MODEL CURRICULUM FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM INSTALLERS
Joe Sarubbi
Jerry Ventre
Interstate Renewable Energy Council
Solar Instructor Training Network
P.O. Box 1156
Latham, New York 12110-1156
joesarubbi@gmail.com
gventre@bellsouth.net
ABSTRACT
This paper addresses the need for more comprehensive
education and training of PV system installers.
Curriculum materials presented in this paper were
developed as part of a U.S. DOE-funded Solar Instructor
Training Network (SITN) contract. They should be
especially useful to community colleges and other
institutions pursuing both two-year degree programs and
multi-course certificate programs.
Eleven core areas of instruction have been developed to
provide a more complete, integrated and foundational
curriculum. They include mathematics, solar and PV
fundamentals, basic electricity, codes and standards,
permitting and inspection, occupational safety and health,
construction processes, residential and commercial
wiring, instrumentation and measurements, PV system
design, and PV system installation.
The paper stresses the importance of meeting the solar
industry need for a highly skilled PV installer workforce,
and provides education and training institutions with
valuable resources to help meet this need.
1.
INTRODUCTION
This paper suggests a model curriculum for training
photovoltaic (PV) system installers. The suggested
curriculum recognizes that many courses currently being
offered throughout the U.S. do not require the necessary
prerequisites for effective student learning. The proposed
curriculum attempts to correct this shortcoming and is
based largely on the recently updated job task analysis
developed by the North American Board of Certified
Energy Practitioners (NABCEP), available at
www.nabcep.org. In addition, elements from the
electrical apprenticeship program of the National Joint
Apprenticeship and Training Committee (NJATC), the
electrical construction and maintenance program at
Hudson Valley Community College (HVCC), the PV
installers certificate program at Diablo Valley College
(DVC), the two-year renewable energy technician
program at Lane Community College (LCC), the PV
installers training program at the East Los Angeles Skills
Center, and the results of an industry-driven DACUM
(i.e., Developing a Curriculum) for distributed power
systems were used in developing the suggested
curriculum.
Although much of PV installation instruction to date has
been based largely on the task analysis developed by
NABCEP, too often it is limited to one or two intensive
short courses, with instructional time ranging from 24 to
80 hours. Such courses limit student time for problem
solving, decision making, and demonstrating the hands-on
skills necessary in the workplace. In addition, students in
these courses often lack the prerequisites and academic
foundation necessary for effective learning. To address
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these problems, eleven core areas of instruction have been
developed to provide a more complete, integrated and
foundational curriculum. They include mathematics,
solar and PV fundamentals, basic electricity, codes and
standards, permitting and inspection, occupational safety
and health, construction processes, residential and
commercial wiring, instrumentation and measurements,
PV system design, and PV system installation. For each
area, both recommended content and a range of
instructional hours are presented. Consequently,
interested educational institutions can select and tailor the
core areas of instruction to facilitate integration into their
existing programs.
A primary goal of the suggested curriculum is to ensure
that all critical knowledge and skills required of PV
system installers are adequately addressed in the
education and training provided by the national Solar
Instructor Training Network (SITN). IREC recognizes
the importance of creating a curriculum that meets the
needs of the solar industry and uses the highest standards
to ensure consistency among training programs
throughout the country. The model can be used in
program development, screening students, establishing
training prerequisites, and enhancing existing courses and
programs. It is designed to build a well-trained, highlyskilled PV installer workforce.
2.
THE NEED FOR HIGHLY QUALIFIED PV
INSTALLERS
In 2008, several organizations, including the Interstate
Renewable Energy Council (IREC) and the Florida Solar
Energy Center (FSEC), conducted a series of focus group
meetings with solar industry representatives and highly
experienced faculty to identify the most pressing needs
for solar training. Results of these meetings produced a
prioritized list of training needs, which was as follows [1]:
• System installers
• System designers and engineers
• Licensed contractors
• Building code officials
• Sales and site assessment personnel
• Architects and building designers
• Utility personnel
• Construction cost accountants
In addition, significant labor market analyses performed
by the Solar Foundation in their National Solar Job
Census 2010 [2] and 2011 [3] confirmed that the number
one need within the solar industry was well qualified PV
installers. Most recently, NREL’s Solar Installation
Labor Market Analysis [4] reasserted the importance of a
highly skilled PV installation workforce.
