C/84-1
BALANCING AUTONOMY AND CONTROL:
THE CASE OF PROFESSIONALS IN SINGAPORE
Stella R. Quah
Department of Sociology
National University of Singapore
Kent Ridge, Singapore
Center for International Studies
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
February 1984
0
Foreword
This sociological study by Professor Stella R. Quah is one of a series
which examines the development of professions as a key to understanding the
different patterns in the modernization of Asia.
In recent years there has been much glib talk about "technology
transfers" to the Third World, as though knowledge and skills could be easily
packaged and delivered.
Profound historical processes were thus made
analogous to shopping expeditions for selecting the "appropriate technology"
for the country's resources.
The MIT Center for International Studies's
project on the Modernization of Asia is premised on a different sociology of
knowledge.
Our assumption is that the knowledge and skills inherent in the
modernization processes take on meaningful historical significance only in the
context of the emergence of recognizable professions, which are communities of
people that share specialized knowledge and skills and seek to uphold
standards.
It would seem that much that is distinctive in the various ways in which
the different Asian societies have modernized can be found by seeking answers
to such questions as:
Which were the earlier professions to be established,
and which ones came later?
What were the political, social and economic
consequences of different sequences in the emergence of professions?
How well
did the professions maintain standards, and how appropriate were the barriers
of exclusion?
What is the effect on recruitment of the political elite and on
their style of politics for specific professions to have high status and
others low status?
How does it happen that emphasis upon the same professions
for achieving the same objectives in modernization can have dramatically
- i -
-
ii
-
different consequences in different societies?
(For example, in both Japan
and India the legal profession was encouraged early in order to produce
government officials, yet India became a litigious society but Japan did not.)
Other planned studies in the series include the experience of Japan,
China, the Philippines, India, and Indonesia.
The project has been made
possible by a grant from the Rockefeller Brothers Fund.
It will also include
a general book on Asia's modernization by the project's director.
Lucian W. Pye
Professor Stella R. Quah is Lecturer in Sociology, Department of
Sociology, National University of Singapore.
She received her Master of
Science degree from the Florida State University, where she was a
Fulbright-Hays Scholar, and her Doctor's degree in Sociology from the
University of Singapore.
- iii
-
TABLE
(OF CONTENTS
IntrodLcti on...............................
me Relevant Concepts..................
The Task.................................
. ..
.. ..
.. .
Page
.1
.
15
Main Historical Features...................
Medicine.................................
Law.....................................
Architecture and Engineering............
.35
.46
Professionals and National Development.....
Major Changes and Present Structure.....
Current Professional Talent.............
Collective
Consciousness and Channels of
.58
.58
.70
Influence. .90
Conclusion............................................
.17
123
References............................................134
Tables................................................148
1
Balancing__Autgngmyand Control: The Case of
Professionals inSingapore
Introduction
The
aim
of
this
to
paper is
Singapore's
selected professions in
nation-building efforts.
analyze
the
role of four
development
historical
and
the large variety of professions
Given
found in the labour force of Singapore today, it is imperative to
a few for
select only
Consequently, four professions have
resources are at a premium.
been selected
for this study
importance given to
Singapore
profession.
the
first
classical
a
and/or the
status
criterion,
are less
of a
development
planners
medicine
and
although
accessible
law
based on
represent
Moreover,
professions.
in
as a traditional
profession
longer history than
development of Singapore
fields
by
two criteria namely, the
architecture are included
while
traditional
professions have a
based on
profession
Engineering and
or
when time and research
detailed analysis
these
the
four
other occupations in the
four
data on
some
of these
and available
than
for other more-
recent occupations.
The discussion will be divided into four sections. The first
section shall
the
analysis
review briefly the main
of
explanatory approaches.
historical
professions,
the
The second
background of
the
establishment
of
these
discussing
section will
development of
professions in Singapore including
the
concepts used currently in
some
provide
relevant
a brief
the selected four
the circumstances surrounding
professions,
their
growth,
organization and other relevant characteristics.
The third section will deal
in
Singapore's
independence,
the
of
influence.
inferences
similarities
the
the input of professionals
development
emphasizing
structure
channels of
some
economic
with
aspects
such as
professions,
The
from the
and
Singapore
with
the major
professional
fourth and
and differences
modernization
final
other
changes in
ideology and
section
situation
since
shall
draw
and outline
nations
in
its
Southeast
Asia.
Some relevant conc epts
The well-known
professions
interest of
(Ritzer,
hypotheses and
1977:41)
sociologists in
has produced
data particularly from
continents. A point
was
Johnson to lament that
situation has not
of
information
approach
will
medicine in
this
"the sociology of
on the professions
be
to
select
third world"
in
a
of the
role of
western' bias
a gap
World countries.
relevant
use them as
architecture,
(1973:281). The
there is still
Third
few
led
the professions... today
changed much since then;
assumptions from the literature and
the analysis
a wealth of concepts,
the American and European
reached when
stands almost alone in ignoring the
the study of the
concepts
and
a framework for
engineering,
Singapore's modernization process.
My
law and
-7
The questions of knowledge,
its definition
and boundaries,
who posseses it and who does not, are at the core of the analysis
of professions everywhere.
paper on the
social
Over thirty
functions of
years ago
ignorance was published in
American Sociological Review. The ideas
Wilbert E.
Moore and Melvin
the understanding of
M.
the status
a provocative
Tumin
expressed by its authors
(1949) remain crucial
and roles of
position."
Here a
on
the
part
or consumer
of
the
earlier
(cf.
between ignorance on the
of services and
specialist
(1949:788-789). Other researchers had
Carr-Saunders and
ignorance
preservative of privileged
dichotomy is created
part of the outsider
secrecy
Tumin is "as
for
the professions in
modern societies. The most relevant of the functions of
identified by Moore and
the
or
knowledge and
service provider
identified this phenomenon
Wilson,
1933:104)
but Moore and
Tumin's concept facilitates a more systematic analysis.
