On the Articulation and the Synthesis
of Space in
Architectural and Urban Design
by
Takashi Arioka
B. Arch, University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan, March, 1979
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT OF THE DEGREE
MASTER OF SCIENCE
IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES AT THE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
JUNE 1986
c
Takashi Arioka
1986
The Author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce
and to distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in
whole or in part.
Signature of
Author
,
A
Takashi/Arioka
Environmental Design, May 9, 1986
Department of Architecture
Certified
by
JuV Aw
Beinart
Thesis Supervisor
Professor of Architecture
Accepted
Ju idq Veinart
D t u airman
Departmental Committee for Graduate Students
Rotch
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECNOLOGY
JUN. 04 1986
LIBRARIES
Page 2
On the Articulation and the Synthesis of Space
in Architectural and Urban Design
by
Takashi Arioka
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 9, 1986
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of
Master of Science in Architecture Studies.
Abstract
The problem of obeserver in contemporary physics,
or
Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty and Einstein's theory
of relativity had considerablly strong impact on our notion
of time and space. We are in the irreversible arrow of time
and space contnuum ( lived space and lived time ), which are
completely different from abstract time and space
in
mathematics and physics. At the same time we came to know
that we can only understand the world within the limit of
our cognitive process, in which acquisition of language is
essential to our having the capacity to convert sensory
information into digital form. So our knowledge and belief
are selective and exclusive.
Epi-genetic process in biology and linguistics placed an
impact on the understanding of the repetitive productions of
architectural spaces in the city. The architectural and
urban design, or typology, is regarded as an epi-genetic
linguistic process. To succeed to the precedents, not only
in the infrastructure but also in the ultrastructure means
one of the evolutional processes of the urban space from the
genetic point of view, and Contextualism is regarded as one
form of symbiosis from the ecological point of view.
Design of architectural and urban space is a decision making
process, which cannot do away with models. Typological
study for selecting the most favorable ideas within the
various alternatives is regarded as a simulation process in
our model of thought, which is ultimately dependent on the
characteristics of our cognitive process. Every selection is
done through the mesh of our experiences and knowledge.
This cognitive process transforms patterns of our sensation
from
the highly informationized urban space
into
a
linguistic process ( text ).
Various media have gradually
influenced our visual experiences in the city and this text.
Thesis Supervisor: Julian Beinart
Title:
Professor of Architecture
page 3
Table of Contents
Abstract
Table of Contents
Prologue
Chapter One
Visual Comunication
1.
1) Visual Information Process
27
2) Sense of Vision
33
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Sensation
Characteristics of Vision
Perception and Attention
Figure and Ground
Gestalt Principle of
Organization
3) Organization of Information
2.
Chapter Two
27
Analogue and Digital
33
33
34
35
38
39
43
1) System of Thought
43
2) Categorization
48
3) Visualization of Concepts
52
4) Diagram and Model
53
Theory of Place
Street as Urban Space
Pattern Language
Page 4
Chaprter Three
Chapter Four
Hermeneutics of Urban Space
86
Growth and Change
99
Megastructure
103
Analogy of Organism
106
Superstudio
122
Contextualism
126
Collage City
129
Typology or Collective Memory
130
Here and There and Everywhere
149
Topographical and Topological
163
Transformation by Media
171
Epilogue
179
Bibliography
182
Page 5
Prologue
/
Human Condition
4
I
R. Magritte
Page 6
Many
philosophers
in the ancient in the east and the
west
said "Life is eternally changing."
When I think of this notion or this "fact", I get interested
in
the
process of this evolution,
interested
at the same time I
in the genetic design process
of
get
architectural
and urban space in which we enjoy our life.
As
J.H.
Habraken,
C.
Alexander and some other architects
said, "There seems to be a natural and standard relationship
1,
between our action and space.
However,
one of the most interesting issues is that even if
we think we have a natural relationship of space, our notion
of
the
space
in
architectural
and
urban
design
have
drastically changed for this only one hundred years.
My
question is that
,
during this evolving
kind
of
what
kind of them have been transformed,
process,
characteristics of space have been maintained
and in
what
what
and
way
these transformation have been reflected in the organization
x
of space, in other words, the articulation and the systhesis
of space in artchitectural and urban design.
We are probably not wrong in saying that the genetic process
in
designing
architectural and urban space is similar
to
that of the linguistic structure, and the genetic process of
language is considerably similar to that of an organism.
Page 7
I think that it is based on the way how to look at the outer
world in the present circumstances,
is
our "episteme".
based on
if that is true,
Even
it
in other words,
however,
what is there
behind this
genetic process ?
more
does constitute this kind of genetic,
What
precisely
speaking epi-genetic process ?
It
is said that at least in the Renaissance period the
of
recognition was based on "analogies".
E.
According to
the space of perspective painting,
"Urban space,
Panofsky,
way
and the space of theater are understood as analogous to each
other."
As
a result,
many idealistic
and
city
diagonal
plannings were proposed.
In
as van de Ven says,
the eighteenth century,
physics
Huygens,
had
and Leibniz
of
a
influence on the design theory of Boullee and Ledoux,
great
and
developed by Newton,
theory
these
two architects visualized their outlook
of
the
world in the drawings.
In the twentieth century,
their
theories
which
many designers tried to construct
could
"support"
their
works
in
painting, sculpture, motion picture, and architecture.
Design
theory of architectural and urban space is
less influenced by these trends at that time.
more
or
Page 8
Since
Cerda,
many
been proposed,
city
have
urban design theories and models
for example,
for 300 million,
linear city,
satellite
city,
walking
city,
Tokyo Bay plan 1960,
( see chapter three )
twelve ideal cities, and so on.
Some of them are interpretations of the classical urban form
in
regularized way,
a
megalomaniac
emphasis
or
aesthetics,
representation
or
some
of
theories
architects'
which
on the "process" in accordance to the
placed
epi-genetic
process, or growth and change.
Since
the
1950's,
environmet,
we had had various problems of pollution
in
whose causes are mainly our activities
in
manifacturing industry and our daily lives.
We had been in
the unbalanced energy consumption.
This
was the great moment for us to regard ourselves
as
a
one of the species in the ecological system, in other words,
as Bollnow said,
we could get closed to the "sure foothold"
of existence on the earth.
At that time,
design
total
I was very much interested in the way how to
manmade environment based on the
geophysics,
ecology, sociology, unrban design, architectural design, and
some
research on space ship projects by using computer
simulation of future projection.
for
Page 9
"VITA"
Cinque Storie del Superstudio
Page 10
I
bagan
system,
to
with
and
resolve
regarding
society or human
activity
as
a
I studied various subjects to find the way how
this fliction between our
activities
and
the
environment.
We were and still are in danger of shortage of energy, food,
and clean air,
population
water and food. These resulted from at first
growth,
and
unplanned exploitation of
natural
resorces. So the solutions of these problems is dependent on
our future attitude to every thing; the way how to use focil
energy,
how
to get another energy resource in
replace
of
oil, how to produce vegetables, how to produce manufacturing
goods
without polluting the air and water,
population
on
the earth,
and so on.
how to
This is
control
ultimately
dependent on the education of following generation. The most
important
thing is how we can get an appropriate choice
of
the alternatives in front of the vital situation.
In
the course of time,
I have got interested in the
urban
design from the point of view of environmental assesement.
I entered School of Mathematics,
Waseda University, where I
wanted to study computor simulation.
However,
I got
much
interested in the designing of architectural and urban space
by
means
studied
1974
to
of materials rather than "system design",
architectural
1979.
During
design at University of
these
years
my
study
and
I
Tokyo
from
have
been
Page 11
emphasized on the relationship of our action,
the
environment,
from
the
point
of
sensation and
view
of
Gestalt
psychology rather than systems approach.
And
now,
having
been working for an architectural
firm for five years,
I
and studying at M.I.T.
design
for two years,
came to think that architectural and urban design
theory
and the notion of space are considerably interweavened
with
"episteme" or the structure of our knowledge. If the city is
the place of "collective memory" or the city is accumulation
of
memories,
I
may
safely
say that
city
is
also
an
Therefore my study on the articulation and the synthesis
of
accumulation of our knowledge.
space in
architectural and urban design is the study of the
process of the way how we understand architectural and urban
space,
or
the
transformation
of
hermeneutrics
of
architectural and urban space.
I
would
like
to
bring
to
this
study
at
M.I.T.
graduation thesis connection to my previous studies which
have
done at the University of Tokyo in 1978-79,
for
I
and at my
firm, Kume Arschitects-Engineers in 1979-83.
One
of these studies is my graduation thesis
Nightscape.
through
Clock
An
Visual
like
entitled
"On
Observation of the Exterior Design at Night
communication Theory
Night Galaxy Train."
or
( 1979 )
Melting
Cheese
This study
was
Page 12
the
at
under the guidance of Professor Yoshinobu Ashihara
done
University
of Tokyo.
In this study,
I
the
analysed
of
transformation of a townscape from day to night in terms
the
I
"figure-ground"
relationship in the environment.
as
regarded anything in the environment at day and night
visual information,
paid
attention
of
to the brightness and darkness
these are very much related to the
because
of
in other words, signs, and I especially
the "figure-ground" structure.
between "figure' and "ground"
,
objects
characteristics
There is a profile
line
and "figure" is descrived by
this profile line.
I translated the pictures of the townscapes
Accordingly
night into those of meshed brightness.
This operation is
way of "digitalization" of something "analogous".
at
a
From this
process sign as visual stimuli was received.
I
extended the concept of "figure-ground" relationship into
the
three
space
)
and
dimensional space at night,
and I
defined
the
illuminated by the light as a positive space ( figure
the rest of this kind of space as a
negative
space
(ground).
Through this,
which
only
I concluded that there is some possibility in
we can have multi-layered space that is organised
the light at night,
which is
considerably
from the three dimensional space at day.
by
different
h-.
I
(D
0ii
t-1
(D
(D
rt
0
D
e
~
.
*W-
..
..
-- . .
.-.-.
.
- -
....
-...
. . . . . . .
*
z
.. .
.
.
- .:
.
,
.'x
% .....
S..x.
. . . ...
- --
.....-......
. .
.
. ..
.
.
88
.
-
--.-..
....
C-'.
0
3
3 0
CD a
(b (n
0 w
4-
-z
0
DD
(n
0
D
3
zC.0
3
O
v
oDm
.....
. .
z
(D
(n
c
D
,...-.
?
n
(n
.
..
.
-.
Page 14
the color and texture of the surface
Specifically speaking,
of
the buildings are meaningful for us at day,
however
at
night whether an object is meaningful or not is dependent on
the
existence of the light.
The relationship
between
the
objects and ourselves at day transforms into another type of
relationship at night.
Objects
which
are illuminated by the light
meaningful to look at ,
are
something
and objects which dissolve into the
darkness have nothing to do with us.
Looking at the three dimensional environment
through visual
information,
that is, brightness as a stimulous quantity, I
figured
that urban space at night is composed
out
combination
of
the signs which is differnt from
of
the
that
at
there
are
day.
Compared
with
tremendously
relationship,
the urban space at day in
complicated
there
combinations
which
of
"figure-ground"
are far fewer combinations of "figure-
ground" relationship at night.
Therefore the surface of the
urban space transforms from day to night.
In this study, I have an opportunity to think of the meaning
of
the
constancy
night scape.
which is one of the
characteristics
of
Page 15
- - -
- -
C
p.
- ~'-
~
-
~:f~-
-
~
The Persistence of Memory.
-
Salvador Dali
Page 16
At day,
as the sun continuously changes its position in the
sky
relative
in
shadow
of
changes.
However,
and
at
even if stars light in the sky, we are in the silent
as if time had stopped or melted,
environment
think
of
imagination
dream turned
and the real turned into dream,
into the real,
to
the relationship
parts in the townscape also
lighted
night,
sense,
something
or
endless,
and we come
eternal,
and
opens the door to the world of mythology,
our
past
and future.
Although
this
cognitive
graduate
visual
science,
phenomenology,
thesis
this
was
elementary
communication
study
theory,
of
and
was good introduction to semiology and
semantics in the urban space for my subsequent study.
This concept of the space at night was got into shape in
graduation
designing of architecture,
Archaeology"
(
1979
)
under the
"Space of
guidance
of
my
Spiritual
Professor
Yoshinobu Ashihara at the University of Tokyo.
In
this
project,
I
designed a park
for
meditation
and
solitude, where we would be able to make our memories of the
past alive, and forsee the future in the eternal passage
of
time.
This park was designed after the ancient sacread spaces, and
was
intended
to
imply the cosmographical
ground in terms of its elements,
figure
on
the
like sundial gateway, four
J!(
44
V,~
4-4
e4
Page 18
-I
21
7
r'L
r
-~
-'
Page 19
rivers
from
the
fountain
as the
center
of
the
world,
underground grotta, and planetarium in the large round pond,
which
some of archetypes of sacred
are
could communicate the past,
spaces,
where
we
the future, and the eternity of
the time and space, or the cosmology.
From
1979
editorial
to 1983,
I have been one of the members of
the
committee to Japan Institute of Architecture
for
"Kenchiku Sekkei Shiryo Shusei vol.10" published by Maruzen,
Tokyo in 1983.
have
a
through
This was a fascinating opportunity for me to
look over a number of plans
all
ages
and countries.
of
various
Under
the
buildings
guidance
Professor Yoshichika Uchida at the University of Tokyo,
is the chief editor of this book,
I and Mr.
the senior architects of our firm,
the
some
of
who
Fukuda, one of
turned our attentions to
spatial organization of buildings which are composed of
unit
spaces,
for
example,
Housing,
Dormitory,
University, Hospital, and Pavillion.
We
four
selected
fifteen precedents,
categories
in
terms
and we grouped them
of
characteristics as follows,
1) collective form on the grid plan
2) collective form of clusters of units
3) combinatiob of collective forms
4) three dimensional collective form
their
into
geometrical
Page 20
I
think that these studies were very helpful for me to open
my
eyes to the study of the structure of architectural
and
urban space, and the relationship of type and typology.
In
into
plans
course of my study of grouping various
the
several types of spatial configuration, I came to think that
are
there
architectural
is
Building
the
of
and
urban space.
staircase,..)
shape
is
of
and
the
formal
in
composed of rooms and
circle
categories;
buildings
persistence
hall,
( corridor,
Type
some
patterns
spaces.
into
two
The way how to shape
the
that
is,
rooms
square.
spaces
communicational
including service
in
also grouped into two
is
divided
categories,
articulating approach and synthetic approach.
( see chapter
one )
As
Aldo Rossi say,
antiquity
up
to
Building types have not
today,
but this is not to say
actual way of living has not changed,
living
changed
are not always possible.
nor that n'ew ways
( see next
from "Precedents of Architecture" )
that
page.
from
the
of
figures
page 21
V..-
-
iiii:
2..
ILIr2
x 5.
H
22 222,11222 2
ItI
7
urr:
-~:2 2
CG2;:.:X2CL__;C2..X
2
Cal IE
UT it]
UtGt
Li.
hi
1
7
7
j
voc
1.
Li
I
H
~00
z~Ll
cxcroo
om3
Page 22
Based
on
these
conception
I
would
like
to
extend
the-
of figure-ground relationship into the field
semantics
to
studies,
and semiology so that I will be able to
the way how to take a look at an
of
approach
informationized
urban
space.
As an introduction to my thesis "On the Articulation and the
Synthesis
would
of
like
Space in Architectural and Urban
to quote the epilogue of my
thesis "On Nightscape" ( 1979 ),
In
this
study
An
Visual
Communication
Night
on
planning,
entitled
Theory or Melting Cheese
Train",
the
I found that
"On
architectural
history,
and
are
urban
space
and arts, and literature,
Night
through
Clock
there
excited at those issues by encountering many
articles.
graduation
Observation of Exterior Design at Night
Galaxy
issues
former
I
as follows,
for graduation thesis
Scape.
Design",
like
intersting
design,
and I became
nice books and
So I am happy that to discover various intersting
themes made my range of "sight" and "vision" more wider.
The
conception
mentioned,
the
of
Here and
There,
which
is very much interesrting to me.
concept of the place into two groups,
Gordon
Cullen
He categorized
that
is,
here and unknown there, and known here and known there.
known
Page 23
However,
unkown
I
suppose
there.
situation
as
that there might be unknown
Because
we
feel
any
here
time we may encounter
unknown
here
and
and
such
unknown
a
there,
especially while travelling.
When
we visit unknown place in even day time for the
time,
with
it seems to be difficult for us to identify ourselves
unfamiliar
place
first
at
world.
night,
the
Especially when we
way
how to
visit
identify
unknown
ourselves
is
considerably interesting problem.
If we fortunately find a certain known object as a
over there,
case
it is easier to find where we are,
landmark
but
in the
that we have to walk around the unknown place at night
for the first time, it is not so easier to find our ways.
In
this sense,
give
us
"Diaries in Paris" written by
intersting issue.
In these
Kunio
books,
he
describes
vividly the process of making a sense of place in his
When
he arrived in Paris,
there
was
no
environment.
everything
inter-relationship
However,
as
Tsuji
mind.
was new to him,
between
him
he walked around the
and
city,
and
the
he
gradually grasped at the image of the city.
This
places
is
exactly,
become
as Rudolf Schwarz says,
memories,
history of his life.
and
time and
that Paths
space
become
and
the
Page 24
In
this sense,
relationship
A.N.
Whitehead,
of every event,
who mentioned the
subject and object,
interbecame a
very much interesting figure to me at this moment.
Accordingly,
place
these
arguments
lead me to the problem of
a
( topos ).
"The place has its own features. This is beyond description.
Without experiencing the place,
we cannot understand
these
characteristics...
Thoughts
which were born in that place embrace this kind of
the "spirit of the place" ( genius loci )...
The
sentences
written
by
Alan
are
filled
with
the
atomosphere of the sound life around the Curtier Latin."
from "A Journey toward the sea in mid-day" by Kunio Tsuji.
"Any time
Field, woods, rocks, and eternity
Were only a simple space to me
Ah, my lover
You make these places meaningful"
By Goethe.
This
poem
expresses
the
essential
problem
relationship between a person and one's environment.
of
the
Page 25
And the problem of "anaolgue and digital" is also
important
to
terms
of
of Time or Space is recognized in terms
of
me.
Something
continuous
is recognized
in
something discontinuous.
The
continuity
the movement of needles on the clockface,
of
the number of the digital watch,
wire poles,
or the procedeure
or the series
of
the
light poles, and series of the intersections of
the streets or the durations of discontinuous alternation of
day and night.
'7MMM7
Day and Night.
M. Escher
Page 26
Chapter One
Analogue and Digital
Nude Descending a Staircase No.2.