3.
THE NEED FOR HIGH QUALITY INSTRUCTION
The Center for Energy Workforce Development (CEWD)
has developed a competency model for the energy
industry that covers electricity generation, transmission
and distribution [5]. The competency model presents a
hierarchy built upon six levels of skills and competencies
as follows:
• Personal effectiveness skills
• Academic competencies
• Workplace competencies
• Industry-wide technical competencies
• Industry-specific technical competencies
• Job-specific technical competencies
For instructing PV installers, many of the courses being
taught throughout the U.S. teach to the job-specific
technical competencies (i.e., teach to a well-defined job
task analysis). However, many do not adequately address
the “academic competencies” that are an important
building block at the foundational level of the CEWD
competency model. Consequently, students in these PV
installation courses often lack the academic foundation
necessary for effective learning, which so heavily depends
upon prior knowledge. In addition, upon completing
these short courses, students often lack the fundamental
knowledge necessary to make prudent decisions on the
job. The requirement of a more substantial curriculum
that addresses both academic and job-specific
competencies can help address these issues and should
lead to a better educated, trained and skilled workforce.
4.
DISTINCTION BEWEEN EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
A fundamental question that needs to be addressed in
developing solar curriculum is: Do we “educate” or do we
“train” PV installers? To answer this question, the
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distinction between education and training needs to be
made. According to Harold Stolovitch in his book on
Telling Ain’t Training [6], the purpose of “training” is to
create a change in the learner that they can consistently
reproduce without variation. Through intense training
and repetition, the learner becomes increasingly able to
reproduce the learned behavior with fewer errors, greater
speed, and under more demanding conditions. Relevant
examples for PV installation include pulling wire through
conduit, applying the proper torque to wiring
terminations, and using job-specific hand and power
tools. Training tends to be short-term and narrowly
focused.
In contrast to training, “education” is more long-term,
broader, and is based on a greater variety of learning
experiences and principles. The purpose of education is
to build general mental models and value systems that are
fundamental to analysis, decision-making, and effectively
applying knowledge in new and unforeseen
circumstances. Relevant examples for PV installation
include analysis, decisions and applications associated
with adapting PV electrical and mechanical designs to the
varying features of different buildings structures and sites.
In summary, both education and training are necessary to
build a high quality solar installation workforce.
5.
GREAT VERSUS POOR EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
Once again, Harold Stolovitch, highly regarded expert
and co-author of Telling Ain’t Training [6] and co-editor
of the award-winning Handbook of Human Performance
Technology, states that great education and training
should include the following:
• Lots of student participation
• Interactive sessions with two-way
communication between participants and
instructor
• Opportunity and ample time for participants to
practice what is taught
• Feedback on participant performance
• Opportunity to learn from other participants
• Opportunity for participants to add value to the
education and training
In contrast, Stolovitch states that poor education and
training involves:
• Little student participation
• One-way transmission of information with little
or no discussion; participants being passive
listeners most of the time and becoming early
victims of information overload
• Little or no opportunity for participant practice
• Little or no feedback on participant performance
• Little opportunity to learn from other participants
• Little or no opportunity to add value to the
training
In many observed PV installation workshops, the
classroom sessions have consisted primarily of a one-way
flow of information from the instructor to the participants
using PowerPoint slides, many of which consist of
bulleted text. Because of limited time and the large
number of tasks and subtasks in the PV installer job task
analysis, these courses are often taught at a very rapid
pace with limited opportunities for student practice.
Unless the students have had preparatory courses and
experience, the depth and breadth of knowledge and skills
attained are limited. This approach to education and
training is not consistent with accepted teaching-learning
theory. Most of the active participation by students in
these workshops occurs in the laboratory sessions.
However, even here, there is often a need to more actively
engage all of the participants in the hands-on sessions. In
summary, intensive PV installer short courses and
workshops do not adequately prepare novices for entry
into the solar workforce and should not be touted as such.
Rather, much more extensive education and training using
a curriculum similar to that presented in this document is
recommended for inexperienced individuals seeking
careers as PV installers.
6.