Although
understandably
straitjacket of functionalism,
their
concept
to
identify
attempt to augment and
of specialized
restrained
Moore and
some
ways
knowledge. Two of
not intrinsically
the consumer's problem> but
the
Tumin
in
managed to
use
over the monopoly
such "devices"
vocabulary,"
required for
seemingly so"
theoretical
which professionals
maintain their control
"specialized and possibly esoteric
and techniques
by
are the use of
and "instruments
the solution <of
(1949:789).
Moreover,
specialists do not only have to guard their monopoly of
knowledge
from consumers but
also from
most common device
for this purpose
protection through the control
"potential
competitors."
And
the
is "trade secrets and their
by the specialists
themselves of
4
traihing
The
and thus access to the privileged positions"
the professions
study of
contributions since the time
the
social
function
of
has been
expanded by innumerable
of Moore
ignorance
underlying premises even though
(1949:789).
and Tumin's paper.
remains
one
of
different schools of
Yet,
its
main
thought have
emerged.
For the purpose of
studies
this study,
of professions
is
one based
This classification is summarized
the
three basic
approaches
latter
being
approach,"
the
most
by Ritzer
namely,
recent
classification of
on conceptual approaches.
(1977)
used currently
analysis of the professions
"structural-functional
a useful
in
the sociological
the "process
and the
of
who examines
"power
approach,"
the
approach."
The
three
the
orientations.
(1977:43).
The process approach follows
an occupation
searching for six
"transform"
already
These
or
are:
practice of the occupation;
national
or
of
(b)
its exclusive
association;
its equivalent;
legal
(a)
(e)
(d)
development of
main characteristics that would
have transformed
characteristics
boundaries
the historical
it
into
full-time
(c)
the establishment
a code of ethics;
and public support and recognition
profession.
engagement
a change of name
domain;
a
the
the
to sharpen the
setting
of a training
and
in
up of a
school
(f) the seeking of
(Ritzer,
1977:46-48).
The structural-functional_a2proach analyzes the "distinctive
from other occupations.
approach.
general
and systematic
the
his
transmitted
a
(e)
trust;
client's
a norm
of autonomy
norm of
altruism or
of
the specialist to have
need for
culture
occupational
distinctive
through socialization
norm
(d)a
self-interest;
of
clients, or the
authority over
a
(c)
control;
devoid
(b)
theory;
body of
being
of
claim
or claim over a
the possesion of,
(a)
from external
freedom
are identified
such characteristics
Six
They are:
by this
i.e.,
the professions
and structure that differentiate
characteristics"
of students
or recruits; and
(f) the recognition by the law and the community of the preceding
five
characteristics or claims
"the power needed by an occupation
on two aspects of power
i.e.,
to acquire professional
recognition"
once it
1977:43).
a marginof
indetermination or the degree
routinized;
(b)
control over
their
power
(Ritzer,
and
to
1977:56-62).
power is defined as
"privileged
their
deal
with
Within the
(a)
to which a task can be
regarding the
possible solution to his/her problem;
professions justify
power namely,
uncertainty that is, the
areas of
consumer's or client's uncertainty
features of
three main
of professional
an
(Ritzer,
that position"
has achieved
such acquisition and retention
such
power
"the
and
approach identifies
The power
48-56).
the power agroach focuses
Unlike the other two approaches,
occupation wields
1977:
(Ritzer,
and
nature and/or
(c) ideology or how the
to
expand
and external
threats
status"
internal
context of the
used
power
approach,
6
the ability
of an
occupation Cits
leaders>,- to obtain
and
retain
a
set
of
rights
and
privileges
and
obligations from
societal
groups
that otherwise might
not grant them (Ritzer, 1977:56).
An
important clarification
is
p2-r-se
societies.
is
order.
social
given
usually
in
Professional
most
in
recognition
expertise
High prestige scores given to professional
modern
occupations
by populations studied
in
evidence of such social
recognition. But the power approach deals
Europe
and the
United
States
give
with something more than the deserved recognition of expertise in
a given area
power
if
other
it
of knowledge. Indeed, a
succeeds
groups in
in
overcoming potential
the community
aspects of social
profession is said to have
to its
life beyond the
resistance
from
expanding influence over
boundaries of the profession's
expertise.
In this connection, one important
three
approaches
is
the
common denominator in all
recognition
ignorance by the
professionals in
their privileged
position.
of
the
order to
Indeed,
manipulation of
attain or
preserve
such manipulation is hinted
by three of the six characteristics given by the process approach
namely,
the
change
of
name,
and
the
setting
of a national
association and a training school.
In
identified
a
more
by the
manipulation of
of a systematic
authority over
this
explicit
respect.
manner,
three
structural-functional
the client's
body
of theory,
the client.
All
ignorance:
three
and the
of
approach
the
six features
deal with
the
the claim of possession
norms of
The power approach
of
the
is
features
autonomy and
more emphatic
identified
in
but
7
first
particularly
the
and
over
control
professionals'
two
areas
attempt
put
the margin
of uncertainty
to
ignorance of outsiders.
i.e.,
contrast
The power
of
deal
their
indetermination
directly
with the
knowledge
approach position is
with
the
succinctly
by Ritzer thus:
in a systematic effort to
the professions often engage
create the illusion that there is something distinctive
a profession might
about
their
knowledge.
Sometimes
even go further and artificially produce a distinctive
body of knowledge and deny others access to it in order
to improve their position. (1977:49).
After reviewing the three current approaches in the study of
the professions, Ritzer proposes
an
approach which
"integrated"
would combine features of the
process and power approaches and a
modified structural-functional
approach. This integrated approach
would emphasize three aspects of the analysis of the professions.
