Tectonophysics 320 (2000) 169–173
www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Perspectives on tectonic modeling
S. Cloetingh a, Yu.Y. Podlachikov a,b
a Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Faculty of Earth Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
b Department of Geology, ETH Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
1. Introduction
This volume contains a series of papers on
various aspects of tectonic modeling. The quantification of tectonic processes through numerical
and analogue modeling has developed over the
last few decades into a very active domain of
research in Solid Earth science. The process-oriented approach to tectonics intrinsically trespasses
traditional borders, integrating, for example, geology and geophysics or soft and hard rock geology.
At the same time, tectonic modeling is clearly not
a stand-alone tool, but requires high-quality constraints on the structure and evolution of the
lithosphere (e.g. Cloetingh et al., 1997).
Owing to their nature, sedimentary basins have
been serving as a nucleus for integrated tectonic
modeling, linking studies of the underlying lithosphere to reconstructions of the sedimentary
record. The time dimension intrinsic in the
sequence of monitoring and imaging of the present,
reconstruction of the geological record and process
modeling requires much feedback between all components of the work flow. In earlier years, sedimentary basin studies focused to a large extent on
the mechanisms controlling basin formation (e.g.
Cloetingh et al., 1993) and subsequent subsidence
evolution (Janssen et al., 1995).
In the last few years increasing attention has
focused on the role of lithospheric memory and
stresses in the polyphase evolution of sedimentary
basins (e.g. Van der Beek et al., 1995; Bertotti
et al., 1998; Andeweg et al., 1999; Cloetingh et al.,
1999; Garcia et al., 1999; Van der Wateren and
Cloetingh, 1999; Reemst and Cloetingh, 2000).
Neotectonics of basins has developed as a nucleus
for research efforts, with interesting implications
for a better understanding of tectonic geomorphology and fluid flow. Growing attention has been
focusing on the interplay of lithospheric and surface processes. Linking the different temporal and
spatial scales in tectonic modeling is key to future
conceptual advances. At the same time, the step
from 2D to 3D modeling is in full progress,
benefiting from the great potential provided by
access to 3D seismic data and visualization and
data-integration tools. In contrast, with seismic
modeling, tectonic modeling is characterized by
the fourth dimension, which is time. Another
important aspect is the need to cope with the
missing geological record, removed through, for
example, erosional processes at the surface
(Sanders et al., 1999). As a result of increasing
resolution in reconstruction techniques ( Van Wees
et al., 1996) and analytical facilities, much better
time constraints are now available on the quantification of this missing record.
For the deeper earth, tomographic studies have
extended the lithospheric memory considerably, by
providing much better resolution of the fate of the
subducted slabs of the geological past ( Engdahl
et al., 1998). The need for quantitative reconstruction of the geological process makes tectonic modeling much more than a computer simulation.
Essentially, modeling of this nature often allows
better and sharper formulation of the key questions
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S. Cloetingh, Yu.Y. Podlachikov / Tectonophysics 320 (2000) 169–173
on the first order aspects of the tectonic mechanisms and controls on their geological expression.
This feature implies that quantification of different
tectonic scenarios through process-oriented forward modeling should be based on a full appreciation of the need to constrain these models with an
array of different and complementary data sets as
well as a proper handling of their intrinsic uncertainties. This further implies that inverse modeling
as such, without inclusion of a priori knowledge
on the processes involved, could be unnecessarily
time consuming and even create artificial modeldriven approaches, detracting attention and
resources from more fruitful research directions.
This is increasingly important as recent advances
in computing power and information technologies
have removed many obstacles hindering 3D and
4D modeling in the past. To fully utilize the new
technological opportunities, proper focusing on
fundamental questions is more than ever a prerequisite for successful tectonic modeling. The papers
in this volume provide a survey of the present
phase of modeling of tectonic processes, covering
the span of the full lithospheric scale to the spatial
scale of reservoirs on sub-basin and outcrop scales.
The same is true for the time scales, varying from
modeling of long-term processes in the remote
geological past to modeling of recent processes
operating on shorter geological time scales.
2. Rheology of the lithosphere and basin
deformation
The first set of three papers of this volume
concentrate on rheology of the lithosphere and
implications for basin (de)formation (Moisio et al.,
2000; Bertotti et al., 2000; Van Wees and Beekman,
2000; all this volume). Lithospheric rheology represents a key element in modeling studies of lithospheric deformation (Bassi, 1995; Cloetingh et al.,
1995; Ter Voorde et al., 1998; Buck et al., 1999;
Ellis et al., 1999, 2000). Intrinsic in the construction of lithospheric strength envelopes are uncertainties related to extrapolation over several orders
in magnitude of strain rates from laboratory
experiments to the rates characterizing tectonic
processes. Over the last few years considerable
efforts have been made to link the results of
rheological profiling to effective elastic thickness
estimates inferred from flexural foreland basin
studies (e.g. Burov and Diament, 1995; Zoetemeijer
et al., 1999). These approaches have resulted in a
fair understanding of the overall rheological behavior and its relationship with thermo-tectonic age
for the Eurasian lithosphere (Cloetingh and Burov,
1996). At the same time, a number of regional
studies have been performed, focusing on the bulk
rheology of mountain chains (Okaya et al., 1996;
Lankreijer et al., 1999; Willingshofer et al., 1999)
and on rifted basins (Bertotti et al., 1997).
Important input in this modeling comes from
seismic reflection and refraction profiling in various segments of Europe’s lithosphere (Matenco
et al., 1997a; Zoetemeijer et al., 1999; Pfiffner et al.,
2000). Simultaneously, the better understanding
through modeling studies and continuing collection of new stress indicator data (e.g. Delvaux
et al., 1997; Huibregtse et al., 1998), have provided
new constraints on the intraplate stress regimes in
the lithosphere (Golke et al., 1996; Bada et al.,
1998; Munoz-Martin et al., 1998).
