ZLOVSK HUK [OL LU]PYVUTLU[;OV\NO [OPZ WHWLY
introduces more issues than can be expounded on in
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Acknowledgements
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opportunity to conduct this project was made possible by
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my advisors, Carol Carpenter and William Burch, for their
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Princeton University Press.
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mestic Mode of Production, edited by R. R. Wilk.
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the Environment in Revolutionary China. CamIYPKNL!*HTIYPKNL<UP]LYZP[`7YLZZ
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Science Press, USA.
Tropical Resources Bulletin 53