These aspects are:
(a)
Interpreting
structural-functional
power that professions
that they do not
possess but have
that they have (Ritzer, 1977:63).
description
structural-functional
tell
us what a
of
approach
profession is
"greatly reduce" the
they have or they
six
already have, or traits
been able to
convince others
In this connection it has been
characteristics
as defining
but only what
professions
far from
themselves claim
the
"do not
it pretends
to be"
power, following
possessing the
seen by
a profession
(b) Investigating the structural
(Larson, 1977:xii).
that professionals,
either traits
approach notasreal but as
derived from the
said that the
of professions in the
the characteristics
factors that
the
premise
power people think
to have, actually
depend on
8
the
"society's dominant elites"
(Ritzer,
1977:64).
occupations
The influence
are
sponsorship to
to obtain and
professions,
attain
of
the
and maintain
exaggerated nature of professional
been also identified
others.
retain such power
ideology in
determining
need
elite
for
professional
status,
(1977)
and Larson
(c) Acknowledging that the actual
across time and geographical
To these points I-would add
professions depends also on the
of
the society in
question.
decline in the power
"deprofessionalization"
of
1973;
Oppenheimer,
will
be seen
technology is
1973;
later,
less uncertainty);
or institutions. The
no
On the one
Singapore
ignorance
Ritzer,
Stone, 1976;
there is
"deprofessionalization"
consumers'
decrease in the
a consequent de-mystification of
giving preponderance
on the other hand,
a
changes taking
but
and
1977:63-67).
consensus on
hand,
large
latter face
demand for democratic accountability
deprofessionalization.
of
changes are:
process of
of professions as employees of
public or private corporations
an increasing public
is, a
of three main
(less indetermination,
and the "proletarianization"
1977:63-66).
researchers forsee a
professions that
as a result
activities
(Ritzer,
society
political and economic structure
consumers' ignorance;
professional
areas
in
that the degree of power of the
place in modern societies. These
level
have
and perceived power of
Indeed, several
of the
and the
(1977) among
the professions varies not only among different groups
butalso
state
or
attributes and privileges
by Freidson
what
(Haug,
As it
the process of
the current
emphasis on
to the role of professionals;
data suggest not a
a significant
full
process of
decrease in
de-mystification
of
the level
professional
9
activities.
This issue of the real
or potential
the professions leads us to a third
significant
in
decline in
the power of
type of studies which
this discussion. The
analysis of
government bodies
occupations.
But
are
analysis
perhaps
over others or
or
in
or
to
In
both
authority
their autonomy and self-determination or both.
decision-making,
governments
and
place
and
what
questions that have been explored by
(1976),
Ritzer
an
on
impact on policy
are
professionals.
could
be
for
technology
corporations
of
and
pressure
decisive
dependence
increasing
corresponding increasing influence
take
corporations. The second
do have
and
ministries,
institutions,
and
potentially
as
which could
their
in organizations which
as employees
and government-owned
groups
The first
analysis are complementary.
corporations
interest
Tuohy
either their
to consolidate
seen
resulting from
compromise
even
of
process of
parties in a
are seen as
cooperation
professionals
(1973),
are
professionals
level.
private
may
angles
the national
one sees
process
revealing
decision-makers at
at professionals
With
most
level,
government bodies
making.
the "non-professional"
organization
These two angles of
include
at
managers
their respective efforts
one looks
when
groups involved
confrontation,
two
groups such
the
juxtaposition to
cases, all
the
obtained
governments and
or any of
also
professions has
invariably contrasted professionals with other social
as consumers,
is
its
facing
How
a
this
outcome are
reseachers such as Freidson
(1977) and
Lansbury
(1978) among
10
others.
They have
worth considering
The
that
argument is
market
is
by
input
professionals'
responsibilities
and assuring the
services
case discussed
(Tuohy,
further,
citizens
law"
of
and
has
physicians,
to create
to
more
professionals'
by Freidson
occupation into
"imperative
argument on
in
their
social
to
trend
are the
the United
States
Both cases involve the
recently,
the
"cost
West Germany to limit
centralize
the
participatory
developments that
quest for autonomy
(1973).
inverse
health
the
services
mechanisms for the
is hinted
He assumes that within an organization,
association
a profession
coordination"
in
between
the
and the
the
transformation
the remaining of
professionals
may
lose
control
under management
there
of
an
management's capacity for
Weberian sense.
for
workers"
may restrain the
and market control,
outcome being,
"technical
serve as a
of access"
of this
More
been designed in
highly
addition to the Canadian
in West Germany.
1976).
"right
a
(Landsberg, 1980).
The second
is an
In
of
which
broadening
citizens'
1976).
(Stone,
profession
influence
state"
other examples
by Tuohy,
and Economic Monitoring
containment
that are
monopoly of the
"rise
Standards Review_Organizations
Professional
medical
the
welfare
watchdog of the
professional
arguments
professional
curtailed
technology and
interdependent
three
in this study.
first
knowledge
separately,
posed,
The
possible
this century at least, that
of
their
control.
work
and
become
11
The analysis
of
professionals
advanced by Landsbury
three
basic
(1978)
assumptions
professionals
("service
management")
in
a
assumptions
followed
hypotheses:
an
versus management is further
who conducted an
on
the
authority
management")
large
the
increase
and
British
same
in
empirical
relations
between
management
("line
corporation.
basic
argument
their
work
by
"incompatibility"
organization's
professionals,
with
line
the
will
management,
but
conflict between these two groups and,
Freidson's
the claims of
over the content
create
bureaucratic
Landsbury's
of
"professionalism" of
autonomy, more decison-making power, and control
of
test of
not
only more
principles
also
will
of
the
increase
the
if line management becomes
more dependent on the expertise of professionals, the latter will
rapidly
"encroach" themselves
as
executive function of management
The data collected
hypotheses.
by
Nevertheless,
his
Landbury
three
main
"academics"
types
reports that
namely,
based on their
organization, and
study
One is
case organization do not form a
upon
the
(1978:xiii).
Landsbury, however,
other relevant assumptions.
professionals.
a "technostructure"
rejected
produced
on
evidence of two
the hetereogeneity
the
professionals in
homogeneous block.
"careerists,"
commitment
the advancement
of
to
these
own
his
He identifies
"functionaries,"
their
of
career,
and
the
their
field of knowledge,
respectively. More importantly, conflict was
observed more among
the
various
professionals
groups
professionals and managers (1978:155).
themselves
than
between
12
or
"new"
were
professionals that is, computer
"non-traditional"
and
specialists, operations researchers
the traditional
to refute the classical
(1977),
perspective. Larson
presence of
as between professions
sees each profession
what the issue
the
underlies
jurisdiction
(1973:31).
another"
over
paradigm
between
competition
common
over a particular area of
The second
lacking a sense
that
the
of belonging
and
functionalist
has been exaggerated.
culture
profession
whole. Considering
the
If
phenomenon
This
for
professions
"collective consciousness"
it
power
rapidly
"class."