Marcel Duchamp
Page 27
Visual Communication
"Quidquid videtur, sub angulo videtur"
by
Jean Francois Niceron,
Thaumaturgus Opticus, 1646.
( Now matter how anything is seen, it is seen at a certain
angle.
"Non
idem
est apud comnes gentes modas
by Emanuele Menigant,
horas
Perspectiva Horaria,
numerandi."
1648.
( The way how to count numbers is not necessarily common to
groups )
Visual Information Processing
Since 1960, when "The image of the city" was published, this
study
on
the
description
in
two
dimensional
dimensional space of the image of the city has been
done
by
many scholars,
including Kevin Lynch,
architects,
and
urban
and
one
largely
designers
Donald Appleyard, Philip Theile, and
David Crane, and so on.
In
this
chapter,
environment
as
I
would
like to take
an object composed of
visual stimuli, or signs.
a
visual
look
at
the
information,
Primarily, this discussion in the
field of visual communication was focused on the way how to
visualize
the invisible
indication
and etc.
matters,
something
like a trafic-control sign,
( fig. 1
)
and
abstract,
or
advertisement,
Page 28
For example, subway maps show the diagramatic relation which
is
usually
invisible
view
and Atlas is able to show us the whole "world" which
point,
we cannot experience or
As
over - ground
for us from the
our
grasp at one time actually.
society has been
visual
images,
signs,
gradually
and
overflowed the urban space,
posters,
...etc,
and
a
informationized,
lot
of
many
information
have
TVs, magazines, newspapers, and
have surrounded us, and will keep on
transforming our environment.
At
first,
the
I would like to recognize the way of
architectural
communication
and
urban
processing.
space
The
through
flow
chart
perceiving
the
visual
of
visual
information process is "visualized" as follows. ( fig. 2
Every
act
of
perception,
as
A.N.
Whitehead
).
mentioned,
involves two modes; perception by "presentational immediacy"
and
perception
by "casual efficacy".
By
"presentational
immediacy" Whitehead refered to what we have been trained to
think
of
as
the
immediate data presented to
us
by
our
senses, for example, patches of color seen with eyes, noises
of certain pitch and intensity,
and soft surface, and so on.
sensation of
hard,
rough,
Page 29
fig.
1
f ig.
2
Page 30
media
perceive
sensory memory
selection
short term memory
long term memory
Page 31
As
Naum
Gabo
faculties
which
are
in
action
when
we
between
see
two
things;
faculty of sight and the conscious faculty of
psychological
vision.
"We have to distinguish
says,
Sight
is
only
a vehicle by means
receive the visual signals.
of
which
we
Vision is, however, is what our
consciousness makes of these sight-signals."
Gabo's
"vision"
seems
Objets" ( Baudrillard ) and
Systeme
des
casual
efficacy"
Waddington,
element
but
to be considerably similar
(
Whitehead
Whitehead's
claim
).
a
to
more
"Le
by
C.H.
primitive
in perception is awareness not of sheer sensations,
rather of entities which are perceived as
potential effectiveness in the world.
to
"presentation
According
is that
to
having
some
It is more elementary
perceive casually efficacious things,
such
as
"chair"
( something suitable for sitting ) or "table" ( something to
put
things
business
down
to
on ) and it is
artists,
undertaken ---
Generally
between
such
patches
or
In fact, it takes training '--- which
as
the impressionsts
have
willingly
to be able to do so.
speaking,
there
exists an
information
the transmitter and the receiver.
in processing.
sophisticated
"see" such things as mere colored
other pure sensations.
soem
relatively
process
There are codes
Transmitter encodes the information and the
receiver decodes the information.
Page 32
The
receiver's
beyond
the
translation of the decoded
transmitter's
versatile
control.
When
interpretations.
information,
the
evoked,
special
or
This
the
information
is
under
the
has
an
receiver
indigenous memory to the receiver may
symbolic
meaning may
be
(
occurr
of production of meaning ) between the
faculty
is
the
interaction
of the object ( encoded information ) and the receiver.
Signs
are the primordial agreement,
semiotic
code
binds
for understanding of a
two ( or more ) people in
a
set
of
tacitly agreed upon conventions about what stands for what.
As
A.N.
Whitehead says,
the individual character of every
"event" including the percepient ( or perceiving event ),
created by its interaction with everything else.
perception,
In act of
the person involved is neither a merely passive
reflector
nor
conceived
scheme of things on to his surroundings,
instead
a
influence.
is
a
knot
dominating actor
or
focus
This "fact"
in
a
who
imposes
network
of
his
pre-
but
is
to-and-fro
is not a little related to
Gestalt
Psycology, Pattern recognition, Semiology, and Semantics.
In this sense,
of
our sense,
Because
I would like to review the
in a sense,
that is,
characteristics
"sight" and "vision".
I think that our "vision" or system of thought
is
not a little related to the characteristics and the limit of
our sense.
Page 33
Sense of Vision
Sensation of Perception
We
continuously have an interaction between
the
environment.
outer
world
at
That is,
ourselves
we receive the stimuli from the
the same time we make
approach
to
that.
Stimuli which we receive from the environment (urban
gives
and
space)
us some important information on the situation of the
environment. I would like to begin with this process; visual
information process and cognitive process.
As
Pierre
Guiraut
substance
which
says,
"Sign is
we can feel,
a
stimulus,
that
is,
and its inner image in
our
mind is associated with any other images.
is
for
communication,
and
secondary
Primary stimulus
stimulus
is
for
evocation of images. Sign is the primary stimulus.
Characteristics of Vision
For us,
sense of vision is the most developed and important
sensor,
than
and
any
it is said that this sense is
other
senses,
and this
sense
more
plays
advanced
the
most
important role of perceiving the environment. By this sense,
we
receive in general 70 % of the information of the
world
and
20 %
by the sense of auditory and 10 %
sense of taste and smell.
outer
by
the
Page 34
Perception and Attention
to
According
enter
the
human
system,
it
is
first
when information
registered
in
sensory
These sensory memories include an iconic
memories.
for
"C~gnitive Science",
and echonic
information
visual
information.
information,
Semsory
memories
memory
for
memory
auditory
can store a great deal
but only for brief periods of time.
is very limited mental resource that can only
Attention
of
allocated to at most a few cognitive process at a time.
be
The
more frequently that process have been practiced,
the less
Eventually they can be
performed
attention
they require.
interfering
without
automatic
little
are
process
with other cognitive
that are highly
practiced
It
and
is
require
and process that require attention
or no attention,
called
process.
controlled.
Two
types
of
models
have
been
proposed to descrive how perceptual patterns are recognized.
1.
Template
matching,
which
involves
matching
a
whole
pattern at once.
2.
Feature
analysis in which components of a
pattern
are
first recognized and then combined.
A
set
of Gestalt principles organizes perceptual
into units for perception.
features
We can sometimes recognize large
organized units before we can recognize the components
make up these units.
that
Page 35
Combining
features in order to recognize a pattern requires
attention.
The amount of attention required descreases with
the
familiarity
Pattern
of
the
pattern.
recognition involves an intergration
processing and top-down processing.
bottom-up
Bottom-up processing is
use of sensory information pattern
the
of
recognition.
Top-
down processing is the use of the pattern as well as general
knowledge in recognition.
Figure and Ground
When there are two different characteristic territories in a
view,
which is seen as a significant object ?
Figure 3.
is a well known K. Lewin's figure of vase,
is composed of two parts;
in
vase
black.
which
one is in white and the other is
According to Lewin,
we see at a glance a white
against the black back ground,
however,
at the
next
glance, on the contrary we can see the two faces in black.
When we see this white vase,
this form is "figure" and the
rest of this form is "ground" in white.
Page 36
U,,
Eu.
U
U
fig. 3
Page 37
Even
if
these are objective stimuli,
characters
their
alternate according to the
they are "figures" or "grounds".
psychological
situations;
whether
The part which is seen as
a "figure" is well organized and solid,
and has substantial
characteristics, and the boundary made by the difference
the
lightness
between
"figure"
and
"ground"
of
becomes
a
profile line.
In this way,
"figure"
as you see, if the environment is devided into
and "ground",
this is very much
psychiological point of view.
from
Because, even if there exists
a certain object in the environment,
as a substance.
meaningful
In other words,
as long as this object
what we don't regard as a
substance has little meaning to us.
We put attention to the
limited things that we can regard as a "figure".
According
central
to
Tom Porter,
vase
traditional
image
conception
as
by fixing our attention
object
we
can
to
recognize
of form in space where the
the
the
profile
lines defining the vase represent form-oriented thinking the
vase symbolizes architecture of containment.
However, if we psychologically switch off to a concentration
on
the
outer area ( the two faces profiles ) we
surroundings
different
negative transforms into a
discover
that
positive
but
entity which not only reflects the nature of
the
vase but takes on a life and meaning of its own.
Page 38
Figure
and
ground
are
inseparable.
They
define
each
other. The reason why we can regard something as a figure is
that there
is the groung against this figure. These two are
complementary.
The relationship of figure and ground is in
relation to the that of "Here and There" which Gordon Cullen
mentioned in his book,
There
"Townscape".
is a figure against a ground,
and at the same time a
ground against a figure. They are opponents each other.
Gestalt Principle of Organization
Various
principles determine how we segment an object
into
components.
1.
proximity.
close together tend to
element
organize
into units.
2.
similarity.
objects
that
look
alike
tend
to
be
grouped
3.
good configuration.
4.
closure.
5.
same fate.
These principles will tend to organize even complexity novel
"stimuli"
into
units.
We
see that
recognition
critically on the initial segmantation of the figure.
depends
Page 39
Recognition
can
be
impared
when
this
segmentation contradicts the actual pattern
of
the
Gestalt-based
structure.
One
important Gestalt claims is that the whole is
more
than the sum of the parts.
A
configuration
parts,
can be recognized more
perception
of
quickly
than
the configuration must be
its
something
other than the separate perception of the elements.
Our
in
discussion on the Gestalt psychology indicates one
which
Gestalt
a context influences pattern
recognition.
principles are typically viewed as an
reflecting
birth.
factors
However,
recognition
wired
there
into the
is
also
These
innate,
perceptual
evidence
way
system
that
is influenced by acquired knowledge
and
at
pattern
about
the
structure of "stinuli", in other words, "signs".
Organization of Information
According
to
represented
structure
encode
compare
the
in
of
"Cognitive
terms
items,
Science",
of images that encode
or in terms of linear
the sequence of items.
Knowledge
the
asked
that
to
two mental objects with regard to dimension such as
magnitude,
they
engage
in a process similar to
discriminating between the size of two physically
objects.
spatial
ordering
The subjects are
can
that
of
presented
Page 40
Both spatial images and linear orderings have a hierarchical
organization in which sub-images and sub-lists can occurr as
elements in larger image or list.
access
Subject have more
rapid
to the first and last elements of a linear ordering,
and they tend to search from beginning to end. They can more
rapidlly
judge the order of elements in a linear
ordering,
the further the elements are apart.
Two
types
of knowledge re-presentation
as
follows,
that
partially preserve the structure of presentations.
1.
spatial images.
2.
linear orderings.
4-
Ptf5)
Spatial
images preserve information about the
objects
in
terms,
but
space.
it
position
Images are often described
in
of
visual
is.questionable whether spatial images
are
tied to visual modality.
Linear orderings preserve information about the sequence
events,
ordering
such as the order of words in a sequence.
of
A linear
represents events by organizing them sequentially,
like beeds on the string.
Although they represent different things, spatial images and
linear orderings do have a number of features in common as I
mentioned
above.
It
is possible to encode
both
spatial
images and linear orderings into hierarchical structures
which smaller units appear as chunks within larger units.
in
Page 41
We
will also see similar hierarchical encodings for
representation for meaningful material.
memory
It seems that human
memory tries to encode the world in terms of small, easy-toprocess
packets,
and
memory
items,
when there too many
creates packets within packets.
It
is frequently speculated that this is because the
human
processor is limited in terms of the amount
information
of
information it can process at once.
"Cognitive
Science",
evidence
the
for
According
to
importance
of meaning-based representations comes from
showing that memory for a verbal
experiments
the
communication
the exact wording but just the meaning
retains
not
picture
retains not visual details but rather a
for
a
meaningful
"interpretation" of the picture.
Initial memory for an event contains both visual and
details.
be
However,
verbal
information about these details tend to
rapidly forgotten within the first minute following
the
stimulus, leaving only memory for the meaning of the events.
Because memory for meaning is no longer lasting than
for
physical
details,
individuals
can
improve
memory
their
memories by more meaningful form. The meaning of sentence or
picture
can
be represented as a network
of
propositions.
Page 42
Often
propositions enter into hierarchical relationship
which
one
proposition
proposition.
occurrs
Propositional
as
a
part
networks reveal
of
in
another
in
graphical
form the assertive connections between concepts.
As
Fred
detail,
I. Dretske
and a degree of specificity,
impossible
rendition
form."
says, " most pictures have a wealth of
to
of
provide
even
an
that makes it all but
"approximate"
information the picture
carries
linguistic
in
digital
Page 43
Analogue and Digiatl
System of Thought
Paradoxically speaking,
We need "discontinuity" in order to
perceive the "continuity" of an object. We need some outline
or contour line of the object in order to determine what the
object
is.
For
example,
without gradient texture of
the
perspective in two dimensional plane, we cannot perceive the
depth of the space,
and similarily without contour lines on
the map, we cannot figure out the form and the degree of the
gradient of the mountain and the site.
An
animation
perceived
film
and a movie film
continuously,
however
are
as
,
it
were,
they are composed of
the
series of the segmented frames which run in the speed of 1624 frames per one second.
( see chapter four )
With
the series of discontinuous but constant
feel
nice
rhythm
of
the
music.
With
druming,-
the
series
we
of
discontinuous break sound of the joints of the rail, we feel
that time actually goes on while we are travelling by train.
We
are
not so good at getting hold of
little by little.
changing
It is true that we can perceive
change of object by our sense of vision,
others.
something
auditory,
gradual
and the
However, we cannot measure specifically the degree
of change in lightness, in tune of sound, and in distance of
the object, or verocity of the object, by our senses.
.~j1
ci,
Co
I
111111
till
~71~iIfl
'I
I
I
~****
S.
I
6
S
*
I
I
S
*
I
'
I
0
*
0
I
0
o
0, ~
*
,j,~,*
*
S
*
*
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
______
0
0
0
0
I-.'
0
0
Page 45
At
the same time,
in order to transmit our idea,
or
some
impression of objects, we have to select "appropriate" words
and
put
them
in
linear
orderings,
that
is,
sentences
according to our logical process. It is impossible to convey
all
my
impression
from
the visual
stimuli
or
auditory
stimuli in terms of even innumerable words. I think that the
acquisition of language is essential to an organism's having
the
capacity
(
orderings
convert
sensory
digital form ).
information
into
Therefore our
linear
knowledge
and
absolute
but
belief are inevitably selective and exclusive.
I
may
safely
relative.
analogy
In
and
say
that our
other
words,
discriminative
sense
our
is
not
sense
ability;
is
based
the
on
the
similarity
and
dissimilarity of these characteristics as follows,
1.
spatial images
2.
linear orderings
3.
meaning
We
usually
difference
think
whether
there are
some
similarity
between the characteristics of objects in
front
of us and the characteristics of something already known
us.
According
to
Gerald Weinberg,
this kind of
or
by
analogy
based on the structure of the system which is familiar to us
is
called
identification of the
system.
(
matching and feature analysis in chapter one )
cf.
template
Page 46
in which
I may safely say that this method mentioned above,
for
look
we
the
structure
of
by
object
unidentified
corresponding the elements of already-known structure to the
elements of this object,
view of similarity,
from the point of
in other words,
this attitude is regarded as one of the
ways of reasoning.( see. abductional reasoning )
In
this reasoning,
known
and
objects
misunderstand
recognition
the
of
we need profound knowledge of
their
the
system
object.
objects is likely to be
individual view-points after all,
we
Otherwise
structures.
unidentified
already-
on
dependent
I wouild like to
our
review
including the transformational process of
time,
individual
our
Since
kind of individual view-point ( framework ).However,
same
may
there
seems to be something common
view-points as well,
to
this
at the
these
which may be sometimes
an
illusion though. So one supposes that one recognizes objects
based
on
one's
illusional common sense,
and
so
does
a
society.
"When we look at the same city from various points of
that city must be recognized in various ways...
number
of
simple-substances in the world,
number
of
universes
as same
amount
of
view,
There are a
so there are
that
a
numbers...
However, those are nothing but only perspectives in only one
universe
from
the
different
points of
view
of
"monads". " says G.W. Leibnitz. ( see chapter four )
various
Page 47
System
One's view point is said to
is a point of view.
influenced
and attitude
by one's experience and knowledge,
to the values.
be
It is that we don't realize one's view point
until one makes some decision making.
As Herbert Simon says, " One made up a large number of parts
interact in an nonsimple way.
that
In such
Although the whole
whole is more than the sum of the parts.
it has qualities
is under the influence of its components,
and
characteristics
rather
than
the
of wholeness which are
mere aggregation
of
that
the
parts,
synthesis
not
in
an
but in the important pragmatic
ultimate metaphysical sense,
sense,
of
the
systems,
given the properties of the parts and the laws
their interaction,
it is not a trivial matter to
infer
the properties of the whole."
Generally speaking, a system is regarded as a composition of
following elements.
1.
relationship of the parts
2.
function of elements
3.
structure of object as a whole
4.
process of transformation
The
systems
complexty;
approach
is
an attitude of
mind
in
facing
it reflects a search for the interrelatedness of
things in any problematic situation.
Page 48
It
a formation of articulation and synthesis of
is
based
on
certain supportive structure
a
of
things
concepts
on
forms.
Categorization
objects
One way to grasp at the object is to articulate the
by
grouping elements of the object into some parts in terms
of
similarities
or hierarchical order ( as
cognitive process ),
the
I
review
our
and through this operation, we grasp at
clearer relationship of elements,
and structure of the
object.
As
Charles
Hitch
and
Roland
say,
Mckean
"whereas
mathematical models and computations are useful, they are in
no
sense
alternatives
to
or
rivals
of
good
judgement:
they supplement and complement it.
always
critical importance in designing
of
choosing the alternatives to be compared,
intuitive
Judgement is
the
analysis,
and selecting the
criterion."
The basis of judgement in this operation is dependent on the
observer's
experience
and
value system,
follows,
1.
High and Low
2.
Large and Small
3.
Good and Bad
4.
Linear order and Spatial order
and that
is
as
Page 49
This
is
on
based
the
and
relationship,
figure-ground
this is in relation to the meanings of object
therefore
to
the observer, and sense of gravitation. ( cf. owned body )
to
According
Cognitive
and
learning
enable
us
to
the
for
constant
objects,
respond
need
recognize
reduce
and order and relate classes of events.
appropriately,
In
categories consists of objects or events that
words,
other
Categories
the environment and the
of
complexity
Science,
we have grouped together because we feel that they have some
similarity to one another.