GOALS OF THE SUGGESTED MODEL
CURRICULUM
A primary goal of the suggested model curriculum is to
ensure that all critical skills, competencies, and
knowledge required of PV system installers are
adequately addressed in the education and training
provided by the Solar Instructor Training Network
(SITN). It is important to create a curriculum that meets
the needs of the solar industry and uses the highest
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standards to ensure consistency among the RTP training
programs. The model curriculum can be used in program
development, screening students, establishing training
prerequisites, and enhancing existing courses and
programs. It is designed to build a well-trained, highlyskilled PV installer workforce.
7.
THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF ADOPTING A MODEL CURRICULUM
Developing a curriculum similar to that presented in this
paper has advantages and disadvantages. Some of the
advantages include:
• Better trained workforce
• Higher quality and better performing systems
• More satisfied customers
• Improved safety for workers and customers
• Higher profitability for the solar industry
• Greater marketability of graduates in pursuing
jobs
• More flexibility for graduates in pursuing
alternative career pathways
• Greater opportunity to offer cross-disciplinary
programs.
Some of the possible disadvantages include:
• May take considerable time to develop and
implement
• Often requires multiple levels of approval
• May result in fewer students per class
• Almost always requires more money
• May negatively affect existing programs in terms
of budget allocations, student populations and
availability of instructors, use of facilities and
equipment, and scheduling.
8.
MODEL CURRICULUM FOR PV SYSTEM
INSTALLERS
The model curriculum consists of eleven course areas
presented below. Curriculum developers should view
them in terms of opportunities for establishing
prerequisite courses and/or backgrounds, integrating solar
and/or construction content into existing courses,
developing new solar and/or construction courses,
integrating solar and/or construction courses into existing
certificate programs, or developing an entirely new
curriculum for photovoltaic system installers.
8.1. Mathematics
Course Description: Remedial algebra, including
fundamental mathematical operations, algebraic
equations, fractions, exponents and graphs; remedial
geometry, including distances between points and lines,
distances between points and planes, angles between
lines, angles between planes, projections of points and
lines on planes, and geometry of the circle; remedial
trigonometry, including understanding and application of
basic trigonometric functions.
Range of Instructional Hours: 45 to 60 hours
Comments: PV installation and electrical work in general
require math skills. PV installers lacking those skills are
at a disadvantage. Many student trainees will have had
the required math. For those in need, most educational
institutions offer remedial courses in intermediate
mathematics, typically of 3 or 4 semester credit hours. As
an alternative, focused remedial mathematics can be
offered online.
8.2. Solar Energy and Photovoltaic Fundamentals
Course Description: Fundamental energy concepts; solar
power vs. solar energy; energy use by sector; solar
radiation; the solar spectrum; geometry of the earth-sun
system; atmospheric effects on solar radiation; direct,
diffuse and albedo radiation; sun paths and seasonal
variations; site surveys and shading analysis; collector
and receiver types, flat-plate vs. tracking collectors; solar
radiation data sets; active vs. passive use of solar energy;
batteries and other energy storage options; solar
photovoltaic (PV) systems; solar heating and cooling
(SHC) systems; concentrating solar power (CSP)
systems; the photovoltaic effect; cells, modules and
arrays; manufacturing and fabrication methods;
characteristics of PV devices; series-parallel connections;
PV system components and configurations: stand-alone,
grid-tied and bimodal PV systems; PV applications and
markets; solar heating and cooling system components
and configurations: solar water heating, space heating and
cooling, and swimming pool heating; SHC applications
and markets; CSP system components and
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configurations: thermal-electric power generation; CSP
applications and markets; economics of solar energy
systems; policies affecting the use of solar energy; future
projections.
Range of Instructional Hours: 45 to 60 hours
Comments: This material can be covered in a 3 or 4
semester credit hour course that provides a framework
and foundation for follow-on courses in both solar electric
and solar thermal system design and installation. For PV
installers, it provides a more solid foundation upon which
to learn.
8.3. Basic Electricity
Course Description: Direct current (DC) electrical circuit
theory, electrical power vs. electrical energy, Ohm’s Law,
power formulas, conductor properties, voltage drop
calculations, series and parallel circuits, alternating
current (AC) electrical circuit theory, capacitance,
inductance, power quality, basic circuit analysis, 3-phase
circuits, transformers, DC to DC and DC to AC
conversion technology, simulation software for AC and
DC circuits.