It is
consciousness
approaches
(i.e.,
a
and an ideology, respectively),
exists,
and not
to a
the
in
professionals
collective
characteristic
the
distinctive occupational
a
is and how it is
expertise.
the
found
He
professionals.
corporation
within
"a
assumption supported by Landsbury's
and related
(1978) data is that there.is a lack of
implied in
i.e.,
paradigm
appeals to the superior importance
the professions whereby "each
possible
And Freidson
(1977:xv).
This influences of course the "political activity" of
solvable."
among
and
Freidson
"different ties with
its own
embracing
as
taken-for-granted conception of
one
of
functionalist
"changing coalitions" among factions within a
a ruling class" and
profession as well
views
voicing the
other researchers, stresses the
of
including
professions, has been recognised by some scholars
as an argument
who use it
But
systems analysts.
groups in general,
of professional
the hetereogeneity
by Landsbury
the professionals analysed
One may argue that
across
it
may be
found sometimes
professional
changing political,
groups as a
social
and
13
economic
dimensions
whenever
a
of
collective
the composition
societies,
modern
it
consciousness'
of the
is
is
found,
that
expected
its
professions involved may
duration
and
vary from
group
to group and from society to society.
Underscoring
Landsbury
goes
the importance
back
to
suggests that conflict
likely
to occur
one
of
of
between
which
authority"
(1978:156).
challenges
his
original
represents
the
others
feel
that
corporations, professionals may
goals and
identify with
definition of
undistinguisable
from
reinforce each other
those
of
(Mosher,
1978:145;
In addition to the aspects
consciousness and homogeneity of
in
influence"
this
used by
study
the
relevant discussion of the
public
service,
is
Mosher
associations are not the
professionals to "initiate
management
and
in
1980).
(1977) in his
of
collective
another aspect of
of
professional
Singapore.
professions in
states
become
in fact,
Anderson et.al.,
"channels
only or even
or
these goals
the problem
(1978)
agencies and
to influence the re-
that
four professions
role of
latter's
the organization's
professionals,
the
the
governmental
proposed by Ritzer
focus on
integrated approach and the
interest
the
"is
with this hypothesis of
are able
goals so
management
of
either share
them or
organizational
in
hypotheses and
a unified source of
legitimacy
Although many power theorists agree
confrontation,
consciousness,
professionals and
where the former
expertise
collective
a
that
In
his
the American
professional
the main vehicle
used by
modify or veto policy proposals or
14
affect them
in their
see whether the same
of
professional
on
the
may help
will
policy-formulation
serve as
to
of
modernization
Accordingly, Mosher's five
It
(1978:144).
argument applies to
influence
professions in
impact
execution"
important to
Singapore. The concept
unveil
the
Singapore
and
"channels
is
policy
role of the
through
implementation
of professional
another frame of reference
in
their
influence
the analysis of the
professions in Singapore.
These five
are:
(a) the
political
the
channels as
election or
or judicial;
appointment of
managerial
agencies
by
professionals who operate
dominate and which
profession;
pressures
(d)
bringing
upon political
extragovernmental
channels
associations, labor
unions,
professionals at
policies
one level
of another
level
operating
high
or monopoly of
positions
professions;
agencies
which
they
of
(c)
the
do
not
fact largely controlled by another
of
ideas, modes
executives and
their appropriate committees
control
individual
within
may be in
the
and
(1978:145-146)
professionals to
(b) the effective
significant
administrative
identified by Mosher
by
of
thought
legislative bodies and
professionals through
. (i.e.,
etc);
media,
and
of government
through,
counterpart professionals at another
or in
level.
and,
(e)
the
indirect
professional
influence
of
on the operations and
alliance with,
their
The Task
The preceding pages have
relevant
conceptual
presented a brief
premises
in
this
overview of
study.
Based
premises, this paper attempts to
probe three general
on
in
the role
of four professions
or hypotheses refer to (a)
their
ideology;
More
and
(c)
it
structure of
(a)
is
regarding
assumed
that
on those
assumptions
Singapore. These assumptions
their channels of
specifically:
professions,
the
the
the
the professions;
(b)
influence.
the
structrure
characteristics
of
of the
professions as outlined by the process, structural-functional and
power
approaches
professions. And even
they do not
effect
position.
those
of
the
to
the four
characteristics are
observed,
together neither do they remain 'in
do not share Johnson's
I
However.
that the
He asserts
professions in the Third
all
_a2glicable
when these
necessarily occur
continuously.
extreme
not _full_
are
characteristics of the
World are fundamentally
professions
in
developed
(1973:285)
different from
countries. Hopefully,
evidence from this analysis will shed some light on this issue.
(b)
In
terms of
the four professions
each -9E22
are more
than across _roups.
consciousness
it is
ideology,
assumed that in Singapore
likely to
If
there
is
be homogeneous
any kind of
(ascertained indirectly in this
within
collective
study) among these
professions or within a given profession, it is more likely to be
"stratum
consciousness"
than
"class
consciousness."
The
distinction being that stratum consciousness is the perception of
common characteristics and
identification
with, and
commitment
16
to, stratum interests and ideology;
a type of
class consciousness Would be
stratum consciousness based
as wealth and prestige
derived from
on economic criteria
wealth
(Morris
such
and Murphy,
1974:160-161).
(c) The third
professionals
do
and final
exert
policy-implementation
it
assumed that
assumption is
influence
but more-as
professionals
upon
that in
policy-formulation and
individuals than as agroup
use channels
of
than--and in addition to--their own professional
the five channels identified by Mosher
the most commonly
used.