The ability of categorization enable us to interact with our
environment without becoming overwhelmed by its complexity.
When
we
classify discriminably different objects as
equivalent,
we
rather
membership
classification
to them in terms
respond
than
by
is
a
their
items.
unique
itself
of
useful
being
class
Although
way
organize
to
knowledge, classes can be further organized into subordinate
and super-ordinate class.
For example, as Christian Norberg-Schulz says,
known
in
terms
landscapes,
classified
forest,
of
the
settlements,
we
grove,
noun
and
like
"
places are
countries,
buildings.
regions,
When
should therefore use terms as island,
or square,
street,
courtyard,
wall, roof, ceiling, window, and door, and etc."
places
bay,
and floor,
Page 50
implies
This
places are designed by nouns in a sense.
Accordingly,
that
they are considered real things
that
exist,
which is the original meaning of the word substantive.
All nouns have resulted from the precedents' classifications
of
the
environment.
The
meaning that a
word
inevitablly tied to an individual experience,
evokes
is
knpwledge and
( scientific autobiography ).
value system
However, we have something to take into consideration. It is
that any object in the world can not be a mere assemblage of
things, and at least in the semantic level, everything is in
inter-relation
relationships
control
of
to
are
many
not
other
necessarily
elements
and
regulated
under
linear and hierarchical structure
these
like
the
"tree"
structure.
As we can not see more than one TV program at one time,
as
we
time,
can
or
not go along more than one street at
in
other words,
same
as we can not stay at more than
one place of "here" at the same time,
than
the
and
we can not have more
one point of view at the same time.
( see
Leibnitz's
phrase of page 46 )
If we would like to take another view of the same object, we
have to take some time to move our view point from one place
to
another.
It is true both of physical situation
conceptual situation.
and
of
Page 51
when we get a certain classification, there is a
Therefore,
certain
selected meshes or value system of the viewr's
own
behind this classification.
Waddington says,
A.N.Whitehead began by arguing
As
C.H.
---
he was one of the first to do so --had
relativity
conventional
"
made it impossible to go on
accepting
of
the
view of the world as consisting essentially of
an assemblage of material things,
through time.
endure
that the theory
which exist in space
but
The theory of relativity shows
that
simultaneity, or instantaneousness, can only be defined with
reference to some particular spatial frame of reference, and
that
two occurences which may be simultaneous in one
may
happen
at
times
which,
in
frame
frames,
another
are
different."
In this thesis, I regard an architecture as an object in the
if
we
approach
to the representation of architecture by means
of
"code",
we may think of this relationship between code and
visual
message
communication
as
relationship
process in chapter one,
then
one of forms of langue and parole,
is
completely different from
the
while
aural
this
and
litteral language at a glance.
At
this
point,
formalistic
the
message
mentioned
above
expresses
order of the articulation and the synthesis
the elements of space.
of
Page 52
At the same time,
if we regard architecture as a linguisitc
this kind of
practice or process of production of meanings,
architecture is at the level of architecture as a "system of
which
objects"
produces
meanings
reflects
and
our
experiences, knowledge and value system.
It is true that even this kind of architecture is also based
on the substance resulted from construction, and on
its own
and we cannot reduce this into
another
formalistic
media.
order,
if
However,
transmitter
(
admit that there are receiver
we
of
designer
the
)
architecture
and
are
who
connected with linguistic activities of architectural design
I
mentioned above,
says,
as Diana Agrest and
becomes
architecture
as
Mario
it were
Gandelsonas
device
a
which
produces poetical meanings.
In
sense,
this
activity
from
figures,
we
when
we distinguish a
the others by using symbols of
come
to
make an
artificial
continuous territory.
originally
certain
class
or
language
or
border
( see chapter two.
the
in
lived
space )
Visualization of Concepts
When
we
transform
our
ideas
awareness of space as dynamic,
across
the
from
mind
to
an
renewed
tangible substance,
we pass
threshold of analogue and digital.
This
critical point of the architectural and urban design.
is
a
Page 53
In
order
to
visualize the idea in our mind,
have
to
and
categories,
our idea by grouping into some
articulate
we
make the inter-relation between them clearer, or by the idea
in terms of words and symbols,
matching
and to do template
by means of some forms of abstraction.
These
operations are all based on the principles of Gestalt
psychology,
review
in
the relationship of figure-ground reversal as I
chapter the former section,
and
any
resultant
response is primarily experienced through visual perception.
Therefore
these
are regarded as the articulation
and
the
synthesis of images.
Diagrams and Models
According
evidence
but
to
the designer,
Albarn,
of an idea being strcutured ---
a model of it,
features.
It
increases
the
function
Keith
is
and
possibility
intended-to define
a
pace
develop
of
form
of
visual
its
is
characteristic
communication
for the thinker while
of an idea
diagram
it is not an idea,
of development or allows
transfering
a
or
an
which
idea
to
offering
the
trrigering
of
notion.
Through
appropriete structuring,
according to Tom
Porter,
the diagram may generate different notions or states of mind
in the viewer. However, these different notions or states of
mind are susceptible to three factors which are also
rooted
Page 54
the designer's mind ---
in
the amount of information that it supplies
expression,
the
three
his provisions of experience of
embracing all,
and,
his familiarity with the mode of
dimensional space.
In
to develop an effective model and
order
of forms in response to this model,
evolution
diagrams as follows may be employed.
potential
the
a variety of
( each with their
conceptual set of rules which
and
faciliate
aid
own
decision
making )
1.
Schematic Diagrams
2. Operational Diagrams
3.
Functional Diagrams
4. Flow Diagrams
5. Analytical Diagrams
Buun says,
As J.H.
in
"A model is something that we construct
order to predict the characteristics of a large
whose
nature
future
example,
the
reverse
the
incorporating
the
For
of model building is that models also
paradox
order
we do not -yet understand.
og
in
time's arrow by imaginatively
a
fictive construct.
In literary
fictive models are called "doubles".
problem
theory
such
They represent reality
with a slight difference."
According to J.
Buadrillard,
this representation is called
simulation, and these ficitive models are called simulacres.
Page 55
says,
Matsuoka
Seigo
"Objects
may
be
in
perceived
a
Our consciousness of the model
multitude of different ways.
quality of an object allows us to choose whatever one
needs
at that particular time. This choice gives us freedom from a
single way of perception.
.
define
However,
models are difficult to
may be called replicas of the
They
thing,
real
substances for hypotheses, or things more authentic than the
Sometimes the model, although it is not the real
realthing.
can
thing,
give
us a more acurate idea of essence of
the
real object or phenemena."
We
cannot dispense with an analogical model.
kind
of
model,
Without
we cannot approach to the reality
of
this
the
object. In order to grasp at the huge mountai or large site,
or
the
globe,
we invented the maps or
composed of counter lines,
ans
atlas
which
scales and boundary lines.
are
Maps
Atlas are in one form of models of the some part of the
nature
which
we cannot take
a look at
one
time.
What is interesting to me is that the ancient maps and atlas
show
the more explicit and symbolic relationship of places,
landmarks,
and
geographic features than the
maps in the modern period. ( see chapter four )
more
precise
Page 56
Chap- 6 E~mu ciis
;ij :=9-7
iv the Middle Agu
j
The Eariest Map of Vehice in 1348
Page 57
Seeing is,
these
in fact,
selected
one form of selection, and structuring
elements.
This
process is regarded
as
a
geometrization. A certain nice memorized scenery is composed
of
impressive
elements,
and
this kind
of
structure
is
similar to that of portrait.
This
The
process above is action of seeing,
range
of
and
interpreting.
our perception and cognition has
a
limitation according to the observer's concerns or
in
other
words,
recognition
socio-cultural
means
to
grasp
frameworks.
at
objects
certain
feeling,
Accordingly,
as
geometrical
relationships and experiences within a limited framework.
J.C.
Young
says,
polynucleotide
"As
symbols
molecules
of the
genetic
serve to arrange
the
code
the
parts
and
action of organism so that they correspond to, or represent,
their environment."
Therefore,
analogy
and
that
for J.C.
Young,
as J.H.
Bunn pointed out,
with human communication code is both
severely
is
later
understand
a
problematic,
hereditary
advantageous
because one uses a speech
in the evolutionary
process
code which is
an
in
code
order
biologically
to
more
fundamental.
Our
diagrammed
distinguishing
catalogue should therefore
torsion
in
human semantic
be
code
helpful
from
in
the
various kinds of foldings in arrangement of DNA molecules.
Page 58
the
Similarly,
catalogue
might
serve
separete
to
Euclidean geometries by which we construct signs,
the
tools and
models from the generation of more or less symmetrical forms
found in other living activity.
As
Alberto
Merleau-Ponty
would
about the world;
consists
of
"owned
"This
is the locus of all
say,
as
formulation
it is not only occupies space and time but
spatiality
our
instrument
therefore "geometrical".
experience",
and temporality.
The body
Husserl's
of
its
meaning;
has
experience
a
the
is
The existence of this "geometry of
phrase,
beyond
the body's
mind's ) spatiality constitutes the thrust of
design,
body",
Through motion it polarizes external reality and
dimension.
becomes
says,
Perez-Gomez
(
and
architectural
creation of an order resonant with the
body's
own."
According
formal
to
these
structure
to
arguments related
of architectural space,
geometries
I would like
and
to
regard an architecture as a linguistic process ( text ).
Architectural
boundary
space
is not boundless but
to the exterior space,
various meanings.
limited
by
the
and also structured by the
( see chapter two.
articulation of lived
space )
"Limit
is a boundary.
Architecture:
whose limits are constantly questioned."
a form of
knowledge
( Bernard Tschumi )
Page 59
When we regard architectural and urban design in
level
as
a
generation
linguistic
process,
we may
conceptual
agree
that
the
and choice of the shape of rooms are similar
to
those of vocaburary in the text.
According
to
alternatives
spaces.
Paolo Portoghesi,
for
He
architects
classified
the
there are in
in
designing
general
two
architectural
way of architects'
choice
of
shapes into typology and iconology.
As
Rafael
Moneo
architectural
language
is
element
house"
like
--
says,
object
"The
very
act
of
naming
the
is a process that form the nature
forced to typify.
"column",
The identification
or of a whole
--
building
implies an entire class of similar
of
of
an
"court
objects
with
common characteristics. Type can most simply be defined as a
concept
which describes a group of objects characterized by
the same formal structure:
inherent structural
similarity.
It might even be said that type means the act of thinking in
groups.
The design process is a way of bringing the element
of a typology --
the idea of a formal structure --
into
the
precise states that characterizes the single work."
Typology is a choice of one,
or some comibinations,
of the
forms that have been adopted for a long time. Iconology is a
choice
of symbols which combines the meanings of the
with shapes.
words
Page 60
For
function is relatively limited,
is
plan
all internal
explicit
which
geometry
to be covered with simple
likely
architectural
and its
are designed as it were one room,
spaces
whose
in the case of religeous architecture,
example,
gives birth to the meaning of the shapes.
Accordingly,
when
architecture
as
based
on
the
the
rooms
are
designed
a whole comes to have
geometrical
figure,
a
autonomously,
certain
which
is
meaning
in
close
relationship to the "geometry of experience".
On the contrary,
it is the most popular design method
that
we take advantage of the typology in architectural and urban
space.
the
Then the articulation and the synthesis of rooms, or
syntactic
relationship of the rooms as units
is
the
main subject to study in this thesis.
Any
building is based on an invisible network of functional
syntax,
which
formality.
elements
originally
has nothing to do
with
visible
Functional syntax is independent relationship of
of architectural space.
Therefore
the
syntactic
system at this functional level does not necessarily overlap
any other syntactic system at the formalistc level.
However,
under
the articulation and the synthesis of elements are
restriction of the construction
technology,
architecture is substance resulted from construction.
because
Page 61
The
position,
restricted
size,
in
three
and
order
of
dimensional
rooms
space
as
by
units
the
are
primary
structure of the architecture as a text.
As Rafael Moneo says,
"Formal structure,
the
mean
gestalt,
would
speaking
as the aspect
about
of
centrality
or
linearity, clusters or grids, trying to characterize form in
terms of a deeper geometry.
of
type
as
formal
However,
structure
is,
this reduces the idea
in
contrast,
immediately connected with reality --
with a vast
of
activity
concerns
construction.
running
The
from
social
also
hierarchy
to
building
group defining a type must be rooted
in
this reality as well as an abstract geometry."
When
we
regard
meaning
through
elements,
we
an architecture as a text
synthetical
combination
which
of
produces
articulated
shoild note that this text has primarily been
structured by the main frame of the structure.
As
I
mentioned
architectural
prerequisite
above,
space
when
we
as a combination
of two operations;
see
organization
system,
Accordingly,
a
architecture
we may include the recombination,
addition and removal of units in this system.
three )
have
the articulation of space
into units and the synthesis of units into the
as a whole.
we
of
( see chapter
Page 62
Chapter Two
Concepts of Space
This must be the Place.
Lichtenstein
Page 63
Theory of Place
In
the
early of this
century,
e.g.
city
followed
three million ) or some of
for
the
slab-like
scattered
designed
architects
Some of them were like gardens
proposal urban design plans.
(
Many
them
building
simply
distribution
without taking consideration into the characteristics unique
to the specific place ( genius loci ).
Their interpretation of a city was not something substantial
but
space.
diagramatic
conceptual
to
Their
the living
concrete
of
city
was
too
place.
They
had
not
ideas
anything to do with concrete space of.substance.
During
period
the
architectural
recognized
and
from
urban
1950's
space
to
had
although
1970's,
been
likely
as something more static and explicit
to
the
from
point of view of articulation and synthesis of space,
be
there
were some of the important turning points of our attitude to
space and time,
"theory of place",
for example,
"street as
urban space", and "pattern language".
This
transition
through
linguistic
relativity
parallel
resulted
through
with
our
from
the
and anthropology,
structural
and
contemporary physics
trials
architectural and urban space.
and
errors
also
and
thinking
from
biology,
in
the
in
designing
-
Page 64
The
problem of observer in contempolary physics,
words,
Heisenberg's
Einstein's
principle
theory of relativity,
of
uncertainty
in
other
and
also
has had influence on
our
notion of space and time.
many
Especially,
philosophers
the
discussed
difference
between measurable time of watch and lived time of mind.
that
time,
we
were
in a sense under the control
of
At
the
abstracted way of thought which at first we had invented for
analysing
the
universal
point
movement of the objects in
of
view,
apart from
space
the
from
properties
the
of
objects and places.
C.H.
As
Waddington
says,
"There
have
been
two
main
controversies amaong scientists about the interpretation and
understanding of the indeterminancy principle. One was about
the question whether we really have to accept uncertainty as
a
basic fact in the structure of nature,
hope,
with further advance of science,
coming
or whether we can
to find some way of
back to rigidily deterministic scheme of
casuation.
other was about the even more profound problem:
do our
scientific theories give us knowledge about exterior
nature
The
uninfluenced by man,
show
or do they,
on the other hand, merely
us the way in which the human mind happens to work
its interaction with the rest of the universe ? "
in
Page 65
For
the
past
discussing
fifty years,
the
problem
many
philosophers
of the structure of
have
time
been
in
the
It is Henri Bergson that formulated this
existential world.
problem as a problem of duration,
in other words,
that of
experienced time which is distinguished from the
concretely
subjective time which we can measure by watch.
James
C.
remaining
Maxwell
says,
always
similar
arrangement
of
"Absolute space is
to
itself
and
move
from
immovable.
the parts of space can no more
than the order of the proportions of time.
to
conceived
be
The
altered
To conceive them
from their places is to conceive a place
itself.
as
to
move
But. as there is nothing to distinguish
one
point of time from another except the different events which
occurr in them,
of
so there is nothing to distinguish one part
space from another except its relation to the
material
bodies.
We
cannot describe the time of an
except by some reference to some other event,
body
except
by
place
reference to some
other
of
event
or place of a
body.
All
our
knowledge both of time and space is essentially relative."
Through Simmer and Heidegger in Germany, Sartre and MerleauPonty
dealt
war.
This
with this issue in France after
brought
about revaluation of the
second
Aristotelian
concept since it was forgotten by the dominance of
Renaissance
thought.
world
Platonic
Page 66
According to Aristotle,
"A place surrounds that whose place
it is. A place is not a part of what it surrounds. A thing's
primary
place
it.
place
is neither smaller nor greater
than
it.
A
can be left behind by a thing and be dissociated from
Every
simple
place is either up or down,
bodies
moves
up
since each
or down to come to
of
the
rest
in
its
time
in
the
resident place."
This
shift
of
contemporary
our
notion
of
space
and
physics also had a comsiderably strong
impact
on the design theory of architectural and urban space.
"For Space,
in the image of man,
is place.
and time, for
the image of man, is occasion. Space has no room, Time not a
moment for man.
he
He is excluded.
In order to "include" him,
must be gathered into the meaning space and time."
said
Aldo van Eyck in 1960.
According
to
O.F.
Bollnow,
difference between mathematic,
As
we
distinguished
the
abstract and measurable time
of watch and concretely experienced time of mind,
I
think
that we can distinguish the diffrence between mathematically
and
physically abstracted space and concretely
experienced
space ( lived space ).
Setting
duration
or lived time,
against mathematical time of watch,
as
Minkowski
mentioned,
Bergson made it clearer
what the characteristics of lived time of mind is all about.
Page 67
Similarly by setting lived space against mathematical space,
we
space
make it clearer what the characteristics of lived
is all about, as follows.
Mathematical Space
This space is homogeneous.
In this space, each point is not
superior to any other points. As there is no a priori origin
coordinate axes,
we can choose any point in this space
as
an origin at our own accord.
Each
line is not superior to any other lines in this space.
We can choose any three lines as a coordinate axes.
This
space itself is not articulated into any inner
but
completely
endlessly.
homogeneuous
and open
to
all
parts,
directions
This space is on the assumption mentioned above.
Lived Space
In
this space,
there is a certain original point which
is
superior to the other points. This particular point is given
in
some
way through one's every day
experience
in
one's
living place.
is a certain superior axe to other
There
axe
is
earth.
directions.
in relation to our attitude to the gravity
on
This
the
Page 68
Information
about the gravitational orientation of
objects
as Fred I. Dretske points out, available in the sensory
is,
experience
because
the visual input is
processed
jointly
with body-tilt information from proprioceptive sources.
In
this space,
directions and places are characterized and
articulated,
and
and
we
places,
in the relationships of these
directions
construct meaningful articulation
of
our
lived space. ( see chapter one.)
Although
another
there
space.
there
can be an transition from one territory
to
territory which have ambiguous or melting boundary,
are
as usual clearly impressed
Lived
space
is
likely
to
boundaries
have
in
this
considerable
discontinuation.