Range of Instructional Hours: 45 to 90 hours
Comments: Students need to know basic electricity prior
to taking PV installer training courses. Often there is no
prerequisite for this type of knowledge. This need can be
satisfied with one or two 3 semester credit hour courses,
which can be offered either in the classroom or online.
8.4. National Electrical Code
Course Description: Article 110 Requirements for
Electrical Installations; Article 200 Use and Identification
of Grounded Conductors; Article 210 Branch Circuits;
Article 220 Branch-Circuit, Feeder, and Service
Calculations; Article 230 Services; Article 240
Overcurrent Protection; Article 250 Grounding and
Bonding; Article 280 Surge Arrestors, Over 1 kV; Article
285 Surge-Protective Devices (SPDs), 1 kV or Less;
Article 300 Wiring Methods; Article 310 Conductors for
General Wiring; Article 334 Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable:
Types NM, NMC, and NMS; Article 338 ServiceEntrance Cable: Types SE and USE; Article 400 Flexible
Cords and Cables; Article 422 Appliances; Article 445
Generators; Article 450 Transformers and Transformer
Vaults (Including Secondary Ties); Article 480 Storage
Batteries; Article 490 Equipment, Over 600 Volts,
Nominal; Article 690 Solar Photovoltaic Systems; Article
702 Optional Standby Systems; Article 705
Interconnected Electric Power Production Sources;
Article 720 Circuits and Equipment Operating at Less
Than 50 Volts.
Range of Hours: 15 to 30 hours
Comments: PV installers need to know much more than
Article 690 (Solar Photovoltaic Systems) of the NEC.
Although Articles 110, 210, 230, 240, 250, 310, 400, 450,
480, 490, and 705 are specifically referenced in Article
690, many installer courses do not spend sufficient time
on these topic areas. If this material is to be properly
integrated into PV installer training courses, additional
time may need to be allocated, possibly via a 1 or 2
semester credit hour course.
8.5. Standards, Codes, Permitting and Inspection
Course Description: Standards organizations: ASTM
International (ASTM, originally known as the American
Society for Testing and Materials), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA), American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE); International Building Code; local
building codes, structural standards and code
requirements (ASCE 7), fire and access codes; authorities
having jurisdiction (AHJ), variations in local code
requirements, local AHJ labeling requirements; plan
review, permitting and inspection processes; contractor
licensing, specialty licenses, relationship between
contractor licensing and practitioner certification.
Range of Instructional Hours: 15 to 30 hours
Comments: In addition to the NEC, PV installations must
also meet local building code requirements. Most of these
codes somewhat follow the International Building Code
and deal largely with structural loads on building.
However, there is much greater variation from one
jurisdiction to another for these codes than for electrical
codes. This is in part due to regional variations in wind
loads, snow loads and seismic loads, all of which affect
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local training content. Either a 1 or 2 semester credit hour
course can be used to cover this material.
processes. These types of courses are very common
among community colleges, and are typically 3 or 4
semester credit hours.
8.6. Occupational Safety and Health
8.8. Residential and Commercial Wiring
Course Description: OSHA general safety and health
provisions, NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in
the Workplace, safety planning, personal protective and
lifesaving equipment, electrical safety, fall protection,
stairways and ladders, scaffolds, hand and power tool
practices, hazardous materials, Material Safety Data
Sheets (MSDS), Workplace Hazardous Materials
Information System (WHMIS), materials handling,
materials storage and disposal, lifting equipment,
excavation, cranes and crane signals, first aid procedures,
CPR.
Course Description: Electrical plans, layout skills,
electrical safety, electrical service requirements, existing
electrical distribution and grounding systems, power tool
practices, terminal torque specifications, metering,
overcurrent devices, conductors, conductor ampacities,
special circuits, conduit installation practices, wiring
methods, splicing methods, panel box wiring, ground fault
protection systems, grounding techniques, electrical best
practices, signal wiring, electrical test equipment and
procedures, troubleshooting, underground hazards.
Range of Instructional Hours: 10 to 30
Range of Instructional Hours: 75 to 90 hours
Comment: OSHA 10 Hour Cards are required on many
commercial and government jobs. This 10-hour training
course is available from many OSHA-certified
instructors, including online. OSHA also offers more
extensive 30-hour training, which is also available online.