They are:
election to high political
"search
for
years, as a
talent";
positions in the
social
and
(a)
through
to
these
professionals.
various
through appointment
or
mainly during the past
managerial
and
in
channels
leadership's
and
executive
(c) through agencies, both
emphasis on
meritocracy currently prevalent
access
associations. Of
result of the political
consultants. It
political
influence other
or judicial office, and managerial and
private sector;
public and private, as
the
(b)
Is
(1978) the first three are
executive positions in the public sector,
ten to fifteen
Singapore,
is further
paper qualifications and
Singapore,
of
assumed that
has
facilitated
influence by individual
1'7
But
before proceeding,
help to assess the
Some of
unofficial
other
will
them
be
tested with
are published
data
material
from
various
on official and
views of professionals and government representatives;
sources
are
personal
communications
administrators. The nature
scarcity
will
findings realistically. The three assumptions
guiding this analysis
sources.
the data sources used
a note on
of
resources,
of
the
all
project, its
precluded
interviews with a representative
with practitioners and
the
timetable
use
of
and
personal
sample of practitioners
in the
four professions. This is a major shorcoming of the study. On the
positive side, the
spokesmen
of
professions'
elected and
presented
the professions
are
situations
views of
reliable
a
as
position
of
source
appointed leaders
in
collectivities,
are
sources
data
provide quantitative bases
for
that
or formal
on
information
issues. In addition, official and historical
statistics
official
and
regarding
these
relevant
documents and census
complement
the picture and
comparisons between
and
across
professions.
Main Historical Features
Confronted with
development
of medicine,
professions in
of
the
time
The purpose of a historical
on the
architecture
as
one feels compelled to set explicit
and depth,
development
historical material
engineering and
law,
human history,
boundaries both in
account
the vastness of
of
for
these
background
the necessary historical
professions in
in
Singapore.
the present discussion
18
for either common characteristics
is twofold. Firstly, to search
or
the
in
deviations'
during
independence i.e.,
the onset of
from
development
in
attained
Singapore
before
period
historical
the
professions in
three assumptions outlined above
to test the
England. Secondly,
historical
their
with
Singapore in comparison
these
of
development
British rule in 1819 until
1965.
To depart
from a broad
perspective, a
professions is
the history of these
note of
provided by
interest on
Larson
(1977).
She sees the development of modern medicine, law, engineering and
architecture, as historically
the social
structure in continental
from those of
United
dependent on
the
certain features
Europe which were different
"Anglo-Saxon" societies
States. Larson
that in
argues
professions owe their advance to
England and
of
continental
the bureaucratic principles and
Napoleonic France;
architecture in
medicine in
Tsarist Russia.
authority planned
and/or
the
Europe these
state intervention of strong centralized governments:
and
of
in Prussia;
modern
these cases, the political
In all
propelled
law
engineering
the
of
development
these
professions for the benefit of the state, and there was little if
any
difference
between
contrast, the present
features of
the
professionals
the professions
Larson
is
and
the
bureaucrats.
In
market-oriented autonomy and other current
"laissez-faire capitalist
in England
and
United
correct when
States only.. But British
one
originated, according to
Larson, in
industrialization" that took place
States
(1977:xvii-xviii).
thinks of
colonies in the
England
Perhaps
and the United
nineteenth century did
19
not
necessarily
their
professions.
applied to
bring
management,
personnel,
to
the
and
among
British
historical
in
Singapore
to
other
in
and
development
state
infrastructure,
to
help
health
of
the
as Singapore was
first
the
was
intervention
needed
of
for
the
in
its
colonial
things.
now
1819
1959
of
the development
in
professionals
after
look
known
domain
government
some measure
colony's
The territory
pattern
the same
Rather,
of
building
follow
and
Singapore
only
attained
independence
in
of the
professions
four
taken
1965.
under
self-
Therefore,
the
in England is
directly relevant to their situation in the Republic of Singapore
today.
More specifically,
these professions would be
Indeed,
expected to follow
One
was
the
of the
the professions>,
(the
students from the colonies
commenced
in
of
1973:286).
professional
general
migrants" from
on contract
with the colonial
influence was through the inflow of
in search of
As it
Singapore only
nineteenth century while the
took two
pioneers of private enterprise in
or consultants
government. The other form of
(Johnson,
British empire
"outflow
England as either settlers
England
British patterns.
in Singapore and other British colonies in the nineteenth
century, the influence
forms.
current structure and functions of
the
will
during
professional training in
be seen later,
the
final
former was practically
feature throughout the colonial
period.
the latter
years of the
a permanent
20
Nevertheless, the
influence of
reached the British colonies
Johnson believes
occupational
"corporate
under a set
created a
professions. He argues
control"
unique
that
a
by the
patronage"
opposite to
"character"
"it
is
the
themselves"
professionalism.
the
principles
developed" although this
unimportant"
the
of
the
United
development
client--a
powerful,
and this
is
of
course
of
the professional
autonomy
ideology
and
ideology
authority
of professionalism
"never
was
"not
(1973:285).
development
professionalism due to
and
"institutionalised
Furthermore, Johnson asserts that
Two viewpoints are in contrast
assumption
the colonies'
the profession rather than the
"where corporate patronage prevailed,"
involving
of
in
state took place. Johnson labels it
where
occupation
styles
of circumstances which
new type
corporate client--which regulates
members of the
English professional
here. First, Larson's
of
the
the laissez-faire
States,
would
in the British
lead
modern
ideology
capitalism in
us
to
expect
colonies. Migration
(1977)
of
England
a similar
of professionals
and students both ways plus the influence of British professional
associations would reinforce such an
expectation.
(1973) views
a development
appear to
corporate patronage. The
state intervention
colonies while
development
at
refute such
British Crown,
principles seen in
allowing
home.
professions do indicate
a
Yet,
more
it
market-oriented
the presence
of
in
favour of
seems, applied
continental
historical
Yet, Johnson's
accounts
the
Europe to its
and
of
flexible
individual
state intervention
England albeit unevenly applied among professions through time.
in
21
Data
from
the
historical
architecture and engineering
development.
shaping of
at
the
There was a
backgrounds
the manifestation
decisive government
classical
the private
and
ideology.
relationships
of
There
between
development
in
the
these professions. But,
of
some
or
professions
was
also
professionals
bureaucracy which contributed to the
the dual
intervention
sector offered opportunities for
strengthening
characteristics
professional
medicine, law,
in Singapore indicate in fact a dual
the structure and functions of
same time,
of
of government
a
of
the
including
complex
and
all
the
a
network
of
government
stability and permanence of
intervention and professional
ideology.