Lived
space is,
neighborhood,
at first,
given as a
completely
limited
and latre various experiences make this space
extend gradually toward the endless world.
Any space within lived space can not help but be
by the values or meanings.
every
day
negatively.
living,
Any
meaning to a person.
Through the relationships of our
lived space affects us
space
in
influenced
this lived space
possitively
has
its
or
own
Page 69
attention
Gordon Cullen was one of the forerunners who took
to
he
extracted
environment
of
Sense
of
1940's,
he
had
the environment through a number of field surveys,
analyzed
and
Since the end
space.
lived
this
various
elements
which
make
up
the
follows.
as
"here
and
there",
"concavity" and "convexity",
"continuity", "imaginary space", "focal point", "enclosure",
and etc. are based on the characteristics of our sense which
respond to the contrast, and accent.
His
book "Townscape" is well-known for various examples
of
the way how to give visual coherence and organization to the
buildings, streets, and space that make up urban space.
Moreover
I would like to appreciate his basic
follows,
because
this
view
concepts
point of sense of
there" is very much important for us in the
"here
as
and
informationized
environment.
Vision
(
is not only uyseful but also it evokes our
experiences
and knowledge ).
It is almost
memories
through
the
vision that environment is apprehended.
1. Optics
Although the pedestrian walks through the town at a
speed,
uniform
the sensory of town is often revealed in a series of
jerks or revelations. G.Cullen calls this serial vision.
Page 70
From a scientific or commercial point of view, town may be a
however from his point of view,
unity,
we have to split it
into two elements; "existing view" and "emerging view".
2. Place
it is an instinctive and continuous habit of the body
Since
the sense of
to relate itself to the environment,
cannot be ignored.
position
It becomes a factor in the design of the
environment.
Arising
out
this
environment,
that
he
this sense of identity
of
or
feeling of a person in street or
is in it or "entertaining it" or
discover
that
automatically
no
sympathy
sooner
do
we
leaving
postulate
we must create a There,
a
with
square
it,
we
Here
than
for you cannot
have
one without other.
3. Contents
Many
towns
scales.
display the mixture of
Within
a
nuances of scale and style,
character
create
and
benefits.
one
we can manipulate
of texture and colour,
individuality,
collective
materials
commonly accepted framework --
lucidity and not anarchy --
produces
styles,
and
and
that
the
of
juxtaposing them in order to
In fact the
environmet
thus
itself into not conformity but interplay of "This and That".
Accordingly, the concept of place implies an here and there.
Page 71
When we go outside a place,
route
to
another place.
we are setting off on a path or
Paths are the
routes
connecting
places.
It
is primarily important for us to orient ourselves in the
environment. We have to retain and organize our knowledge of
the environment.
The concept of place implies an inside and outside.
When we
go
another
outside we are setting off ona path or route to
place.
Paths are the routes connecting places.
Whereas
a
primary attribute of a place is its
being connected,
quality
even if it is only an imaginary
of
boundary,
the linear quality is primary in the case of path.
Paths
imply
movement.
Places
imply pause
or
rest.
network which is new to us allows movement through the
The
area
from one point on the perimeter to another.
It
affords
a large choice of starting
and
finishing.
It
affords a large choice between any pair of these points.
"The urban landscape, among its main role, is also something
to be seen, to be remembered, and delight in.
Giving visual
form
problem,
rather
to the city is a special kind of design
and
new one at that." said Kevin Lynch in the preface of
his book, "The Image of the City".
Page 72
In 1960's, many architects were more or less involved in the
as an emphasis on the coherence of formalistic and
tendency
system,
syntactic
functional
and it was
remarkable
Lynch tried to deal with the problem of urban form,
characteristics of
urban from,
which had been if
or
that
the
anything
neglected at that time.
He
that a city should be so legible that
insisted
understand
and images of the city
where we are,
we
could
can
be
further distinguished according to their structural quality:
manner
the
in
which
their
parts
were
arrenged
and
integrated.
He
regarded
city
be
perceived
five main elements which make up the urban
follows,
path,
Kandinsky
node,
regarded
construct
district,
point,
elements of painting,
to
as the object to
by
and he articulated the features of the city into
observers,
these
the
line
edge,
space
as
and landmark, like
and plane as
three
and through this operation,
the method how to design the urban
main
he tried
space
in
terms of these signs.
According to
denote
K. Lynch,
concepts of node, path and district
the basic spatial structures which are the object of
man's orientation,
and the perceived inter-relationship
these elements constitute an environmental image.
of
Page 73
It is true that "The image of the city" was not written from
architectural
point
of view,
and did not
point
out
the
problems of modern architecture urban space, in other words,
scatterd
distribution
"Townscape"
However,
of
slab-like
buildings,
and
was not written from sociological poin of view.
these works convinced us that visual communication
in the- city is much more important,
and this issue has been
taken attention to more and more.
As
Alberto
mutable
Perez-Gomez say,
and
thought
"The creation of order
finite world is the ultimate purpose of
and
action.
There
was
probably
perception outside a framework of categories;
the
real,
perception,
the
general
and the
specific,
never
in
a
man's
human
the ideal and
are
given
constituting the intentional realm that is
in
the
realm of existence.
Perception
exist
apart
is
our primary form of knowledge and
does
not
from the a priori of the body's structure
and
its engagemant in the world.
Ponty would say,
world;
This "owned body", as Merleau-
is the locus of all formulation about
the
it not only occupies space and time but consists of
spatiality and temporality.
Page 74
Street as Urban Space
In
this
sense,
architects,
He
Camilo
Sitte
is
one
of
the
eariest
who payed attention to the perception of space.
that all architectural - spatial
mentions
effects
are
the ratio between the built-up
and
based on the philosophy of the space perception.
According to C.
Sitte,
the open spaces is exactly reversed in modern city planning.
Formerly
the
empty spaces ( streets and squares )
were
a
unified entity of shapes caliculated for their impact, today
building
and
lots are laid out as regulary shaped closed
what
is
left
over between them
becomes
form,
streets
or
plazas.
As Sitte says, "The eye is located at the apex of the visual
pyramid;
which
the
the
objects observed are to be found on radii
eye is center,
approximating more
or
less
of
an
arrengement which is concave with regard to the viewer. This
is
the perspective basis of the focussed designs of Baroque
masters,
best
and
by which strong
effects
can
be acheived naturally because in this way a maximum of
objects
in
same time.
of
it is the form
this
demands
convexty."
space can be perceived and appreciated
at
The modern building presents the exact
experience.
concavity
Expressed in capsule form,
but
exploitation
of
the
opposite
then
building
art
site,
Page 75
In the process of formimg a city, it is true that the street
is
a
both
the
transportation
urban
space
framework
as an infrastructure.
and
arteries
However,
it is
of
also
true that the street is not a mere course of volume flow
abstract
lines,
regarded
as
but
it comes to be a place that
or
must
a three-dimensional reality supported by
be
many
various sets of objects in the environment.
In order to become familiar with a city, and to interpret
city,
which is,
as it were, nondescriptive text, we should
walk around the city,
atomoshere
a
and look at the city, and feel actual
of places in the city.
We should experience the
dimensions of the exterior space in the city, and accent and
contrast of space.
Combination
of
"existing
experience"
and
experience"
provides us a psychological reaction,
and rhythm.
These formative characteristics and
or
"emerging
movility
continuity
discontinuity are able to be read through the series
of
building walls.
As
Thomas Schmacher points out,
the capacity of people
perceive immediately the street as figure not only
a
promotes
sense of enclosure and orientation but also delimits
territory
of
the
public realm as including
building surface of the building.
its
to
the
vertical
Page 76
"It
is
decisive for the spatial
character
this way,
comfortable
character,
building
( C.Norberg-Schulz )
appear as surface rather than mass."
In
that
many persons' claims are that in order to
urban
and
space,
street
should
attain
this is achieved by means of
building
surface,
density,
but
which
that
a
figural
continuous
is not only presuposes a
the
street wall
appear
be
as
certain
a
varied
repetition of the same motives.
I
think
that
actually
continuity and discontinuity of
composed
of
a
certain
street
formulated
are
ways
of
expression of the surfaces of buildings along the street.
And
the concern with
the
continuity,
discontinuity,
and
variation of the street wall lead us to the new attitude
the past,
fabric,
to
in other words, typological analysis of the urban
contextualism
and symbiosis in
architectural
and
urban design. ( see chapter three )
As
C.Norberg-Schulz
says,
small unit is necessary.
( 1960's ),
varied
"A subdivision into
relatively
The large scale units common today
therefore, do not only destroy human scale, the
continuity
which
is
its
essence.
The
varying
character of the city districts gives the townscape the most
elementary
kind
of
possibility of choice."
1971 ).
variation
and
guarantees
man's
( this article was published in
Page 77
This
trend
according
pay
stimulates
us to approach to the
urban
to the parts rather than the whole,
space
and also
to
attention to the characteristics which is unique to the
(
place
loci ).
genius
As
Francoise
Choay
buildings and the streets are inseparable;
says,
"The
they define each
other."
These
formative
space
were revaluated and came to be expressed in the parts
of
the city,
characteristics and
continuity
of
which is a small realized whole city,
urban
and in
which the composite whole is suggested by its parts.
Accordingly
based
urban space is regarded as a process
on,
as
it
were,
the "symbiosis"
system
which
of
is
each
architectural and urban space from ecological point of view.
"The
intermediate
intersecting
movement
planning,
people,
and
public and private,
place,
demands
the
position of streets in the
individual
built and unbuilt,
environment,
and
society,
architecture
and
that simultaneous attention be given
physical
environment,
and
their
to
numerous
interrelations." says Stanford Anderson.
In
the course of accormodating with the various
patterns
of
building facades and building plans
certain
range
of
another
shift
of the notion of time in
ossilation of types,
we
came
expression
within
to
architectural
a
have
and
Page 78
urban
space,
that is
urban space as a continuum
,
across
time from the point of view of its custom, its life, and its
morphology.
"The
individual is born in the village which existed before
him.
But, slowly this village becomes his homeland, a place
lived
in
and full of memories.
Paths
and
places
become
memories, time and space become the history of his life."
( Rudolf Schwarz )
Pattern Language
Epi-genetic
process
in
considerably
strong
impact
repetetive
b.iology
and
on the
linguistics
understanding
production of architectural and urban
had
of
the
space
in
the course of time.
As C.H.Waddington says, "The physical sciences are concerned
mainly
how
with repetetive process.
the wheel go round;
They
observe and
analyse
rather rarely and only to a
minor
extent, are confronted by systems which can be said to build
up or develop.
Thus for the physicists chance appeare merely as a degree of
uncertainty
consider
as
element.
The
in
process which he would like to be
precisely
biologist
repeatable;
it
is
a
able
to
disturbing
find his material presents to
him
Page 79
some processes of rather different type.
He watches an
egg
developing and differentiating into adult organism."
It
is
impossible for physicists to deal with this kind
process,
whose
originally
characteristics
contained
is
in the system is
that
of
information
becoming
expounded
into significant expounded complexes.
Biologists call this kind of process "epi-genetic". There is
no
reason
in principle why epigenetic process
completely deterministic,
should
not
or why chance should play an role
in them.
According to C.H.Waddington, its fundamental role in biology
is in.connection with another type of "building up"
with
which biologists have to deal,
that is,
process
"evolution".
The continuation of evolution requires that there should
a
succession
time passes.
of chance mutation of hereditary
factors
be
as
And this kind of process is called "stochastic
process".
The practice of contemporary architects shows that they have
accepted
creative
chance as a potentially valuable component of
process.
(
see
chapter
three,
O.M.Ungers, R.Krier, and L.Kroll, and so on )
the
especially
Page 80
In
his
1965,
famous
article "City is not a tree"
paradoxically
speaking,
published
C.Alexander had an
in
premise
that form defines social structures, so formal patterns have
to
and he
correspond to the patterns of social activities,
that city should not be a tree from the point
concluded
view of architectural and urban form.
Although he tried to
that form need not follow the functional
formulate
of
syntax,
his claim seems to be comletely against Lynch's argument
at
a glance.
However,
the
there
city.
are two aspects of the syntactic system
In the semantic level,
space is very diversified,
contrary,
of
of
the network of our lived
and may be semi-latice.
in the formal structure level,
On
the
the configuration
spaces as elements is likely to be a tree.
I think that
he should have distinguished this difference at first.
It is true,
as he pointed out, that our system of knowledge
is closely related to the system of categorization, which is
based
on
the
acquisiton of language in order
to
convert
sensory information into digital form.
Every objects in the environment has its own name,
or noun,
for example, street, road, highway, bridge, or wall, window,
roof, door, staircase, floor, and so on.
Page 81
in
Everyting
environment belongs
the
the
to
system
of
objects ( Le Systeme des Objets ). These are classified, and
to
related
However,
each
other in a tree form
in
the
catalogue.
in our association, in our lived space, everything
is interrelated, or overlapped with each other in completely
way
complicated
which
is
on
based
meaningfulness
to
which
are
individual memory.
C.Alexander
Accordingly,
selected 253 patterns
capable of overlapping each other, and he called this system
of scenes and situations of places "pattern language".
The
forms
the
way
or patterns is understood analogically
language
Saussure,
which
how to succeed to the agglomeration of
model
and
like "langue
archetypal
in
parole".
terms
For
of
F.de
language ( langue ) is a collective system within
individual speaks ( parole ).
the
Language
is
the
criteria
of
the
unconscious reality that structures speech.
"Pattern
Language"
architectural
and
is
composed of
urban
design,
the
and
"Timeless
Way
of
Building" of the "algorithm" of "pattern language". However,
there
both
place
seems to be the most critical point in his claims
two books above,
which
that is ,
in
the problem whether every
is given its character by certain patterns
of
events is always interlocked with certain geometric patterns
in the space, or not. ( see chapter three )
Page 82
Living
language
must be re-created in each person's
mind,
and it is true of pattern language as well. When each person
interpreats
pattern language into architectural
and
space,
genetic
forms
the
architectural
and
way
in which each
person
urban
the
urban space is subjective to one's
view
point.
His
pattern language may be called a typology of
memorable
places or scenes of our life. The common pattern language is
a collective process of these patterns.
pattern
language
is
comprehensive
This framework as a
of
our
"collective
memory", and also of the "image of our environment".
Each
person's image of the environment is dependent on
the
way
how
the
to
experience
architectural
memories
some
and urban space.
based
objective
places
in
That is an accumulation
on the every day's experience,
that
of
is
"lived space".
The
notion
which
and
of "Musee Imaginaire" was also a
new
was brought about by the shift of the notion
space in physics,
attitude
of
tim
and this seems to be denoted by
the
concept of "lived space".
Since we were born,
own
ways.
memorized
We
have
we have experienced our own life in our
studied our culture as
a
whole,
and
not all of them but some of them in our own ways.
Page 83
As we have learned the language ( langue ),
or the syntactic
system of spatial images and linear orderings in the
of
life,
since
course
we have learned the way how to organize the space
childhood
from
surroundings ( native town,
cities,
encyclopeadia, picture books, text books, drawings and plans
of the great architects, and so on ).
As
Herman
Herzberger says,
"Every solution at a
archetypal
or time is an interpretation of the
place
general
familiar.
and specific,
differnt
body
like the individual application of a
We cannot make anything new,
but only revaluate
already existing images, in order to make them more suitable
for our
What
circumstances.
we need to draw on is the great "Musee Imaginaire"
images,
where in the process of change of signification
displayed as an effort of human imagination,
a way to break through the established order,
of
is
always finding
so as to find
a more appropriate solution.
It is only when we view things from the perspective of
this
,
can
enormous
resolve
collage,
the
that
unknown and ,
with aid of analogies,
by a process
of
we
extrapolation
arrive at solution which can improve our circumstances."
Page 84
Chapter Three
Type and Typology
Istogrammi D'architettura.
Superstudio
Page 85
Hermeneutics of Urbanism
A city formulates an ever changing multi-layered stratum, in
which
To
any time something is going to be added
infill
amorphously.
some buildings in the part of the city means
to
transfer the wave of signifying of its meanings as a whole.
To read the accumulated memories of the city of the past
as
good
as to read the memories which we will have in
is
the
future. In each direction of vector of the arrow of time, we
need to have our imagination to read the city.
Moreover, the most essential problem is the basis of the way
how
to
read the city,
different
that
view points result
is
,
our
"episteme".
The
in the various images of
the
city.
Since
Cerda's "Teoria general de urbanizacion",
been many theories and proposals of urban
generally
speaking,
there have
design.
However,
the subjects which have been and still
are discussed are if anything not the actual, objective, and
three-dimensional
cities,
but the cities as models in
the
designers' mind.
Those
various theories and models may be called the results
from the trials and errors through the interpretation of the
city,
or
the
problem of the tension
between
the
quasi-
integrated whole and the quasi-segregated parts of the city.
Page 86
1767
Royal Crescent
1773
Project for la Salin de Chaux
1784
Project for Cenatoph to Newton
1789
Washington D.C. ( P.C.L'Enfant )
1812
Regent Street
1847
Salt Lake City
( Brigham Young )
1851
Crystal Palace
( J.Paxton )
1859
Barcelona Plan
( I.Cerda )
( J.Wood the Younger )
( C.N.Ledoux )
( E.L.Boullee )
( J.Nash )
Vienna Plan
( I.Cerda )
1867
"Teoria general de urbanizacion"
1882
Linear City
1889
"City Planning According to Artistic Principle"
( Soria y mata )
( C.Sitte )
1893
Chicago World Exposition
1902
Proposal Plan for Extending Ansterdam Southwards
( H.P.Berlage )
( T.Garnier )
1904
Une Cite Industrielle
1910
City Planning Exhibition in Berlin
First International Conference on City Planning in
London
( Burnham and Bennet )
1912
Chicago Plan
1915
"Cities in Evolution"
1922
City for Three Million
1924
Study for Ideal City
1925
Plan Voisin
1927
Project for Central Berlin
( P.Geddes )
( Le Corbusier )
( L.Hilberseimer )
( Le Corbusier )
( L.Hilberseimer )
Page 87
( Le Corbusier )
1930
Ville Radieuse
1942
The Plan for London
1945
Project for City Center of Saint-Die ( Le Corbusier )
1951
Chandigarh
1957
Brazilia
1958
Urban Planning Project for Capital Berlin
( MARS )
( Le Corbusier )
( L.Costa )
( A. + P. Smithon )
1959
Proposal Plan for the Noord-Kennemerland District in
Holland
( van den Broek and Bakema )
( K.Lynch )
"The Image of the City"
( K.Tange )
1960
Tokyo Bay Plan 1960
1961
Project for Toulouse-le-Mirail
( Candilis, Josic and Woods )
( Y.Freedman )
The Spatial City
"Support"
( N.J.Habraken )
"Townscape"
1964
( G.Cullen )
( Candilis, Josic and Woods )
Berlin Free University
Plug in City
( Archigram )
Walking City
( Archigram )
"Notes on the Synthesis of Forms"
1965
The Plan of Amsterdam
( van den Broek and Bakema )
"The Architecture of the City"
"City is not a Tree"
1967
Habutai '67
( M.Safdi )
UN Competition
( A.Rossi )
( C.Alexander )
Milton Kayens Plan
1969
( C.Alexander )
( C.Pelli
)
Page 88
1969
Instant City
( P.Cook )
( Superstudio )
Continuous Monument
1970
( Superstudio )
Reflected Architecture
( Superstudio )
The Twelve Ideal Cities
1972
( Superstudio )
Interplanetary Architecture
( R.Koolhaas & Z.Zenghelis )
City of Captive Glove
Cinque Storie del Superstudio
( A.Rossi & C.Aymonino )
Gallarateese Housing
"Learning from Las Vegas"
1975
( R.Venturi & D.S.Brown )
Competition Plan for Welfare Island ( O.M.Ungers )
( C.Rowe & A.Koetter )
"Collage City"
( C.Alexander )
1977
"Pattern Language"
1979
"Urban Space"
1980
Competition Plan for Les Hares
( R.Krier )
( S.Peterson & B.Littenberg )
1981
"Manhattan Transcript"
1982
Isle of Dogs
1983
Kurtform, Berlin
( B.Tschumi )
( D.Gosling & B.Maitland )
( O.M.Ungers )
Parc de la Villette
( B.Tschumi )
OMA
Dockland, Rotterdam
( D.Walker & P.Baker
Page 89
Barcelona Plan
( I. Cerda ).