Moisio et al. (2000, this volume) present the
results of a numerical modeling study of the present-day stress and deformation under various
loading conditions along a deep seismic reflection
profile in the Baltic area. Their work shows the
existence of pronounced lateral variations in
strength of the lithosphere, reflecting large-scale
heterogeneity of the lithosphere.
Bertotti et al. (2000, this volume) focus on a
dynamic link between the level of ductile crustal
flow and style of normal faulting. The importance
of lower crustal flow for feedback between surface
erosion and crustal tectonics was demonstrated
recently by Burov and Cloetingh (1997) and the
relationships between rheology and decoupling
within the lithosphere are vital in this respect ( Ter
Voorde et al., 1998).
Van Wees and Beekman (2000, this volume)
focus on the modeling of extensional basin evolution with temporal variations in lithosphere rheology during Mesozoic basin history. The results of
this work demonstrate that basin weakening may
to a large extent be controlled by pre-existing
weakness zones in crust and upper mantle.
S. Cloetingh, Yu.Y. Podlachikov / Tectonophysics 320 (2000) 169–173
3. Continental collision and foredeeps
In recent years, considerable effort has been made
in the numerical modeling of continental collision
(e.g. Beaumont et al., 1999; Pfiffner et al., 2000) and
foredeep development (e.g. Milan et al., 1995;
Matenco et al., 1997b; Zoetemeijer et al., 1999).
Analogue modeling has been an important approach
to better process understanding in tectonics for many
years. This approach has not been intrinsically hampered by limitations to 2D imposed on the earlier
generations of numerical models. Analogue modeling
has been a particularly effective tool for addressing
lateral and temporal variations in stress field and
rheology in the lithosphere and has been serving as
an important guideline in the interpretation of
seismic reflection data (Brun and Nalpas, 1996;
Brun, 1999). Sokoutis et al. (2000, this volume)
present the results of an analogue modeling of
continental collision, studying in particular the role
of pre-existing variations in crustal thickness.
Artyushkov et al. (2000, this volume) study the
orogenic evolution of the southern Urals. Following
a discussion of the data base, the paper focuses on
basin subsidence and topographic elevation.
4. Fault modeling on reservoir scales
The study of geomechanic properties of the
lithosphere has in recent years increasingly
addressed the importance of inhereted weakness
zones and structural elements in the upper crust
in tectonic reactivation ( Van Balen et al., 1998;
Van Wees et al., 1996). In addition, fault-scale
modeling has been addressing questions inferred
from seismic reflection profiling carried out in the
context of petroleum exploration and production.
Fluid flow through fractured media and the role
of stresses (Skar et al., 1999) has become an
important topic in this context. The next series of
papers concentrate on the topic of tectonic modeling on sub-basin and reservoir scales. Beekman
et al. (2000, this volume) study through finite
element modelling on a reservoir scale the effects
of faulting, fracturing and in situ-stress predictions
on effective reservoir permeability.
Van Balen and Skar (2000, this volume) review
171
the influence of faults and intraplate stresses on
overpressures in extensional basins. Their study
focuses on the Halten Terrace of the MidNorway margin.
5. Modeling basin fill and relative sea-level changes
Since its inception, basin modeling has been
focusing on the modeling of stratal patterns and
basin geometries (Peper and De Boer, 1995; Van
Balen et al., 1995; Ter Voorde and Cloetingh, 1996;
Ter Voorde et al., 1997). Only recently has attention been focusing on the modeling of facies
changes and grain size distributions. A considerable body of this work has been focusing on the
quantification of climate controls on basin fill,
especially on higher frequency time scales. With
the increasing capability to include the effects of
faulting in basin modeling, the quantification of
tectonic controls on shorter time scales is now
underway. Den Bezemer et al. (2000, this volume)
present a numerical study of grain size distribution
in sedimentary basins by diffusion-based models.
The mechanisms controlling sea-level change,
as well as the relative contributions of climate and
tectonics to the sea-level record has been a domain
of vigorous debate for many years (e.g. Cloetingh
et al., 1985; Schlager, 1993). This is clearly an area
where the quantification of the different components of the sea-level record depends strongly on
the capability to access areas with global coverage.
In this context, it is important to supplement the
database largely built up as a result of intensive
efforts in petroleum exploration ( Vail et al., 1977;
Haq et al., 1988) with data from areas and time
slices where the application of modern sequence
stratigraphic concepts have been more limited.
Artyushkov et al. (2000, this volume) study the
nature of sea-level changes in Late Cambrian.
Donato et al. (2000, this volume) concentrate
on prediction of sea-level changes, geoid and gravity anomalies by deglaciation in the Late
Pleistocene. Modeling of dynamic topography
(Gurnis, 1993) and its interplay with sea-level
changes and surface processes is now developing
into an active field of research ( Van der Wateren
and Cloetingh, 1999) with a new focus on environ-
172
S. Cloetingh, Yu.Y. Podlachikov / Tectonophysics 320 (2000) 169–173
mental tectonics. Further interpretation and feedback between monitoring studies of present-day
crustal dynamics, reconstruction of the geological
part and process modeling of the interplay of the
lithosphere and surface processes hold significant
potential for better constraining geo-prediction in
space and time.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the International Lithosphere
Programme for funding and support of tectonic
modeling studies carried out in the framework of
the ILP Task Force ‘‘Origin of Sedimentary
Basins’’.
Margot Saher is thanked for effective and dedicated editorial assistance. We appriciate the helpful
comments and criticism provided by the reviewers
of the papers published in this volume.
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