With grid-tied PV, system installers can be seriously
injured or killed. Working with voltages approaching 600
volts, DC or AC, requires extreme caution and extensive
safety training. Batteries are also very dangerous if
handled or installed improperly and requires special
training.
Comments: The lack of hands-on wiring experience is a
major weakness of many training programs. Also, PV
installers need to have practical training not only with
single-phase, but also with three-phase electrical systems.
8.7. Construction Processes
Course Description: Electrical and construction symbols,
blueprint reading, site surveys and plans, site
requirements and access, electrical diagrams, system
plans, building construction practices, construction
materials and characteristics, construction equipment, use
of heavy machinery, foundation requirements, structural
supports, roofing materials, roof construction, mechanical
work, electrical work, project management and flow,
labor costs, materials costs, construction cost estimating,
planning and scheduling.
Range of Instructional Hours: 45 to 60 hours
Comments: PV installation is a construction trade and all
PV installers should have training in construction
8.9. Instrumentation, Measurements and Computer
Networking
Course Description: Fundamentals of measurement
systems: units and definitions, components of
measurement systems, electrical test equipment and
operational procedures, transducers and sensors, sensor
locations, laser alignment; standards and calibration,
weights and measures of materials; data acquisition
systems, computer control and local area networking,
supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA); power
quality measurements; energy metering; energy system
monitoring; diagnostics and troubleshooting;
measurement accuracy and uncertainty, error analysis.
Range of Instructional Hours: 30 to 45 hours
Comments: Knowledge of and skills in these areas are
important in PV system performance verification,
diagnostics, and troubleshooting. Additional training time
in existing courses or separate prerequisite courses is
necessary to develop the required knowledge and skills.
8.10. PV System Design
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Course Description: Principles of operation of PV
systems; the design process; design guidelines: National
Electrical Codes, interconnection standards, equipment
listings, component manufacturers’ design guidelines,
structural and building code standards and requirements,
aesthetic considerations; top level design requirements;
design specifications vs. performance specifications; gridtied system design vs. stand-alone system design vs.
bimodal system design; selecting a system configuration;
functional requirements, operational requirements,
constraints, and tradeoffs; selecting major PV
components: modules, inverters, batteries, charge
controllers, backup power; sizing the PV array; matching
array output to inverter input; designing the battery
subsystem: matching battery subsystem output to inverter
input, specifying charge control equipment and options;
selecting, sizing and configuring all electrical balance-ofsystem components; system and equipment grounding;
specifying interconnection alternatives; completing the
electrical design: developing three-line electrical
drawings; mechanical design considerations: specifying
mechanical support and attachment options, including
structural members, compatible materials and fasteners;
providing representative structural load sample
calculations for selected regions; stand-alone system
design: load analysis; specifying power availability and
energy storage requirements, determining critical design
month, sizing the system; documenting the system design;
system design review and approval; system certification;
listing of reviewed, approved, and/or certified systems.
Range of Instructional Hours: 45 to 60 hours
Comment: Because all PV installations are custom, PV
installers need a solid understanding of PV system design
so they can properly select and adapt a given design to a
site. A 3 or 4 semester credit hour course would cover the
needed material and allow sufficient time for student
design practice.
8.11. PV System Installation (capstone course)
Course Description: Review system design, review site
analysis, inspect and evaluate electrical service entrance
and panel, review all manufacturers’ instructions, confirm
system sizing, review design of energy storage systems,
confirm sizing of all major and balance-of-system
components, secure permits and approvals, manage
project labor, adapt the system design to the site, identify
and finalize locations of subsystems and major
components, identify and finalize locations and pathways
for conduit and electrical conductors, manage project
personnel and equipment, implement a site specific safety
plan, mitigate electrical hazards, install grounding
systems, install conduit and raceways, install electrical
components, install circuit conductors, make the utility
interconnection, install system instrumentation, install
battery components, install equipment foundation, install
mounting system, install PV modules, test the system,
commission the system, complete system documentation,
orient the customer to the system and its operation, review
component and system warranties with customer;
maintenance and troubleshooting activities: perform
visual inspection, verify system operation, perform
corrective actions, verify effectiveness of corrective
actions.