1859
Page 90
The New City ( A. San'Elia ).
1914 /
Friedrichstrausse
Office Bldg. Project ( Mies van der Rohe ). 1919
Page 91
-
2
-I.
Ludwig Hilbersheimer Studyfor Ideal City 1924 Akademie der Kunste Berlin
Amsterdam Southwards
( H.P.Berlage ).
ideal City ( L.Hilberseimer ). 1924
1917
/
Study
for
Page 92
agait nature is violence against man... Of
all the tasks that concern architecture, the one
of making an environment in cooperation with
Wature and in harmony with man is the most ,
-nrnaxn#--MamearsaS
--N&
eminaammasse
7
Brazilia
Soleri )
( L.Costa
).
1957
/
Project for Mesa City (
Page 93
architecture,
"In
concepts
can neither precede or
follow
projects or buildings. In other words, a theoretical concept
may be either applied to a project or derived from it."
( Bernard Tschumi )
Every
time we are in a desgining process,
we encounter the
situation in which we have to choose one idea or one
among
sketch
other alternatives.
the
as it were,
Design is,
a decision-making process.
It is a
series of choices of a number of studies which are based
the
analysis
activity
projection
of
the
in architecural and urban space
in
the
given conditions and
of
patterns
on
remote future.
As
I review in chapter one,
to design space or place is
a
one form of process of the articulation and the synthesis of
space
in which
dimensional
we transmit our concept in mind into three-
volume in terms of geometrical
elemnts.
This operation starts with a primary conceptual diagram,
which
we
would like to approach to the
structure
of
by
the
architectural and urban space at first.
At the same time we make an approach to the objective
by means of the analytical way which places
space
emphasis on the
activity patterns in the architectural and urban space.
Page 94
In
are likely to take advantage of conceptual
concept,
we
physical
models in
three-dimensional
one-dimensional,
space,
are
which
a
on
based
or
and
two-dimensional,
certain
the
which is derived from an interpretation of
assumption,
given
spatial
in order to actualize our idea and
ways,
both
conditions in social and physical context.
When we design an architectural and urban space in the city,
in
when
words,
other
interpretation
of
we
project
city at present
the
and
aesthetics
our
the
into
future
social and phisical context, we cannot do away with the most
relyable
information
previous
process
in
activities
about present situation
so that we can approach
abilities.
our
the
various
the near future through simulation based
the segmented information
of
to
mentioned above within the
In this sense,
on
limit
I think that there
difference between to "read" the city and to
little
the
against
is
design
the architectual and urban space.
According
whose
the psychology,
Deduction is
the
reasoning
theoretical process is from "Rule" through "Case"
"Result".
Induction
and
"Rule",
which
to
is
from
"Case" through
"Result"
cases,
premise,
rule coresponds to a major premise,
and rule to a conclusion.
to
process
Abduction is defined as a theoretical
is from "Result" through "Rule" to "Case".
to
In
these
case to a minor
Page 95
That is, in this "abductional" reasoning process, we take at
first a conclusion as an hypothesis,
draw
and from this point we
and at last we adapt this
an rule as a major premise,
major premise to the more specific case as a minor premise.
In other words, when we are confronted with segmented parts,
through this kind of reasoning,
we are able to construct
a
certain meaningful assumption of the whole.
It
is said that science in the first
generation
described,
and
scientists
in the second generation analysed
the
results
generation
reasoning,
whole
of
classified
the
should
the phenomenon in
precedents,
and
synthesize, through
we
examined,
the
,
and induced
the
in
this
nature,
third
abductional
the limited and segmented data as parts into the
which
is more than the sum of the parts as
much
as
possible.
In order to simulate, we need the model which is designed to
reproduce,
by a certain representation media ( mathematical
model, conceptual model, and
etc )
the
similar
structure
of the substantial object. ( see chapter one. )
This
simulation model is more or less what we would like to
understand
by
means of something different which
we
have
already understood.
In other words,
this means one of
the
identifications
the
similarities
the
objects.
of
structural
of
Page 96
Through
this
unnecessary
operation,
characteristics
we
come
to
eliminate
to this reproduction
some
so
that
time may be compressed, or scale may be reduced.
As James H.
that
Bunn says,
remind
"Black boxes are conceptual devices
one explicity that the contents and
processes
inside the hypothetical problem are not known and cannot
tampered with.
parlance
of
What we have called models are called in the
system
analysis
white
boxes.
G.Weinberg
explains that white boxes simulate the hypothetical
in
exactly
the opposite way to black
perceptually
of
boxes.
boxes
and conceptually reminded one that the innards
serve
approximate
problem
Black
a system are concealed in impenetrability,
boxes
be
as
three-dimensional
while
white
reconstructions
that
as exactly as the theory permits
the
revealed
inner working of a problem."
In this sense,
black
box,
city which we would like to approach to is a
and
the
various cities
as
models
which
we
construct by our imagination are white boxes.
The
notion of architectural and urban space in
mind
architects'
today are completely different from those of 1960's or
1860's.
Our approach to the city and the conceptual
models
of urban space have changed more drastically than the actual
urban
years.
spaces
have been transformed for the
last
hundread
Page 97
What
we have argued about are,
models
rather than the city as
analysis
of
the
approach,
or
developed,
our
from
if anythig,
the
activities
simulation
models
realistic
substance.
in
models,
the
the cities
As
city,
or
qualitative
like
others,
of the
city
as
systems
have
of the city have gradually
image
as
been
shifted
substance
to
functional, structural and symbolical model of the city.
In
the course of time,
polarized.
the discourse of the city has
been
On the one side, urban space has been translated
into digital and diagramatic descriptions of its
functions,
or planning methods. On the other side, urban space has been
translated
into
the various images of poetic,
or
discourse which are more intuitive and analoguous,
literal
and also
which can not be followed by the former digital approach.
There
are
two trends in approach to the city.
One is
the
city as process, and the other is the city as urban form.
Generally
speaking,
transformed
our
interdisciplinary
for
the past
"episteme"
evolution ~of
fifty
years,
according
the
we
to
latest
results
have
the
of
structural approach, anthoropology, linguistics, cybanetics,
information process, and genetics and so on.
At
each level of the transitional process of the theory
architectural
and
urban
space,
syntactic system is concerned,
as
far
as
of
conceptual
we did not necessarily wrong
Page 98
diagrams or models of the city.
did
in
Further more,
not necessarily go beyond the analogy of
the
urbanism that P.
organism,
in
which
Grddes
the
addressed:
housings are regarded
basically we
organism
city
as
as
an
cells,
and
streets as veins for information and energy.
It
is
an essential description of the
characteristics
the activities in the urban and suburban space.
It is
of
easy
for us to imagine the structure of the city by this kind
analogy.
As
long
as architects and planners
dealt
of
with
newtown development in the suburbs, this model was useful.
However,
when we translated these models into actual
dimansional
space in the existing urban fabric,,
idea of what urban space is.
three
we had no
We had no "sure foothold",
as
O.F.Bollnow says, in this field.
The
"courage
to
the
matter of
revaluation of the works by C.
housing
forms
little
moment"
lead
us
Sitte; vernacular collective
and street scapes from the point of view
of
"hard ware" of the architectural and urban design.
On the contrary, many revolutional urban design proposals in
the
60's should be revaluated as simulation models from the
point of view of "soft ware" of the architectural and
design.
reviewing
Therefore
the
I would like to analyze these points
drastic shift
"contextualism".
urban
from "mega-structuralism"
by
to
Page 99
Growth and Change
"The
its
first thing to do is to abolish the rue corridor
rigid
lines
of buildings and its
traffic, pedestrians and houses."
"Against
streets
all sense,
is
to
with
interminingling
( S.Gideon.
1941 )
the habit of aligning building on
persist,
creating
the
of
present
the
practice:
alignment on the street and enclosed courts and light wells,
two forms entirely contrary to human well-being."
Le Corbusire. 1946 )
"The
problem of re-identifying man with his
cannot
environment...
be achieved by using historical forms,
etc,
as the
( Alison and Peter Smithon.
1953 )
social reality they presented no longer exists."
In 1952, Willem van Bodegraven pointed out the importance of
time
as
design.
a
"We
structures
can
formative factor
remain
components
are
faced
with
in
architectural
the
necessity
and forms which can developed in
a
at
unity
and maintain
the
and
of
evolving
times;
coherence
all stages of their growth.
urban
which
of
the
The absence
of
this must lead to self distruction."
"The
street as a corridor disappeared with the
Athens.
Today
Charter
of
it is the spatial corridor ( the green-lined
spac between the functionalistic blocks ) which has to go.
( George Candilis.
1956
)
Page 100
Even if Chandigar,
influenced
figures
by
in
resulted
Brasilia, Cambera and the other projects
the
modern
plans,
in
planning
had
when these projects were
vague
distrubutions,
city
and vast scattered
they
could
not
produce
beautiful
realized
slab-like
and
and
building
embrace
the
various meanings and activities within their spaces.
However,
paradoxically
speaking,
we
have
to
take
it
consideration that we should not necessarily deny the beauty
of figures
in the two dimensional plans in the urban
space
from the point of view of the legibility of the city.
( see
chapter four ).
Compared with the former diagramatic schemes ( in 1920's and
1950's ) of city planning,
to
the architects tried to approach
the "surer foothold" and the reality of dwelling
and
with
"unity" and "community",
the
existing
urban
because of the
fabric
and
place
confrontation
the
problem
of
suburbanization in the city.
They
invented
"cluster",
concepts
the
stem,
the
and
as such,
key
words
"mobility",
in
like
other
"growth
words,
and
syntactic systems
named
new
and they developed their "vocaburary" of
articulation and the synthesis of space
spine
pattern",
so
(
link,
on ) by emphasizing the idea
( see chapter one ).
of
web,
new
Page 101
These
reflected
their interests in the dynamic
living organization.
change
Whether or not community could
is dependent on the relationship of the housing.
in
exists
Street was
regarded as not only a place for trafic circulation but slao
a
( see.
channel for communication.
Candilis,
Josic
and
Woods,
Toulouse le Mirail by
or Amsetrdam Plan by van
den
the concept of growth and change in architectural
and
Broek and Bakema, )
With
urban
space,
might
embrace
they
tried
this
infrastructure
from
kind
the
to find
of
some
dynamics
point
of
structure,
in
view
terms
of
which
of
an
analogy
of
biological morphology.
When
we think of the biological morphology as a
change
deal
and
growth within the individual body,
model
for
we have
with the change and growth in the series of
to
continual
and measurable time.
According to A. Luchinger, to take an attention to time as a
formative
embraces
factor
growth
concerns primary structure
and change,
Growth and change
certain regularity in their train,
play
a
feature
formal
prominent role.
within
which
brought
in which a grid began to
"The grid is
the
most
striking
of structulaism together with the configuration
units.
The grid could be compared with rhythm,
ordering measure in music."
a
( A.Luchinger )
of
the
Page 102
We
can
imagine the continuity of the growth in
however,
can
the
city,
an architectural sapce is not an actual cell which
grow by itslef,
rebuilt
by
and it is
residents'
desires.
transformed,
extended,
or
Growth
change
in
and
the actual architectural and urban space are discontinuous.
It
should be noticed that almost all urban design
based
on
these
iudeas were designed not
as
projects
infills
for
renovations or extentions in the existing urban fabric,
but
as
complexes
of
new buildings in the
filled islands beside the
( See.
sites
or
high density area of the cities.
Tokyo Bay Plan 1960,
Eastward,
suburban
Bochoum University,
Amsterdam
Urban Nucleus and UN City project, and University
of Calabria. and so on. )
As Naum Gabo says,
not
pieces
"Nature is not a chassboard,
moving on it in strictly defined
and we are
order
within
strictly prescribed co-ordinates. The patterns of nature can
be as amany as our consciousness is capable of drawing."
Page 103
Megastructure
"We
can
no
Gestalt,
longer
and
think of the vast
modern
city
as
we can no longer give the city an image
fits
its nature,
that
is a mixed system of various parts.
the city has been intensely
a
that
fragmented,
In this
kind
of
"City Invisible". 1967
)
city, the process is only its characteristics."
Arata Isozaki.
In
this sense,
deal
with
a
in 1960's we had an illusion that we
city as a whole under the control
single value system,
the
of
almost
so we placed an emphasis on the
rather than the parts.
should give strong,
could
In other words,
we thought
whole
that we
and solid structure to the framework of
urban space not by soft ware but by hard ware from
the
point of view of legibility.
It
is true of such architects as
den
Broek,
Gregotti,
urban
and Candilis,
Metabolists,
by
Bakema and
Josic and Woods,
Archigram,
C.
and so on.
renewal proposal plan in Frankfurt,
University
which
K.Tange,
Plan showed explicitly this
Pelli,
and Berlin
elements of the architecture.
plan for the Community of 25,000,
( K.Tange ),
and
Free
characteristics
they tried to formulate a small "total
all
V,
Especially,
in
architecture"
visualizing the structure of communication space,
united
van
So did
which
Proposal
Tokyo Bay Plan
1960
Amsterdam Plan ( Van den Broek and Bakema ).
Page 104
"They
did
designed
as
not
new
finite,
generous,
old
urban
fabric,
but
they
way of building in which buildings were
fixed in program and junction,
adaptable
but
not
rather
as
framework for variety of condition and
( E.H.Zeidler )
uses."
As
rebuild the
Candilis,
Josic and Woods mentioned about this issue on
the
Berlin Free University,
the
flexible
"The question is not to
building but to establish an
build
environment
in
which buildings appropriate to their function may occur, and
to
encourage
an interaction between
these
buildings
and
their environment."
However,
as
E.H.Zeidler
pointed
out,
this
scheme
was
intended to be a minicity, was resulted from modern movement
and related to the me.gastructure that envisage the city as a
single building.
"We need a process of structuring,
functuional units...
process
of
a process that links the
We come to believe that developing the
structuring is basic theme of
urban
design...
Creating an architecture and a city may be called a
process
of making the communication visible in space in which growth
and change are incorporated as constant factors."
This
is
what
architects
street
K.Tange
regarded
which
is
as
said
in
1960's.
structuralists
completely different
Although
designed
from
that
these
new-type
of
our
Page 105
I think that his concept of
inheritence of the past,
design
still
is
concretizing
long as
as
valid
we
urban
carefull
are
the idea into three dimensional form.
in
the
On
contrary, the statement as follows is interesting.
"We
believe
totality,
from
street system and urban topography down to the
that
can
be perceived in strolling up and down
this totality.
constitute
architecture
began
writings
theory
terms
things
a
street,
Naturally we examine this
of its parts...
A new
series
called
to appear in the 60's which
Total
for
explain the.formal and structural continuity
to
cities.
traditional
structure
These
saw
the
as
city
a
which would be understood through its
development.
historical
architecture
event
in
single
than
its
that only the urban artifacts in
and
parts
that the whole is more important
From
this
by
produced object,
the avant garde
the
of
formal
of
point
nor
a
continuous
was considered neither as the single
proposed
of
view,
artistic
industrially
but *now as a process, in time, of building
from single dwelling to the total city."
(
As
far
Aldo Rossi. " The Architecture
of
as concepts of architectural and urban
concerned,
both
from
other.
each
totality
the City" )
desgin
of' the city is not so
The shift of basic concept from
are
different
visible
solid framework to invisible soft framework, in other words,
difference
of physical and conceptual support.
Page 106
Analogy of Organism
Under
in
the influence of K.Tange,
architectural
Metabolists.
It
and
was
natural
design
that
attention
to
order
understand dynamics in
to
space,
which
the
urban
one unique notion of space
that
shoild
architectural
by
take
an
again
in
and
-urban
had been already pointed out by P.Geddes.
solutions
architectural
they
addressed
process of growth of organism
They had a good point,
technical
was
however had an amphasis more
which
embrace growth
and urban space,
and
on the
change
in opposition to
the
epigenetic process of dynamics in organism is
in
fact
encoded
.in its DNA ( cf. C. Alexander ).
They
tried
to design "hardware" of the
architectural
and
urban space without making approach to the process of social
organization.
could
be
aspects.
I
think that this
software network
regarded as one of the biological
Later on,
or
process
ecological
C.Alexander pointed out this issue, and
evolved his theory through his study on pattern language.
Kisho Kurokawa designed some buildings which are composed of
solid structure and detachable capsules, for example, Takara
Pabilion
(
1970 ),
Nakagin Tower,
and Sony
Building
in
Osaka. However, after that he has never designed any capsule
system building.
Page 107
It is true that the idea of seved space and servant space of
Luis Kahn was exiting and influential at that time, but this
or renovation.
purposes
other
to
system building is less opened
Capsule
of
kind
Nakagin
It is difficult to re-use
Tower Building for office or commercial facilities.
It was turned out that it is less important to discuss about
and
change
growth
in at least
space
from
project,
"The
architectural
technological point of view.