Specific examples of
highlights of
by describing the
individually. While
can be
found
all the
the
today,
background shall
the
discussion
independence.
on
modernization
the
This
four professions'
of
dual
section
on
the
present
be limited to
provided in this section
above features
history
development
historical
the period from the foundation of
Singapore by Sir Stamford Raffles in
attained
be
this will
will
professionals
since independence.
1819 to 1965,
prepare
the
contribution
when Singapore
ground for the
to
Singapore's
Medicine
1815,
In
port in
Singapore as a British
Apothecaries Act was passed
"regular
medical
in
practitioners
of the community.
This was a
profession since,
different
groups
coherent
Wilson,
and
of
India
in
Company.
Penang
up to
that time,
there
were four
it
has
Chaos
been
reigned."
surgeons,
said
that
"no
(Carr-Saunders
The
Company
which had been
of the
and
British Crown was
had set
up
its
Penang.
The
care of by
Senior
already
training apprentices as
were approved by the
Company in
1822
Prince of Wales Island,
Settlements,
headquarters of
with
the Company's
arrangement
reorganization of
of the
the
Medical
-the
assistants and his plans
(Lee, 1978:3-4).
into
the
In 1826,
"British
Singapore and Malacca" or
Penang
as
Medical
Department
settlements
Department
been exploring
Malacca and Singapore were incorporated
Settlements of
the British
the Company's Medical
Surgeon had
Medical
under British domain before
It appears that up to 1826 the medical needs of
possibility of
new
protect the health
step towards reform of
the representative
settlers were taken
Straits
order to
1933:77-78).
Department
Penang,
to be given to
education"
significant
the
Parliament. This Act
practitioners--physicians,
structure existed.
the East
in
in
druggists--and
In Singapore,
1819.
medical
England
the medical
apothecaries
East-Indies trade network,
its
in the British
stressed the need for
the island of
Raffles acquired
four years before
the
capital
where the
remained.
This
prompted an administrative
Department
to
meet new
demands.
Thus,
two years
levels
of
later,
personnel
"subordinated
"superior
1828,
in
namely,
native
the
the
branch"
Department
"superior
branch"
administrative positions
Assistant Surgeon.
"native"
In
for
this
subordinate
the
general,
that
origins
Crown
of
the
very much
service
was
population
expanded
(Lee,
to
1978:3)
administrative personnel"
In
1827 the General
the
or,
Department of
to
more
exactly,
hitherto
including
"natives"
than other patients
to
the
the
civilian
"white
(Johnson, 1973:287).
and civilian
for civilian patients,
requiring Europeans
(Lee, 1978:25-26).
primarily
British
a military
was declared a separate hospital
"western"
by necessity,
the
of
care
of access
the East India
perform
Later on,
hospital,
and
in
the British
introduced the first
in the settlements
Hospital,
profession
hands of
in the
army surgeons.
military duties as
justify the label
medical
archipelago
Malayan
to
It
state intervention or corporate
Company. It was the Company which
to
the
the Medical
represented by
physicians
seemed
(Lee, 1978:7-9).
(1973) term. The control
patronage to borrow Johnson's
practice was
Surgeon
level.
Singapore were clearly marked by
to medical
i.e.,
The medical subordinate
ranks were open to both British and Eurasians
presence
The
British practitioners who
top
latter's
profession.
for
occupied the three
the
the
medical
reserved
was
and
the
was
Surgeon, and
two
of
branch"
Major,
included
to pay
higher fees
24
needs of
The medical
time by an
which
assortment of
were
traditional
of
institutions
founded
traditional
by
races"
remedies.
treatment was
A
At the
also provided by
of
with the selffew
charitable
philanthropists"
Medical
were
also
Institution
was
the land for its building
given "to
skills in traditional
(Turnbull, 1977:116-117).
most common
combination
The Thong Chai
using the sinsehs'
care was-
in
The government provided
1892. Free medical
were met at the
sources, the
"Chinese
available to the indigent.
in
local population
healing
healers
prescription
one of these.
the
the poor
Chinese medicine
government level,
the Medical
of all
Department's
some medical
subordinated
native branch comprising the Sub-assistant Surgeon, apothecaries,
assistant
apothecaries
and
apprentices,
technically, assist the local population
and serious conditions.
India,
that is,
Caucasians
But the former
"Indo-Britons"
(Lee,
1978:8).
The
or
observed by the Senior Surgeon.
training of local
"Subordinate
personnel
Medical
government approval
in
of
whom
could,
in emergency situations
were few and mostly from
"Eurasians" in
language
these assistants when attending the
all
barrier
addition
to
thus faced by
local population was readily
His plan for the recruitment and
and the
Establishment"
upgrading of the
was
1853 (1978:12-13).
branch to
presented and received
Parallel
to the
opportunities for
sector of medical
the
the nineteenth
Department throughout
of
of
development
Medical
century, was the emergence
creation and
the
government's
expansion
services. The salaries
of a
private
paid by the East India
Company to the higher and
subordinate Medical
Establishment were
low and the conditions
service poor. Their
discontent reached
the press and
advantages
a
of
newspaper
held out
render persons
to remaining
indifferent
in
"and
service
became the principal
among the natives"
Government
of
One year later, one
government
promptly
practice concurrently in
1978:11).
order
apparently allowed
low pay. Understandably, this
of
that
in
up
"the
the several
this class
employ"
set
(Lee,
perfectly
1978:11).
from the
private practice and
here and
marine surgeon
(Lee,
1845
apothecaries resigned
the
conditions also led the Government
Government
wrote in
well-educated Eurasians
to
mercantile houses here
reporter
in good
practice
Low salaries and poor working
physicians to conduct private
to suppplement their
income.