Range of Instructional Hours: 60 to 75 hours
Comment: The course content is based on the NABCEPand industry-approved job task analysis for PV installers.
A 4 or 5 semester credit hour course could be used for this
important capstone course.
9.
SUMMARY OF MODEL CURRICULUM HOURS
Course
Hours
Mathematics ………………………………………..45-60
Solar Energy and Photovoltaic
Fundamentals ………………………………………45-60
Basic Electricity ……………………………………45-90
National Electrical Code …………………………...15-30
Standards, Codes, Permitting and
Inspection ………………………………………......15-30
Occupational Safety and Health…………………...10-30
Construction Processes …………………………….45-60
Residential and Commercial Wiring ………………75-90
Instrumentation, Measurements and
Computer Networking ……………………………...30-45
PV System Design ………………………………….45-60
PV System Installation ……………………………..60-75
Total range of hours for model curriculum
430-630
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10. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Research, focus group findings, and labor market analyses
have indicated that the need for highly skilled PV system
installers is the number one priority of the solar industry.
The Interstate Renewable Energy Council, under contract
with the U.S. Department of Energy, is addressing this
need as National Administrator of the Solar Instructor
Training Network. Since 2010, 728 instructors from nine
different regions of the country have been trained to offer
solar courses as part of this network. These instructors
have already offered approximately 800 solar courses to
nearly 10,000 students. Most of these courses are for PV
system installation. These courses and student graduates
benefit the entire solar industry.
In addition to the training that has been and is currently
being offered by the SITN, the next step to improve the
quality of the PV installer workforce is to offer programs
that are more complete, integrated and foundational.
These programs should include multi-course certificate
and two-year degree programs, and should address both
academic and job-specific competencies. The model
curriculum presented in this paper is a starting point for
that process. The model presents education and training
institutions with opportunities for establishing
prerequisite courses and/or backgrounds, integrating solar
and/or construction content into existing courses,
developing new solar and/or construction courses,
integrating solar and/or construction courses into existing
certificate programs, or developing an entirely new
curriculum for photovoltaic system installers.
The model is based largely on the recently updated job
task analysis developed by the North American Board of
Certified Energy Practitioners (NABCEP). In addition,
elements from the electrical apprenticeship program of
the National Joint Apprenticeship and Training
Committee, the electrical construction and maintenance
program at Hudson Valley Community College, the PV
installers certificate program at Diablo Valley College,
the two-year renewable energy technician program at
Lane Community College, the PV installers training
program at the East Los Angeles Skills Center, and the
results of an industry-driven DACUM for distributed
power systems were used in developing the suggested
curriculum.
The suggested range of instructional time presented for
the entire model program is from 430 to 630 hours. These
numbers are based on a review of the exemplary
programs mentioned above. Note that the number of
instructional hours for a typical academic year is
approximately 450 to 500 hours. Consequently, the
model program constitutes roughly one year of academic
work. Programs with similar content and hours of
instruction should graduate highly skilled PV installers.
11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are pleased to acknowledge the U.S.
Department of Energy for their support of the Interstate
Renewable Energy Council as National Administrator of
the Solar Instructor Training Network. In particular, the
review and comments by Ms. Christina Nichols regarding
the model solar curriculum were much appreciated and
are gratefully acknowledged.
12. REFERENCES
(1) Ventre, Jerry and Weissman, Jane, Workforce
Development: A Survey of Industry Needs and Training
Approaches, Proceedings, American Solar Energy
Society, ASES 2009 National Solar Conference, Buffalo,
New York, May 2009.
(2) Luecke, Andrea, et al., National Solar Job Census
2010, The Solar Foundation, Green LMI Consulting, Inc.
and Cornell University, October 2010.
(3) Luecke, Andrea, et al., National Solar Job Census
2011, The Solar Foundation, Green LMI Consulting, Inc.
and Cornell University, October 2011.
(4) Friedman, Barry, Jordan, Philip, and Carrese, John,
Solar Installation Labor Market Analysis, Strategic
Energy Analysis Center, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-49339
December 2011.
(5) Randazzo, Ann, Energy Competency Model:
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, Center for
Energy Workforce Development, March 2011.
(6) Harold D. Stolovitch and Erica J. Keeps, Telling
Ain’t Training, ASTD Press, ISBN-10: 1-56286-328-2,
2002.
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