Isozaki
Arata
headquarter
mentioned this issue on
his
a
building of Oita Mutual Bank has
board-like
spine in the middle where small protruding structure on both
are supported by thick beams.
wings
as a typical work of metabolism.
to
natural
anticipate
This has been regarded
it is
Being metabolism,
an extention of
a
building
as
a
metabolism. In other words, harmony of space is necessaryily
considered
But
in
actually,
had
myself
necessary
advance to prepare for building
the
the reality always defeats
extensions.
theory.
I
What
is
is
to
suspicious about "anticipated" space.
during large-scale extention construction
forget completely about the existing system and seek harmony
of
the
whole.
I call this "contextualism" to my work. of
twelves years ago."
In
only
designing Sony Building,
equipment
systems,
Kurokawa adopted capsules
like
toilets
or
air
for
condition
Page 108
packages.
Kong
This
a precedent of the same system in
Hong
Bank Headquarter Building ( N.Foster Associates )
Lloyd's
In
is
and
of London Development ( R.Rodgers and Associates ).
this
way,
succeeded
metabolists' theoretical attitude
and
erabolated
by
some
has
been
architects,
like
R.Rodgers, or N.Foster.
As for K.
dynamics
Kurokawa,
in
cybernetics
the
as he was originally interested in the
urban space from the
point
of
view
of
and he erabolated his theory from metabolism
,
to symbiosis from the point of view of context.
At this point,
runners
who
hoyusings
Professor N.J. Habraken was one of the forehad an emphasis on the monotonousness of
and
also
dynamic
consents
others.
He
(
on
their
between
spatial
architects,
with
the
clients,
through
and
the
also paid his attention to something changeable
infill ) and something stable ( support
emphasis
variation
mass
is
),
however
more on the desires of those persons
projects than on the
technological
his
involved
solution
in
architectural construction.
The
structural
attitued
to the
architectural
design which is valid for the such facilities as
and
urban
hospitals,
universities, factories, and housings, designed in the large
suburban
site,
eventually
lead to the revaluation of
characteristicss of the traditional urban space.
the
Page 109
Probably
the
supported,
concept
however,
of
structural
thinking
should
be
there is no inevitability to visualize
the structure of space by means of megastructure except for
aesthetic intentions.
Although
city
the
architects were based on the concept like
is a large house,
also
implied
totality
or
architects'
dimensional
their
and a house is a
longing
for
legibility within
the
enthusiastic
of
grid
iron
use
small
visible
city", and
unified
"city
urban
invisible,
megastructural
infrastructure
system
"a
the
three
may
be
an
interpretation of urban corridor as a surer foothold, at the
same
time
reveals their inclination to regularization
and
mechanization of architectural and urban space.
The
two
of urban renewal
project
in
Josic and Woods ( page
Frankfurt
121 )
show
no matter how these architects' design theory at
the
designed
that
pictures
by
conceptual
syntactic
Candilis,
lebel
might have been useful,
those at
formal
level were ineffectable in the traditional
urban
fabric.
We
should
recognise
characteristics
megastructuralism
and
urban design.
Vignes Blauches )
of
the
difference
megastructure
and
between
urban
the
fabric.
to the new framework of the architectural
( see.
University of Calabria
and
Les
Page 110
S.,..
-Tokyo Bay Plan 1960
( K.Tange )
Page 111
W sem
-
-
Noord-Kennemerland. 1959 /
( van den Broek & Bakema )
Competition for Town Center. 1962
Page 113
ot Leree.
0.r.n voemowdkt
De
de mbq
- V.6.,6.% demFs-'
Ms.
-Veedq
o Momom..
h
wad Awoe6.6.hig-
7
-
WAi'-T"3:
77
~iniE|Es
Toulouse le Mirail ( Candilis, Josic and Woods )
1961
Page 114
Bochoum University ( Candilis,
Josic and Woods ) 1962
Page 115
e
'i
_
WIAI
Berlin Free University ( Candilis,
Josic and Woods ) 1963
Page 116
Articulation of Public and Private Domains
Die Artikulation 6ffentlicher und privater Bereiche
Articulation des domaines public et privi
7
I
modelaf rights of way a sten~
Study
desWegesystems
Arbeiftnmodpi
Reseau tridiwmaenionel des -ight of way
Articulation of Public and Private Domains / Urban Renewal
Project in Frankfurt ( Candilis, Josic and Woods ) 1963
Page 117
N~J
Nakagin Building ( K. Kurokawa ) 1972
Page 118
-10
WE3
-__
Y
7....-0vN
'00
Urban Necleus.
-
1967 / UN City Project
( C.Pelli )
1969
Page 119
*-
Home Office of FulokiaMutual Bank 196-71
W.
Fukuoka Mutual Bank ( A. Isozaki )
1971 / 1983
Page 120
New Campus of University of Calabria ( V.Gregotti ) 1974
Page 121
--
A-
-~-~-
- -
Articulation of Public and Private Domains ( Candilis, Josic
and Woods ) 1963
Page 122
Superstudio
Superstudio has existed in a close position to Hans Hollein,
Archizoom,
Archigram
visualized
the supremely abstracted extension of
geometrical,
and
Team Four,
megastructural,
and
and they
transperant
ironically
rational,
ideas
on
architecture, urbanism, monument and utopia.
As
they says in the "Cinque Storie del
made
up
catalogues
products
are
of
Superstudio",
of their ideas like the
the large coporations.
New
they
catalogue
productive
of
ideas
generated by the structure of the former ideas as
well
as the present stimulating influences from the outer world.
"Architecture
never
touches
the
great
themes,
the
fundamental themes of oue lives. Architecture remains at the
limit,
and intervenes only at a certain point the
usually
codified,
furnishing
answers
to
process,
rigidly
stated
These five stories are composed of various segemnted
scenes
problems."
and
( Cinque Sotrie del Superstudio )
scenarios of models of a city as if they were made
for
the movies.
Before
1972,
Italo
The
expressed
Carvino's "Invisible City" was
Superstudio
the
published
had produced the way in which
characteristics of the city as a
text
juxtaposition of segmented descriptions of the city.
in
they
with
Page 123
The
Continuous Monument is a reinterpretation and
of the famous monuments in the world,
critique
as Cristiano
Toraldo
" This represents the extreme limit of the
Di Francia says,
myth of the architect as a demiurge and of a self sufficient
which stands as an ideal model of development,
architecture
counter posing the critical use of the discipline."
The
Twelve
been
Ideal Cities are typology of Utopia
represented by novels,
),
T.More
( W.Morris ),
Twelve
process
the
of
in
the
Ideal Cities represent another moment
in
the
and etc.
logical extrapolation from the
negative
limits.
or Screen
Utopia (
City
Vermilion Sands ( J.G.Ballard ),
"The
New Atlantis
Christianapolis ( Valentin Andreae ),
Nowhere
had
and pictures since the
Atlantis ( Plato ),
beginning of the history:
( F.Bacon ),
poems,
which
attributes
are rationally
urban
pushed
reality;
to
their
The resulting metaphors render dramatically evident
the contradictions of contemporary urban organization."
Their
dissolved the boundary
works
between
architectural
design, movies, science fictions and fantasies.
"Utopia
star
has always meant for man the distant winking
fountain
of
illusory
experiences
and
of
a
irrealizable
dreams to shield us from the horror of the real. But reality
alone can generate the determination to look for the road to
salvation."
( Cristiano Toraldo Di Francia )
Page 124
"New New York" The Continuous Monument ( Superstudio ) 1969
Page 125
MAR',
S;
"First City 2000 Ton City" The Twelve Ideal Cities.
"Morte" Cinque Storie del Superstudio. 1972
1970 /
Page 126
Contextualism
"Here
it
is
not a question of knowing which
movement or space,
deep
binding
which moulds the other,
comes
for
first
ultimately
is involved like the prisoner and his
guard.
After all, they are caught in the same set or relationships:
only the arrow of power changes direction."
Paradoxically
speaking,
the
( B. Tschumi )
analytical process
which
is
intended to rationally formulate the urban space seems to be
anti-urban attitude. The urban planning method is capable of
separating the activity patterns and land use patterns,
making it possible to control every parts of the urban
also
space,
the
and
however ultimately this process is likely to
attitude
linear
in
combination
which we may interpret urban space
of
extremely
disconnected
induce
as
a
clear-cut
architectural elements rather than as a highly inter-related
complex, as Christopher Alexander pointed out.
Functional diagram is a determinate factor of these planning
methods, but this diagram embraces too much less flexibility
in
activity
than that in the actual urban
space.
Because
this is likely to converge the fixation of the form with its
internal
activity,
and
to restrict change and
terms of extension and renovation.
growth
in
Page 127
In
architectural design,
and unity,
self-sufficiency
the
In
"The architect's view of
decision
architectural
needs determines every
user's
pursue
or legibility in its form.
Tschumi says,
as B.
these cases,
to
we sometimes are able
( which may, in turn, determine the user's attitude ).
Here,
the architect design the set, writes the scripts and directs
the actors."
On
although
contrary,
the
manage
diversity
design
by
and
to
trying
the
existence
of
have
to
we
space,
variety rather than unity
break
the
away
in
urban
city
conventional
the
single
own.
Rarely
which was inevitably based on
method
planning
within the urban
space
architectural
we suppose
value system.
"Events have an independent existence of their
purely
are
they
Events
their
have
they
literature,
design,
urban
and
composition,
design.
space
formal
Urban
with
surroundings.
their
momentum.
In
belong to the category of narrative (
as
own
logic,
opposed to the descriptive )."
In
of
the consequence
we
their
own
( B. Tschumi )
manage the more
substantial
larger
it comprises the limits of
architectural
connect
architectural
design
is likely to
its context and changeability rather
language and technological solution
and mechanical system.
for
than
the
structural
Page 128
Compared
the
with
Contextualism
seems
Megastracturalism
to
be
far from
or
the
Metabolism,
biological
and
ecological ponit of view at a glance. However, it is called,
from
the
point of view of information
process,
symbiosis
system of architectural and urban space that emphasis on the
inheritant structure and the transformation of existing type
by dissmiliating the ultra-structure and also by formulating
the
mutualconsent
between
the
architects,
clients,
and
social and physical context.
"Design is reading. Design is writing existent architecture.
is transforming existent types,
Design
and urban,
dialectic
old.
both building and place types.
architectural
Design implies a
between the new in relation to the memory of
But,
design
transformation
mutation
both
of
of
the
is
also a production
the old into the
new,
known into the unknown.
of
meaning.
The
more:
the
and
Design
losing the memory as a possibility of invention,
also amnesia."
the
is
design
( Diana Agrest and Mario Gandelsonas )
also
is
Page 129
Collage City
Under the guidance of Professor Colin Rowe,
many architects
and students have tried to find a way of humanistic dialogue
between Le Corbusier and Camilo Sitte.
reality,
they
They faced up to the
have studied the characteristic problems
of
modern architecure in the traditional urban fabric.
In
order
to
architecture
take advantage of the
vocaburary
and historic architecture,
of
modern
both of which have
already been in front of us, they have developed the way how
to
neutralize the conflict between the old and the
new
by
means of typological studies of urban morphology.
As
Thomas Schumacher says,
building
programs
configuration
context
"Form need not follow function,
and uses need not be
of buildings and towns.
comparison
feasible.
Hence
expressed
in
the
This renders out-ofa
housing block can be rationally compared.
church
The
plan
and
manipulation
of form at large scale relate directly to the organizational
patterns
of
buildings.
Such smaller scale works serve
analogue modes for large projects.
as
processing of a life of its own,
culture
and
transcending
consideration."
economic
conditions.
periods
therefore
as
Thus, urban form is seen
irrespective
Formal
become
of
use,
continuities
an
importnat
Page 130
Typology or Collective Memeory
"Architecture is always the discovery of the "genius
from which it derives.
The theme of adaption to the "genius
is at the same time the thematization of architecture
loci"
as dialogue with tradition,
artistic
( O.M.Ungers with R. Gieselman in 1960 )
expression."
As
with historically formed values
with their enhancement in order to form a new
and
loci",
I pointed out in chapter one,
it is stochastic
process
that I would like to call the attitude to the production
of
the variety in significancation in the formalistic syntactic
in both infra-structure and ultra-stucture level.
system
regard this operation as a simulation of the process of
I
the
city.
What
we
have
to pay attention to O.M.Ungers's
theory
in
architectural and urban design is that he takes advantage of
"typology
as a device of cultural memory" for breaking away
the unitarity in the urban space.
As O.M.Ungers says, "The cities, with the exception of a few
museum cities,
of
growth
Different
are created through a discontinuous
and are therefore contradictory
epochs
in
process
themselves.
have left their traces on the city
out to be a dialectical structure as far as its essence
its image are concerned
( collective memory )."
turns
and
Page 131
He
keeps
elements
fundamentally the syntactic system of the
within
architectural
time
he
a
certain
limited
oscillation
vocaburary in the context,
tries
to
enrich
the
formal
of
and at the
individual
same
spaces
by
dissimiliating its ultra-structure.
Among his projects,
the proposal plan for Roosevely
Island
Housing Competition raised the most interesting issue on the
urban
an
form.
That is an atempt to translate the concept of
image and its replica
idea
architecturally,
exploiting
of reproducibility for a creation for the urban
the
form.
So did the Fiat Lingotto Complex ( C.Pelli ).
As
O.M.Ungers says,
make
"The same elements and components that
up the prototype define the miniaturized copy as
( street,
avenue,
block,
and central park ).
well
The replica
symbolizes the reality, in which it discovers structures and
forms,
and
which it mirrors
symbolically,
allusively
or
allegorically."
Similarly,
Rob
Krier proposed an envelop of the
and open space network,
buildings
and he left architectural design of
individual suildings to some architects so that he might get
more
variety than he designs by himself.
He presented
guideline
of
architects
elaborated the dialoge between the
themselves.
project,
and
according
to
this,
context
one
those
and
Page 132
On
the contrary,
variety
resulted
as for Lucian Kroll,
his attitude to the
in
rule
establishing the
of
the
user
perticipation desgin.
He
expressed
architects
desires
and
into
alternatives
directly
clients.
a
of
certain
the
process
of
He synthesises
euilibrium
vocaburary.
Les
consent
various
within
Vignes
between
clients'
the
several
Blanches
is
simulation of the formimg the urban form in the middle age.
a
Page 133
South Amboy New Town ( T.Schumacher ) 1967
m
(J
71
F~~W
~T4
1
WE~~~~17
MC
D 2- -
ev1J~ DF
J -
,V ,I
-+!f
TILId8
tt1
Li,2
1
cc
-1-,
X-V
c
7
s
ftZ
V
E
...
r
L4
,
at
i
4
2g1A1iAiF/j.
w1
~3
1
01
cn
4G
-4
0
4J
C r-
ca
(a O
4
Page 135
Boston Plan ( F.Koetter & S.Kim ) 1978
Page 136
I
-
T.
Y
fU
r~rr#
Proposal
for Les Halles
(
S.Peterson & B.Littenberg )11980
Page 137
-
-
1
7I
Project for Parc de la Villette (L.Krier
)1976
Page 138
.~
~.t.L. .p
-
;*z
i
Proposal for Les Halles ( L.Krier
) 1980
Page 139
:~
~J
i-
r
-dM=WA
A
iiIsm-
Fiat Lingotto Complex ( C.Pelli ) 1983 / Phoenix Municipal
Government Center Proposal Plan
A.Isozaki ) 1985
Page 140
V
~/
for the Tiergarten
Project
( O.M.Ungers ) 1964
\
Museum
/
Student
Hostel
:n
t
LO
o
t
ID
o
t
UJM
c
m15tmomaooenmnno
*
.,
((D
'FA
(O
Riiame
n$1
Page 142
Project for the Development of Walfare Island ( O.M.Ungers )
1975
Page 143
Housing Project at Old South Friedrichstadt
( R.Krier )
Page 144
Les Vignes Blances ( L.Kroll ) 1976
Page 145
( D.Agrest
Proposal for Suburban Center at Mineapolis
M.Gandelsonas ) 1979 / Wonder Land ( D.Walker ) 1982
&
Page 146
.44
4
nI
0
~
~
yet
tfi
:11
r
-
-:
~ ~
4 .7-ry
...
osa
woVileteI
fo Pac e Tc
Proposal for Parc de la Villette (OMA
)(B.Tschumi
)1983
Page 147
"As
any city consists of many fragments,
the unity of
the
whole is no longer our primary topic. Against the background
of
the
the
fragmentation of the contemporary city we focus
activity and identity of single places and the
which
they
urbanity.
parts
on
way
in
can be added together to formulate a notion
of
The connection and articulation of
heterogeneous
in the formation of larger ensembles is an atempt
to
create contemporary identities and redefine the character of
these urban place. If the term scenario can be understood as
the
assemblage
architectural
of
solitary
to
visions
formation that will produce and
desired program and projections
is
and serial
of use,
into
support
in
the
( Tomaso Zanoni )
A city as a pretext for an architecture is even regarded
a
the
then our intention
create appropriate scenarios for urban life
twentieth century."
an
rethorical system which
often plays a role of calling
as
a
certain architectural language into existence.
As
far
as
inevitable
city
an architecture exists within
a
city,
it
for architectural space to be influenced by
as a context.
This is not only true of the
is
the
symbiosis
relationship from the point of view of urban form and social
activity,
context
process.
but
from
also
the
true of the issues on ecriture in
point of view of
design
as
the
linguistic
Page 148
Chapter Four
Economy of Symbols
Marilyn Monroe Diptych.
Andy Warhol
Page 149
Here and There and Everywhere
Listen to the radio,
Don't you remember,
We build this city,
We build this city on Rock'n Roll.
by The Starship
Although
innovations
highway,
subway,
influence
on
such new trafic systems
as
car,
and elevator have had considerably strong
the urban form for the
past
hundred
years,
of "photography" and "information system"
innovations
radio,
telephone,
of
like
have had little
TV, computor, and so on
impact on the urban form at a glance.
those
However,
experiences
intruded
our
and have an tangible impact on
the
innovations
of a city,
have
gradually
way how to have a look at a place and occasion in a city.
Those
innovations will have some possibility to change
notion and
attitude to a city.
It is said that we have cognitive process,
chapter
our
one,
as I reviewed in
which structures information we receive
from
the environment into linear orderings or spatial images.
Orientation
in
place
and
cognition of the environment.
occasion
is
a
framework
of
Page 150
As Christian Norberg-Schulz said,
have
existential roots.
"Our
interests in place
These stem from a need to grasp at
vital relationship in our environment,
to bring meaning and
order into a world of events and actions".
Owing to our cognitive process, even if we are surrounded by
innumerable
orient
signs
ourselves
in the environment,
we
can
manage
to
and formulate profile lines of places
in
the environment.
In this interaction of ourselves and the environment, visual
communication plays a main and important role,
the
realtionship
of
"figure" and
"ground"
according to
from
Gestalt
psychological point of view.
When we experience a city, that is, actual three dimensional
urban
space,
or place,
we are in the series of
"existing
view" and "emerging view" just like listening to the music.