The
for
their
flexibility was detrimental
to the
this
as
"compensation"
quality of medical care provided at the Government hospitals. The
press
criticised
pernicious system"
at stated
hours,
this
situation strongly
indicating that
issue their
apprentice do the rest"
(Lee,
doctors
orders and
1978:69).
in
"visit
1869
as "a most
the hospitals
the apothecary and his
26
The setting up of private practice
government service and had
in
were not
European physicians who
the perspicacy of appreciating the gap
poor
quality and organization of
1978:28).
up by a British surgeon to this
the situation, private medical
the
hospitals..
public
A private
according to Lee's
functioning in 1837 but
Such a
cost
but
at the
same
in
1837:
"only
European practitioner
was manifested in a newspaper
must
be assessed
but moderate for an
wich is
sailor's hard-earned pitance can bear"
editorial
is still found
recognition of the
certain
this country
The prestige attached
already
fees charged by the private
a charge
in
was
(1978) description of
difference
time, a
physicians right to such high fees
editorial
hospital
were more expensive than
services
today. There were complaints of high
hospital
medical services.
the government
is a newspaper advertisement put
(Lee,
in health services and the
this trend towards private practice
One of the earliest signs of
effect in 1834
was already common among
may be
much more
than a
(1978:29).
to medical
practice
with caution.
hinted in
Why would medicine be
years of the
in the early
perceived as a prestigious occupation
this
colony? The English press was addressed to the educated minority,
primarily Europeans. Accordingly, it appears that to some extent,
the regard
for higher
education in
degree in particular, was
and adopted
with
the
first by the
former.
general,
brought to Singapore
local groups
Nevertheless,
among
and
for a medical
by the Europeans
who had most
the
local
interaction
population,
healing skills
have traditionally been
regarded with higher deference than most
other gifted or skilled
individuals
who possess
.2
7
people.
or
Furthermore,
among the Chinese for
scholars
have historically
been
in
In
words,
elite
society.
traditions
of
other
the immigrant
members of the
considered
groups
the
that
set
intellectuals
of
values
and
formed the Singapore
already included the assignation of high
at that time,
population
example,
prestige to the practice of healing skills and the recognition of
the importance of education to attain status in
The periods of
independence,
ordinances
colonial
a
produced
considerable
amended. They
registration,
medical
dealt with
Medical
1972:3-131).
acts
legislation were
matters such as medical
advertising
and
registration was, however,
the most discussed issue. It began with Ordinance 9 of
was repealed
times between
23 of
the
in 1907 by Ordinance 11.
Ordinance,
gatekeeper of
fourteen
government,
four the
Tha latter was amended five
underwent some amendments before 1965.
the
the medical
physician
1905 which
1946 and finally repealed by the Ordinance
1907 and
1953 which itself
1953
and
profession.
the medical
medicines
education,
of
number
pieces of
twenty-nine such
passed and/or
(Srinivasagam,
intermediate stages before
and regulating
dealing with
From 1866 to 1965,
rule and
society.
Medical
Council
profession. The
members,
four
universities
of
(one
was
formed
Council
whom
as
In
the
consisted of
represented
in Malaysia
Singapore>, and six the physicians in private practice.
the
and one in
28
Despite
the
intervention,
one
manifestation of
the last
colonial
in
can
the
part of
that government
were
signs
corporate
observe
an
physicians'
could
exert
entirely
state
professional
position"
accountants. The latter two categories of
already in
Comparing
commented in
different
or
of autonomy"
century.
upon
press
patronage
interesting albeit indirect
"norm
the nineteenth
service, the
"an
of
the control
people
in
1870 that physicians
from
engineers
left
to
their
consciences."
suggested an increase in
that
"the allurements
(Lee,
1974:70).
on this
work
belief,
the press
the government physicians'
salaries so
of
Assuming
beliefs of the educated
Based
and
professionals could not
be allowed to conduct private practice while the physicians'
"is
the
private practice"
the
newspapers
would be
voiced
the
"removed"
general
population in the colony, these comments
convey the community's conviction that the content of work of the
medical
profession
should be entirely
determined by the doctors
themselves.
In factby the end of
young men
from
completed
their
ambition was to
the nineteenth century, as more local
well-to-do
secondary
send
young
men
Straits
Chinese
education,
England
to
their
obtain a
families
parents'
degree
in
profession. Medicine had already attained
a high status in their eyes.
such
or
English
them to
medicine or some other
of
Baba
Lim Boon Keng was
to return
to
Singapore
one of the first
with
a degree in
medicine and promptly became a community leader. He was member of
the Legislative Council
Chinese British
from
Association,
1895 to 1905,"founder of the Straits
member
of
the
Chinese
Advisory
2n9
enroll
Board, and first to
in
Company
Volunteer
and with another medical
Turnbull's
of the
Dr
colleague,
(1977) historical
Singapore at
in
that
assumption
of
higher ranks
(Turnbull,
Europeans, young local professionals
"launched
1977:106-117).
events and
of the
century confirms the
and
this
in
case
of influence. Although the
government
colonial
the
Yin Suat Chuan,
the
use several channels
physicians, did
Chinese
the
Straits Chinese Magazine,
professionals,
individual
the Philomatic
among
description
turn of
the
founded
morality
to discourage opium smoking"
a campaign
people
also
Confucian
a co-publisher
community, was
the Chinese
Britain's support in
He
1901."
strenghtened
Society,
in
were
restricted
to
like Lim Boon Keng
and took their place
became leaders in the professions
alongside wealthy merchants as legislative councillors,
peace. The
of the
municipal councillors, and justices
elite provided a
Asian
English-educated professional
began a subtle westernizing
new type of leadership and
Singapore society...opening the way
and modernizing of
accept
and
to
assimilate
community
the
Asian
for
system and
judicial
the
British
medicine,
western
European educational methods. (1977:120).
was
It
precisely
responsible for
Singapore in
the
been
intellectual
local
establishment
of
the
1905. This was a crucial year
the medical profession:
had
this
the
year
school
medical
thus
practitioners
serving as an
appropriate prelude to the opening of the first medical
brief note on some relevant
proceeding. In
served
for the
1835 the
rest
of
in
in the development of
the registration of medical
earlier in
legislated
elite who was
school.
A
background events is in order before
Madras Medical
the century
College was
as the training
founded and
center
where
30
young Singapore
applicants
were sent before
upper ranks of the Subordinate Branch of
lowest
rank
of
apprentices
other
words,
in
Singapore
education
during
was
1905
named
when the
"The
Government
King
Straits
Medical
government to open
century
dependent
on
medical
British
India. England itself was only
Wilson,
(Colony
It was
of
reluctance on
house
not until
of Medicine originally
Federated
and
a medical school;
own medical
1933:79).