The present that we experience is something continuous,
and
is always changing according to the "contents" of places. We
cannot
grasp
at
the image of whole city at a time
as
we
cannot pass two ways at the same time.
It
takes a lot of time for us to figure out a little of the
structure
and profile of the city by
and again and again.
walking around
again
Page 151
I think that whether the past experiences affect the present
experiences or not is dependent on individual's structure of
linear orderings and spatial images of Gestalt in memory.
"Leibniz was aware of time is intrinsic to events. The field
of place gives birth to time.
is
contrast
Matsuoka,
with
who
an
was
This happenes only when there
experimental
one
memory."
of the committee
said
members
Seigo
of
the
exhibition of "MA" which was held in Paris.
In
other words,
than
to
generally speaking,
memorize
we have no way
the relationship of parts and
other
whole
in
order to grasp at "time" from existential point of view.
Accordingly,
the
image of the city seems to be related
to
the city in the memories, which is composed of the segmented
scenes of the city. ( linear orderings and spatial images ).
It is true that we live in the actual world from
poit
of view.
and
However I think we live not in the
mathematical
world,
subjective
physical
but in the mental world which
is
related to sensations and memories.
It
is
city.
difficult to grasp at those so called images of
the
They
are
too
very
much
seem
to
be
an
illusion.
They
phenomenological to get hold of.
However,
these
kind
of
internal
scenes
are
important for the designers and city planners because
these
Page 152
9,.. -
e
L
conzour detcrmines the image
J16
Page 153
"deforme" through filters of our conscience ( analogue
are
and digital ),
in other words, transformed unconsciously and
processed in our memories.
These filtered scenes are,
genetic",
city
somehow,
characterized or "epi-
and considerably structured,
becomes
as
it were a "parole"
and these processed
against
a
"langue",
according to F. de Saussure, who proposed that "langue" is a
collective
"parole",
system
and
within
"Langue"
which
is
the
individual
the unconscious
speaks
reality
that
structures speecs.
As
I reviewed in chapter one,
been
structured
by
categorizing them.
of
the past,
naming
our system of knowledge
objects in
front
of
us
has
and
We succeed to the most of the knowledge
and through our experiences we construct
our
own system.
Probably we owe all to "simulator" which has been formulated
through innumerable trials and errors of the ancestors. When
we compare our experiences with scientific
theory, in fact,
this means that we compare our experiences with accumulation
of our ancestors experiences for thousands of years.
We
are
objets
living in the
).
The
system of objects ( Le
relationship
of ourselves and
systeme
des
objects
translated to events in our consciences, and the system of
is
Page 154
objects is an accumulation of our individual memories for
long
time.
The image of the city may be
one part of
a
this
system of objects.
Recently
our
the city.
look
at
experiences of
the
city
have
been
by another types of transmittance of information
influenced
of
visual
In these days we have various ways to have
the city and to experience the city
through
a
mass
media which are related to commercial advertisements
except
for
Cullen
traditional way,
that is,
the way that Gordon
stressed in his book titled "Townscape".
It
has been more than twenty years since "legibility" of
city was discussed,
were written.
a
and many articles on the city invisible
In this chapter,
importance of the notion,
I would like to discuss the
"Here and There" in the "text" of
the city as well as in the "place" of the city.
How
many
Let
us
ways do we have to become familiar with a city
suppose
that
you plan to go to
a
city
on
?
your
vacation. The first thinf to do is to get a map of the city,
a
guide
book
Boston".
Guide
topological
configuration
places
and
such
picture book of
book
profile
shows
of
the
of the streets,
as parks,
you
city
the
a
city
like
topographical
in
terms
and positions of the
museums,
"Over
and
of
the
famous
historical monuments
buildings, theaters, restrants, shopping malls and so on.
and
-
~,.z& £,.~
94
W
Radcliffe
College
* ~uwai~,
r...
Museum
Memorial Hall
(Sanders Theatre)
CA
MT.AUBURN
Harvard
University
gAr
Art
Museum
9:13Fogg
Charts
Hotels
Charlestown
Ms~
aJ
09
Bunker Hill
Monument
-
44i
Map of Boston
U
HENLEY
-
Legend on next page.
Harvard Square
Boston
Navy Yard
Cambridge
U.S.S.Constitution
(Old Ironsides)
-4
MEMORIAL
DRIVE
Charle, RIver
Boston Harbor
Mamachuet Institute
of Technology
-
DRIVE
MEMORIAL
FrgadempTrail
Logan Airport
~.;.,j''4,4,
oPe0
41
.U.S.COAST
GUARD
PIERS
Old
i
rh
CONSTITUTION
Old Aweth
Churc
WHAF
BATTERY
WHARF
~
1
North
End
'*'4
-
Beacon
Hatch
SMewn.
13D
NORTH
inmuw
PIN
-Shell
STORROW
MEMORIAL
DRIVE
Paul a-v.r4
House
Hill
CHESTNUT 1
-.
5
BEACON
Boston University
MARLBOROUGH
COMMERCIAL
Waterfront ' WHARF
Park
ARC
Back Bay
Gardic
Kenmore Square
A marriott Hotel
LONG
WHARF
-
COMMONWEALTH
AVE.
C
*
-1..
temot--y
ion
Hyne
Z Leriox
Horum
HoPar
'Qop
Prudential Center
Sq-AreALpti
-
A
hrtn
SC
i EAR V
Copley
hoa
'* By=yhp
an
1000
Miow
M lown
%.Hotel
p1
Boston
ST.JAMES
AVEPark
I
0
Greyhound
mia
/(f
cLt
La
ROWE'S
WHARF'/
Johnson'
plz
Harbor Walk
M1LiTe
80
C0
r
CHANDLER
WHARF
INDIA
',k
.-.
--
-
t
Sightseeing Boats
Now England
Aquarium
Iar
Hotel
Marriott/
PlaceA
Computer Museum
B" dord
Childre ' Museum,
Ho
LWEC
LAWRENCE4.
En .APPLETON
^""*e900N
South
~End
Carlton
Hotel
Copley
CHtel o
Christian ScienceOW
1
Colonnade
Mother Church
H
Hotel
'
John Hancock
-STwer
----------
nC
Public
Center
I
Com on
Four
Se sons
H tel
Ritz-
--
- 1Att
lsabtella
B0B
Btewart
:Iardner Museum
Hilton
HAVILAND
S.
Viio'
c :
Eliot Hotel
LEWISWHARF
PO~
Commonwealth
'
Pier
AVE.
WARREN
MONTGOMERY
$0
Trolley Stops
----
Trolley Route
Page 156
You
have
surely a lot of expectations from this source
"information" of the city.
of
So, for example, in the case of
Downtown Boston, you have already known the names of "Copley
Place",
"Copley
Square",
"Boylston
Street",
and
"John
Hancock Bldg", and so on, at the same time, it could be easy
for you to imagine the topological relationship of lines
as
streets and points as buildings and places.
When
you
imagine
associate
this
the
name
of
"Copley
Place",
if
word with some information like that
you
there
are many famous butiques like "Gucci", restrants, book storelike "Rizzoli" and Bakery like "Au Bon Pan",
shops along the inner atrium and mall,
and
and some other
this commercial
complex has two hotels; "Marriott" and "Westin"
If
so,
guidebook
I
may safely say that you have
a lot,
and
already
and so on.
read
the
you have already been familiar with
this place by various signs from this kind of "text".
Our
experience of a city has already given by these
signs,
in a sense, through the media before we walk around the city
for the first time.
How
about the situations in Tokyo ?
since I was a child,
I have lived in Tokyo
and I think that I am familiar with a
part of the Downtown Tokyo which is so called "neigborhood",
in
mathematical
commuting route.
term,
of my favorite districts
along
my
Page 157
When
I
have to go to a new place other than
my
territory
mentioned above, I have to open the map of Tokyo as if I was
a sight-seer from abroad in order to reconfirm the
of
the place and the routes to the place ( rail
position
road,
bus
route, and subway and walkway ).
At the same time, I would like to open some "Town Magazines"
such as "Pia", "Angle" and "City Road".
very
popular
with
younger
These magazines are
generations,
especially
with
college students in Tokyo and its suburbs.
Through
these
fascinationg
magazines,
places,
I
shops,
come to find
new
unexpected
and restrants even within
my
familiar part of Tokyo.
These magazines are a sort of accumulation of information of
various
activities that have
occurr in Tokyo.
categories;
occurred,
occurr,
These are composed of,
movies,
dramas,
musics
(
and
will
for example, nine
concerts
),
new
disques, FM programs, arts, events, lectures, and new books.
Also
these are in a form of "ecriture" of the city as
well
as Yellowpage, as M. Butore said,
and in other words, these
are
information
in
a
activities
future.
form
in
of exchange
the near past,
of
the present,
-of
and
the
the
the
near
Page 158
In any period in the past,
to
I think, there were various ways
spread and exchange information of events in a
word of mouths,
However,
edited
posters,
what
is
amazing
is the fact that this
occured,
occurrs,
essential
and
books
to us are
and the most important
those
of
reference,
example, like dictionaries, and encyclopeadias.
publications,
century,
of
Butore, among books, the book which we read
from cover to cover is an exception,
of
kind
published every week.
According to M.
and
by
newspapers, and some other media.
information of events which
will occurr is
city
in
a
sense,
and without Yellowpages,
represent
for
"These kind
our
twentieth
any country cannot exist
at all in the world." said M. Butore.
Readers
the
of these town information magazines seem to be,
one hand,
dramas,
events,
those who search for their favorite
on
movies,
coffe shops, butiques, restrants, streets,
and districts in the city,
on the other hand those who like
to
listen to the music played by "walkman" of cassette
FM
and prefer to enjoy themselves in isolated time in their
and
rooms, in their cars, or on the street.
Therefore the described city by these media is for those who
prefer
city
to
walk around the city rather than go through
as usual by car.
the
Page 159
"Pia", "City Road"
identify
will satisfy our desires to
ourselves with the Downtown Tokyo to some
The readers
have
and "Angle"
of these magazines are those who would like
something anti-usual in the city,
their
city
extent.
in
minds
through these
and they
to
construct
magazines
which
are
composed of the names of movies, dramas, musics, records, FM
programs,
exhbitions of arts and so on, that is, catalogues
of signs of various activities in the city.
In addition to weekly issues,
there are some special issues
which are very popular as well.
For example, "Angle special
issues" are as follows.
*
Angle
special issue,
whole catalogue of
coffee
houses
coffee
houses
around main subway stations in Tokyo.
*
Angle
special issue,
whole catalogue of
along main boulevards in Downtown Tokyo.
*
Angle special issue,
recommendable restrants in Downtown
Tokyo.
*
Angle
special
issue,
map
of
nice
cycling
course,
promenades, museums, libraries, events, and so on.
...etc.
Through
these
activities
outside
magazines,
you
find new
nice
sometimes within your territory,
your
territory,
and
you
exploring around these new districts.
and
probably
places
and
sometimes
feel
like
Page 160
In this way, these catalogues produce new desires of walking
around
new
places for readers,
themselves
at the same
time
these
are consumed by readers in order to make up
their yearnings
to see new movies,
dramas,
for
places, and so
on.
For
the
readers,
it
is impossible to
approach
to
the
Downtown Tokyo without these kind of media. These volumes of
the
catalogue
city.
of signs make it possible to see Tokyo as
However,
in this "city", information about everyday
life is not included.
terms
of
a
This "city" which is constructed
this kind of information
in
seems to be focused
on
the "desire" to see, listen, eat, drink, and walk and dance,
in other words,
this seems to be edited
as a catalogue for
an agglomeration of these desires.
In
a sense,
system
of
activities
headlines,
Downtown Tokyo as a city has already become
objects ( J.
are
Baudrillard
described
through
these
and
),
because
categorized
various
into
magazines from the
a
nine
semiological
point of view.
To
become
familiar with new place within or
territory,
you
district.
In other words,
Baudrillard
had
says,
better walk
through
outside
that
place,
your
or
this means to "personalize", as
the signs of the place,
which
resulted
from abstraction, which seems to be apart from the reality.
Page 161
There
is some question if reference to tremendous amount of
information
the
from this kind of catalogue is
separated
performance of personalizing these signs in the
from
actual
place in the city, or not.
As
we
can
things
time
we
do little in spite of our desires
in a day,
space
left
when
the places in the Downtown Tokyo so as to
interaction
ourselves
and solid
three
with our desires and memories.
as
an
satisfied
accumulative yearnings
yet,
many
In the similar way,
use few of these innumerable signs
around
do
or as we cannot go through two ways at a
our passages are traced in line.
can
to
or
we
walk
fill
dimensional
the
urban
The rest of them are
which
we
have
as a compensation for our
never
desires
to
identify ourselves with the many places in the city.
On second thoughts,
as Arata Isozaki once said,
precise
the less we can read the structure
the map is,
,
the city."
their
part
another enthusiastic desires
of
the city,
Shinjuku,
through
inform
as for editors, these magazines
by
means
like
Aoyama,
Roppongi,
of illustration maps
"atomosphere"
Shibuya,
and
of these districts
of
resulted from
to describe vivdly
their eyes and their "lived spaces"
the
"The more
the
and
catalogues,
and
as
also
to
much
as
possible, which we cannot get through the precise maps.
Page 162
As Thomas Hobbs says, "From Desires,
some
aim
means
at."
upon
ariseth the Thought of
we have seen produce the like of that which
So we construct a fiction about the future
prior agreement between antecedents
and
we
based
consequences
that we remember from nature".
"Signs
involve both temporal and
exchange,
by
reversing,
present, and future.
expectant usage.
via
the
making
ordinary
exchange.
pattern
of
Signs
past,
Because signs are always involved with
Desire enjoins the future to become actual
magic of signs.
the
the
spatial
If signs reverse
future seem to come before the
temporality
present
by
means,
then in addition they excange characteristics spatiality."
( James H. Bunn )
Page 163
Topographical and Topological
Paladoxically
Krier,
Rob
legibility
medieval
speaking,
Krier,
some
projects
designed
by
and others which reflect the desire
for the highly densed urban space imply
cities,
industrial
Leon
however
society
they are dependent on
with
the
highly
of
somehow
the
post
sophisticated
information system niow.
They
start with parts,
start
the
with
not with the city as a whole.
the basic conception of "here
combination
of
"existing
and
experience"
They
there"
and
and
"emerging
experience".
Someone
criticizes
that to deal with the city by means
of
the segmented parts means to give up an approach to the city
as a whole.
On
the contrary,
whole
I think that we cannot see the city as
without agglomerating the segmented memories
limited experiences of parts of
This
turns
person
has
our
one's
of
a
our
the city. ( see. Leibnitz )
interests into another
question
if
own vision on the city as a whole
each
which
are completely different from each other or not.
If we have a premise that the whole is an illusion, in other
words,
of
the
something on the assumption,
problem:
the relationship of
we can take a new turn
parts
and a whole.
Page 164
By means of maps,
we have recorded the tremendous amount of
or the
the relationships of parts and whole,
of
sense
the
of "here and there" by
relationships
of
means
the
two-
dimensional signs since ancient time.
The desires to describe a city as a whole by drawings reveal
that people had already had a necessity to grasp at the city
as
a
whole not only by their visual experiences
but
also
these two dimensional signs, or models.
As we developed the art of measuremnt,
and at the same time, we had already had the
accurate maps,
to take
desires
we came to have more
a
look at the city from
the
bird's
eye
view. We find that a number of axonometric maps were made in
the Renaissance period
I would like to refer to this point is that we
What
to
prefered the axonometric maps
have
seemed
two-dimensional
to
street-block maps, because of the richness of the texture of
the
city
maps
on the axonometric maps,
were
drawne'd not from the
and that many of
existing
hill-top
these
points
the city but from the imaginal points of the view in
around
the sky.
This
point
is
completely
different
from
that
perspective drawings which were also developed in
and sixteenth century.
In pespective drawings,
of
the
fifteenth
the way how
Page 165
Turin / Palmanova
from
Betelli. 1599
Page 166
G
Genova / Venice
NNVAS
from
Bertelli. 1599
Page 167
everything
drawn
on the two dimensional planes is seen
as
regulated by the position of the viewer. Whether we are able
to
have
an
condition
unbroken
vista or not
is
dependent
on
the
if there is some visual obstacles in front of
us
or not.
However,
in axonometric drawings, we have aquired so called
objective view point apart from the ground,
in which we can
have a look at any point on the ground in the same
distance
and at the same angle.
This
and
point of view is very much similar to that of
mathematics.
Schrodinger
says,
"That
a
physics
moderately
satisfying picture of the world has only been reached at the
high price of taking ourselves out of the picture,
stepping
back into the role of a non-concerend observer."
As Alberto Perez-Gomez says,
new
"Cartesian philosophy and
the
science of Galileo postulated the initial split between
the
perceptual
Afterward,
attention
During
and
western
on
the
conceptual
of
knowledge.
science and philosophy concentrated its
truth
rather than
seventeenth
corespondance
spheres
between
century,
the
on
reality.
however
ideas of the
the
subject
necessary
and
the
reality of the object was guaranteed by a benevolent God who
gad
created the universe on the basis of geometrical
Scientists
and philosophers built vast
conceptual
laws.
systems
Page 168
based on a mechanocanistic logic of causes and effects
that
explained
were
the phenomena of nature.
But these systems
always closed and concerned ultimately with final causes."
When
we
have to deal with terribly complcated
related
objects,
assumption ( see.
we,
at first,
and
inter-
imagine the whole on
abductional reasoning ),
the
and in order to
approach to that whole,
we try to wrap up the series of our
limited
experiences
and
segmented
of the
parts
of
the
objects in the environment, or in the urban space.
As
far as we are on the ground,
objects,
all
and are surrounded by some
we can see at a time is completely
because of the distance between ourselves and
height
of our view points,
of objects,
limited,
objects,
the
the geometrical characteristics
and reflectivity of the surface of objects, and
lighting condition of objects.
That is also dependent on how much we get the information of
the
objects from the point of view of visual
communication
process.
Even
if
increases,
the
amount
of the
information
of
surroundings
our basic ability and characteristics of body is
limited and unchanged,
we have to
recognize
through
the
city
keep the same way how to
visual
conventional sense. ( see chapter one ).
experience
in
a
Page 169
Melancholy and Mystery of a Street.
G. de Chilico
York Interpreted V: The Bridge. J. Stella
/
New
Page 170
However,
we
have
informationized
visual
been entering
movie,
the
tremendously
environment which enable us to have various
and auditory experiences,
photograph,
into
by news paper,
TV program, cassette recorder,
and computer graphics,
magazine,
video recorder,
at the same time by
driving
car, taking rail way, subway, air plain, and space ship.
These
innovations
transformation
have
of
gradually
had an
impact
our spatial images and linear
from the environment,
on
the
orderings
in other words, these have influenced
our notion of "proximity", "path", and "district", and sense
of
"here and there" and "existing experience
and
emerging
experience".
As the various media have been developed,
us
to
divided
Media have forced
be away from the sense of "owned body",
our
lived space into
parts
Media
have
technologically,
transformed the articulation and the synthesis of the
and
lived
space and their meanings.
In
this
sense,
We
should
think
that
precise
map
or
geographical figure is one formulation of the abstracted reinterpretations of the environment by means of the media.
We
should
environment
technological
decode
the
topological
organization
of
the
in accordance with the characteristics
of
the
media
as
a distributive system
of
various
messages of objects and activities in the environment.
Page 171
Transformation by Media,
"Does anybody really know what time it is ?
In
the
which
the
course of time,
thanks to their
inevitability
in
digitalized
by
every activity in our mind should be
language ( code ),
computor
fields
of
computer
programming,
and
various studies
science,
linguistics,
in
the
computer
artificial inteligence have revealed that
our recognition, decision making, and even designing process
of architectural and urban space are regarded as
linguistic
process.
As
the photography had great impact on the art in the
century ( the emergence of the
ninteenth
late
impressionism
),
this media have been transformed our notion of the space, in
parallel
with
the
the development
in
the
philosophical
problems of "system of the objects".
Once
Manfred Tafuri criticised the use of the pictures
the
criticism of architectural history in his book
and
History of Architecture".
"How
can
photography
interpretation ?
lend
itself
to
a
for
"Theory
critical
As it offers us fixed and isolated images
of
a whole that it is defined as a process
or
city ),
(
architecture
it becomes obvious that its main characteristic
is the elemination of the temporal succession of images."
Page 172
"The
photographic
movement
reproduces
the
of the observer in an architecture,
naturalistic
but
sequence that
and descriptive value,
physical
will assume a
certainly very
not very suitable to a critical narrative.
useful
One of the
spacific instruments for the critical use of photography is,
then,
the
accentuation of representational
discontinuity.
The suspension of the movement and of the single image
from
the spatial-temporal continuity of the organism, can be used
to
focus
aspects
disaggregation,
such
as
properto
articulation,
isolated
spaces
organicity,
and
linguistic
elements; in such a case the pausing of camera on the single
element takes the character of a 'reductio ad absurdum'."
( Manfred Tafuri
However,
his
when
we find that his essays are also composed of
interpretations
architecture,
reviews
in
at
this
the
on
the
same
thesis,
theory
time,
and
according
history
to
we come to think that
of
previous
there
is
little difference between memories of actual experiences and
experience
from the visual materials.
As Bernard Tschumi says,
axonometrics
perspectival
"As opposed to the plans, maps, or
normally used in architectural
description
of
existing
concomitant with their photographic records:
can
notation,
the
buildings
is
the photograph
then act as the origin of the architectural image.
The
perspectival image is no longer a mode of three dimensional
Page 173
0E
10 ii
*~
-.
I
Manhattan Transcripts ( Bernard Tschumi )
Page 174
but
drawing,
the direct extension of
modern
photographic
perception."
We
at
the
we
looked
to
photographs
of
photograph's internal logic suggests that
it
the
experience
space as if
urban
sequential pictures of the streets.
of
"Photographs
):
buildings
can
(
events
as opposed
function in varied ways.
for the architectural program,
Second,
people.
by refering to events or
drawings juxtaposed to them.
successive moves,
game's
reading.
the
idea
Finally,
of
it
independent
introducing a
of
purely
subjective
of
The temporality
Transcripts inevitably suggests the analogy of film.
a common twentieth century sensibility,
In
from
both,
shot
the
can be deconstructed and reorganised
hybrid activities.
by-frame technique,
of
Third,.the events' allegorical
disturb the neutral logic
powerfully
can
to
for these
can be read independently,
it
photographs all possess their own autonomy,
content
metaphor
It first acts as a
the
Beyond
both share a frame-
the isolation of frozen bits of action.
spaces are not only composed but
also
to shot so that the final meaning of
depends on its context."
developed
each
shot
( B. Tschumi )
We found photograph and documentation an inventive catalogue
of
new narrative and editing device as the Superstudio
in 1970's
did
Page 175
Where I am ?
when I read an article or novel,
in other words,
program,
or watch
TV
I am in an illusional world
when
from the point of view of sense of "here and there".
When we read a novel, we are surrounded by a certain sphere,
or we enter into the
that
imaginary world, and we feel the space
his
the author constructed by his imagination through
When we have a dream,
text.
consciense
leave
our
body,
or even if we are awaken, our
we are
probably
in
similar
condition.
In a novel,
drama is composed of specific incidents, except
fordaily routine details, and they are disjunctive, and they
are
held in a topological plces.
supported
and
constructed
This illusional space
by our imaginations
is
are
which
inspired by the text and evoked by our past experiences.
While reading a novel, we experience the linear orderings of
places,
conversations, confessions, and descriptions as its
drama advances. In the course of reading a text, we have the
sense
and
of "here and there" in the inner space in
our
we move through this illusional world according to
mind,
the
sequential trace of our imagination and the text.
It is true that everytime we are in the sequence of existing
experience and emerging experience, however, this means that
the past, present and future may be active in our mind.
Page 176
As
Tschumi says,
Bernard
cumulative.
are
"All sequences
They
Their "frames" derive significance from juxtaposition.
establish
of
memory,
experience
the course
the preceding frame,
and
to
architectural
an
follow
of
events.
To
sequence
is to reflect upon events in order to
them
place
into successive wholes."
is
present
"The
the
fringe
of
memory
with
tinged
( A.N. Whitehead )
expectation."
We should note "the difference between the representation of
the
city and the city as representation",
should
we
time
the
between
take
into
consideration
same
and at the
the
difference
and
perception of the city by our senses
the
reinterpretation of the city in our imagination.
According to J.
consumed,
"simulation"
itself
the
by
Baudrillard, in order to be something to be
object
should
become
a
sign.
the phenomena in which the sign
He
means
separates
from the reality and also means "simulacres"
by the
results from the simulation.
J.
Buadrillard means simulation by the generation of unreal
and unoriginal substance in terms of the model. The model is
ahead
of the reality and this simulation model gives
to its reality.
birth
Page 177
As I reviewed in chapter one and three,
a city is
regarded
as one form of the representations of our "episteme", and we
safely regard the city as a linguistic process from the
may
of
point
view
of
interpreting
and urban space.
architectural
relationship
The structure of urban space has been in close
and
denotation
the
to
designing
and
city
the
of
elaboration
linguistic
this
process.
At
place
of
memeory
be
the city might
least in the Renaissance period,
and reading the city was making
up
a
the
fictious cosmos ( cosmology ) by our imagination,
if so, as
as
something
it
were
city
as a whole has never
existed
visible.
As far as the cosmology is concerned, we have lost this kind
of relationship to the city for a long time.
that even now we cannot approach to
the
of
the
However,
I
think
as
a
whole without taking part in,
city
as
one
players, an imaginary or fictious structure of the city as a
through
text
accumulating
the segmented memories
of
the
experiences of the parts of the city.
We
are living by consuming the message from the
other
words,
by
consuming
the
media,
reinterpreted
reconstructed world by the signs of media.
in
and
Page 178
Epilogue
Painting.
Fontana
Page 179
For the past one hundread years, what had impact on the city
seem
to be the innovation of elevator and the motorixation.
Both
of
them are in relation to the
circulation
and
the
communication.
The
former
promoted
perpendicular
the
direction,
development
and
the
of
city
latter
form
expanded
in
the
development of city form in lateral direction.
As tele-communication system have been improving,
style
have
However,
gradually changed and will
our life
continue
changing.
I think that this phenomena had more impact on the
transformation
of
our experience in the city than
on
the
transformation of physical city form.
I think that unless we have drastic change in socio-cultural
system, or ecological catastrophe, we will be likely to keep
our life style within a certain limited
we
like
amplitude.
to enjoy walking along streets,
Because
experiencing
the
nature and nice seneary in the nice man-made environment.
We
prefer nicer pedestrian space which is
continuously flat as much as possible,
comfortable
and
and is opened to the
sky as much as possible.
So
I imagine that city form in near future
is,
at
least,
dependent on the newly-designed buildings which are the main
elements
that will make up the town
scape,
or,
in
other
Page 180
words,
our
the substance of the city.
"current"
These are projections of
or "contemporary" aesthetics into
the
near
future city.
Even
if we will have such a new traffic system as air cars,
or tube ways,
kind
of
I think that we will not be able to use
system in the middle of
Because
"high-density-city".
we have already learned that we need not go
the city in
inside
so much high speed.
Laissez-faire
city
the
this
like
high speed trafic system in the sky above the
that
accidents
of
"Jetsons'" may
in the upper air.
invite
the
risk
of
So any vehicle will have to go
on the ordained course or in the tube.
As
long
prefer
as things will go forward like that,
the
existing
traffic system
Because
we
objects
in
system
to that
kind
probably
of
we
futuristic
from the point of view of present situation.
have
the
also already learned that
air
in the
city
are
the
elevated
completely
visual
obstacles.
However,
I
proposals
probability
think that almost all futuristic city
are
in
not
necessarily in
which
we
will
vain.
enter
There
into
the
planning
are
some
another
ecological catastrophe, for example, new ice age, someday in
the
which
near
future.
And we will have another
we will meet with the strong shift in
possibilty
in
socio-cultural
Page 181
system
according to economic or diplomatic catastrophe,
climatic catastrophe,
as long as we keep on wasting natural
( fossil fuels ) or fail to recycle- the
resources
or
natural
resources ( uranium ).
Therefore
I think that we need to study how to constitute a
new
style
life
controlled
ground,
which
man-made
covered
will
be
done
in
the
environment which will be
with
huge
dome,
or on the
completely
under
orbit
the
of
a
satellite around the earth, or on the orbit around the moon,
and so on.
So
we
should
agriculture
the
same
controlled
re-learn
the
nature
again,
and
promote
and accomodate ourselves to the nature,
time
we
man-made
should
study
the
total
environment on the earth
and at
artificially
and
in
the
space as well.
On that occasion, we will experience another
in
the different gravitational situation.
much
space.
here and there
So this is
exiting phenomena from the point of view of our
very
lived
Page 182
Bibliography
Arioka,
Observation
An
Scape.
Night
"On
Takashi.
of
Exterior Design at Night through Visual Communication Theory
or
Cheese
Melting
Train"
Galaxy
Night
like
Clock
University of Tokyo, 1979.
,
University
of
Spiritual
Archaeology".
in
Architecture'
1979.
Tokyo,
,
p191-196,
of
"Space
Pattern
'Formal
Maruzen,
"Kenchiku Sekkei Shiryo Shusei vol 10."
Tokyo, 1983
Ashihara,
"Exterior
Yoshinobu.
Design in Architecture",
Van Norstrand Reinhold, NY, 1970.
.
MIT Press,
"The Aesthetic Townscape",
Cambridge, Mass. 1983.
Alexander,
Christopher.
Ma rch,
A + U,
Agrest, Dianna and Gandelsonas, Mario.
1980
"Notes on the Synthesis of Form",
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1964.
.
Architectural Forum,
"City
vol 122,
.
is
April / May,
"Pattern
Tree",
a
not
1965.
Language",
Oxford
University Press, NY, 1975.
.__
"Timeless
Oxford University Press, NY, 1979.
Way
of
Building",
Page 183
Arnheim,
"Art and Vuisual Perception", University
Rudolf.
of California Press, Berkely, CA. 1954
"Entropy
and
University
Art",
California Press, Berkeley, CA. 1971.
._
"The
Dynamics of Architectural
Form"
University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 1977.
.
of California Press,
Anderson,
of the
Berkeley,
CA. 1982.
"On
Stanford.
Streets"
University
Center",
"The Power
MIT Press,
Cambridge,
Mass. 1978.
Bandini, Micha. 'Typology as a Form of Convention', AA Files
vol. 6, AA School, London,
Baudrillard,
"Le
Jean.
Systeme
Objets",
Editions
Simulation",
Editions
des
Gallimard, Paris, 1969.
"Simulacres
et
Gallimard, Paris, 1981.
.
"For
Economy of the Sign",
Barthes,
NY.
Roland.
the
Critique
of
the
Political
Telos Press, St. Louis, 1981.
"Responsibility of Form",
Hill and Wang,
1985.
Benevolo,
Leonardo.
Cambridge, Mass. 1980.
"History
of the
City",
MIT
Press,
Page 184
"Hist ory of Modern Architecture" MIT
Leonardo.
Benevolo,
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1971.
Architecture
"The
._
of
the
Renaissance", Routledge & Kegran Paul Ltd, London, 1978
Bollnow,
W, Lohlhammer GmbH,
"Mensch und Raum",
Otto F.
Stuttgart, 1963.
Bunn,
James
H.
"The Dimensionality of Signs,
Tools
and
Models", Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1984.
Castagnoli,
"Orthogonal
Ferdinando.
Antiquity", MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Choay, Francoise.
Town
Planning
in
1971.
"Moderm City", George Braziller, NY, 1969
"La
Regle
et
Le
Modele",
Edition
du
Seuil, Paris, 1980.
Colquhoun,
Alan.
"Essays in Architectural Criticism", MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Dretske,
Fred I.
1981.
"Knowledge and Flow of Information",
MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1981.
Drexler,
Arthur.
"Transformations in Modern Architecture",
The Museum of Modern Art, NY. 1979.
Dreyfus, Herbert L.
"Husserl.
Intentionality and Cognitive
Science", MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1982.
Page 185
"Representation",
Jery A.
Fodor,
MIT
Cambridge,
Press,
Mass. 1981.
Frankle,
"Principles of Architectural History", MIT
Paul.
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1968.
Francis.
Approach",
George Braziller, NY. 1975.
Gosling,
and Maitland,
David
Barrt.
Systems
and
Cities
"Architecture,
Furguson,
"Concept
of
Urban
Design", Academy Edition, London, 1984.
"Urbanism",
AD
Profile, London, 1984.
N.
Habraken,
1972.
J.
"Support",
Architectural Press, London,
( original published in Holland, 1961
._
"Variations",
MIT
).
Press,
Cambridge,
Mass. 1976.
._
"The
Appearence
of
the
Form",
Awater
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1985.
Itoh,
Teiji.
and
Isozaki,
Arata and others.
"Nihon
no
Toshikukan", Shokoku Sha, Tokyo, 1968.
Jenckes,
Charles.
"Post Modern Architecture", Rizzoli, NY.
1977.
"Current
1983
Architecture",
Rizzoli,
NY.
Page 186
"Houses,
Leon.
Krier,
Cities",
PLaces,
Profile,
AD
London, 1984.
A + U, 1977.
Robert.
Krier,
London,
Edition,
Academy
"Urban Space",
1979.
in Architecture",
"Elements
AD
Profile,
1983
Image
"The
Kevin.
Lynch,
of
the
City",
MIT
Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 1960.
"Managing
the Sense of a Region",
MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1976.
"Good City Form", MIT Press, Cambridge,
Mass.
1981.
Luchinger,
"Structuralism
Arnuf.
in
Architecture
and
Planning", Karl Kramer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1981.
Maki,
Fumihiko.
"Investigations in Group Form", Washington
University, Washington, 1964.
Merleau-Ponty,
Maurice.
"Phenomenology
of
Perception",
London, 1970.
Moneo,
Rafael.
'On
Cambridge, Mass. 1978.
Typology',
Oppositons 13,
MIT Press,
Page 187
Moholy-Nagy,
Sibyl.
"Matrix
Paul Mall
of Man",
Press,
London, 1969.
Morris,
Anthony
E.J.
"History
of Urban
Form",
Halsted
Press, NY. 1979.
Lewis.
Mumford,
"City in History", Penguin Books, London,
1961.
"Myth of the Machine vol.1, 2",
Brace Jovanovich,
Muratori,
Harcourt
NY. 1964-1966.
Saverio. "Studi per un' operante storia urbana di
Venezia", Ist. Pol. dell Stato, Rome, 1960.
Norberg-Schulz, Christian.
"Intention in Architecture",
MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1965.
"Existence,
and
Space
Architecture", Studio Vista, London, 1971.
._
"Genius Loci",
Academy
Edition,
London, 1979.
Pevsner,
Nikolaus.
"History of Building Types",
Princeton
University Press, NJ. 1076.
Perez-Gomez,
Alberto.
"Architecture
and
The
Crisis
of
Modern Science", MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1983.
Portoghesi,
Paolo.
Braziller, NY. 1967.
"The
Rome
of
Borromini",
George
Page 188
Purves,
Alexander.
'The
Persistence of Formal
Pattern',
Perspecta 19, Yale University, MIT Press. 1982.
Rossi,
Aldo.
"The
Architecture of The City",
MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 1982.
Rapoport, Amos. "The House Form and Culture", Prentice-Hall,
London, 1969.
Rasmussen,
Steen E.
"Experiencing in
Architecture",
MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1959.
.
"Towns
and Buildings",
MIT
Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 1949.
Rowe,
Colin
and Koetter,
Alfred.
"Collage
City",
MIT
Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1975.
Sitte,
Camilo.
"City
Planning
According
to
Artistic
Principles", Columbia University press, 1965.
Superstudio.
"Superstudio & Radicals",
Japan Interior Inc.
Tokyo, 1982.
Tafuri,
Manfred
"Architecture
and
Utopia",
MIT
Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 1976.
.
"Theory
and History of
Architecture",
Harper and Row, NY. 1976.
Tschumi,
Bernard.
"Manhattan
Transcripts.
Projects", Academy Edition, London, 1981.
Theoretical
Page 189
Tschumi,
"Illustrated
Bernard,
Index.
Manhattan Transcripts", AA Files Vol.4,
the
London.
"Architecture as Theme",
Oswald M.
Ungers,
Themes from
Rizzoli,
NY.
1982.
van de Ven,
"Space in Architecture", Van Gorcum
Cornelis.
Assen, Nertherland, 1980
Waddington,
H.
Conrad
"Behind
Appearence",
MIT
Press,
Cambridge, Mass. 1968.
Forrest.
"City Planning", Van Nostrand Reinhold,
Chadrach.
"Candilis, Josic and Woods", Karl Kramer
Wilson,
NY.
1975.
Woods,
Verlag, Stuttgart, 1968
"Toulouse le Mirail", Karl Kramer Verlag,
Stuttgart, 1975.
Yates,
Paul,
Francis.
London,
"The Art of Memory",
Routledge and Kegan
1966.
Zeidler, Eberhard H.
"Multi-Use Architecture", Karl Kramer
Verlag, Stuttgart, 1983.
Zucker, Paul.
NY.
1959.
"Town and Square", Columbia University Press,