College
Settlements
founded. There was some
nineteenth
trying to put its
Edward VII
School"
training
University Bachelorship of Medicine
and the profession there was
(Carr-Saunders and
The
Service.
1974:7-16).
entirely
1832 reforming the Oxford
in order
(Lee,
the
facilities either in England or in
in
the Medical
usually received on-the-job
since 1822 but without much success
In
being posted to the
Malay
Singapore,
the part of
it
States
1953:22)
was
the colonial
was considered to be an
extremely complex task and when they finally agreed they hastened
to label
fact,
an attempt
by the colonial authorities to set up
a medical
assistant
it
"an
surgeons
European Medical
students applied
1965:20).
experiment."
to
In
treat
the
natives
officers in their routine
and the idea
was made
in
1889
school
"to train
to
assist the
and
duties."
was thus abandoned
But only two
(Kanagaratnam.
31
This time.,
institution
the
their
was
for the training
the happy outcome
Chinese
school
of a
to
be
of medical
a
surprised the
by the
1977:120).
With
for
the
the
School's
college,
the
of the $71,000 that the
government had requested as a precondition
needed
leaders of
British authorities with
prompt donation of $87,0(00 instead
money was
educational
doctors. Its opening was
strong lobbying
community. They
higher
to their
building
Singapore
and
approval;
fund
the
the
(Turnbull,
rest of the
Straits Settlements obtained a certain degree of control over the
its own physicians.
training of
emerged in
1910
Medicine and
1953).
1950's
of
an
original
1965:
(Kanagasantheram,
students
Medical
out
Surgery
in
Council
of
(Tay,
39)
by
about
23
the
and
the
first
year
Licentiate
British
in
General
Colony of Singapore,
1965:10;
graduates
average of
an
of
group
recognized
1916
The production
with
was
The first batch of six graduates
remained modest
fourteen
until
the
graduates per year
(Kanagaratnam, 1965:22).
In 1953 there were
34 graduates and the
figures reported by
(1965:13) indicate
an annual
Lim
average of
61 graduates from 1953 to 1965.
In
terms
of
the power
relations
England, to say that the Medical College
control
between
the colony and
had a certain degree of
may, in fact, be an overstatement. The teaching staff and
the curriculum were British,
London remained
and the General
the supreme source
of professional
recognition throughout the colonial period
the Act of
1858 as
Registration of
the
Medical
Kindom"
approval
in
and
since its creation by
the "General Council of Medical
United
Council
(Carr-Saunders
Education and
and
Wilson,
32
the private sector.
and
government service
from
practitioners
later in 1920
Full-time teaching staff was assigned to the school
Yet,
England,
education in
Medical
the General
of
only
38 members
appointed
being
means that the path taken
1950's
(Colony
of
Singapore,
1933:84).
in the colony was
increased emphasis as
its power
the
in
to
and
1953)
This
the patterns established
continued with
profession consolidated
the medical
remaining
schools and
medical
education
by medical
This practice
and in 1932, out
and Wilson,
steered by physicians locally following
in England.
physicians. Before
corporations,
(Carr-Saunders
private practitioners
medical
appointees, the
Crown
medical
of
Council"
ever sat upon the
by
between
Singapore. The membership of
was dominated by
five were
relations
in control
were
thus in
and
Council
"no layman had
1926
physicians
laymen,
physicians and
power
of
perspective
the
from
1965:32).
1965:63; Chen,
Colbourne,
(Turnbull, 1977:120;
VII Medical College"
"King Edward
to the
was upgraded
when it
part-time
only
first
at
was
staff
The teaching
"193:83-84).
1940's and
some extent, has
remained the norm during the Republic's life.
be kept in
It must
the medical
mind that since
school--which became
its inception in 1905,
the Faculty of
Medicine of the
University of Malaya from 1949 to 1959 and then of the University
of Singapore--has been a government
on
government
hospitals
Singapore, 1953:22-23;
Committee
was
for
appointed
teaching
1981).
Tham,
by
institution and has depended
the
In
facilities
1928 a
Governor
(Colony
of
Medical
Research
the
Straits
of
Settlements to explore
and cost
College in
the Medical
of
for Medical
Research in
leaving
Malayan problems"
laboratories in
Europe"
Faculty
"the
in
of
years,
of
pure research" to "the
loosened
Medicine and
(Tham,
1981:145-147).
remain
represented
professional
physicians,
Occasionally,
But
not
medical
but
also
organizing
in 1950 and
Medical
somewhat
however,
Master
the
only
ties
in
associations
in
1929:3).
heavily
of
on
British
curriculum
and
the establishment of
Studies
in
the
some of
1960.
during the
of Science
past
in
Public
or
system
to
membership
societies
of
twenty
Health
system still
with the British
the
This
for the degrees
with the Faculty taking charge of training
Master of
applied to
basic degree of Bachelor of Medicine
Post-Graduate
dependency has been
"research
depended
the
Bachelor of Surgery <MBBS>
School
of
The
scientists.
Research Committee,
Medicine
of
seeking recognition for the
the
field
which were staffed
and
emphasis on
(Medical
sLandards and approval
and
both of
physicians
Committee also recommended the
Institute
Singapore and the
Kuala Lumpur,
government-appointed
The
research, its scope
medical
in the Settlements. The Committee gave a positive report
on the work
with
for
the need
British
by individual
external
examiners.
those examiners have been invited
from countries outside the Commonwealth.
34
Although
more
or
the physicians'
less established
national
professional
Medical
Association
association however.
by the graduates
as
"sponsor
control
since
1905,
of
officers
1965:32).
was
formed.
College and
for the upgrading of
set
up the
from
"assistant
with an
supported
request
was very active
and to
surgeons"
Straits Medical
the Governor's refusal
above
association for
the accounts provided
by Gwee
to medical
(Chen,
membership.
of the Alumni
(Chen,
local
the
Association
exclusive European
mentioned
raise
physicians
Considering its reported activities, the Alumni
other hand,
1923
the College into
the European
By that time the "powerful"
was already functioning
in
unsuccessfully requested the
university
level with
not the first
was created
Association
of the King Edward
de facto professional
set up a
This
the graduates
Association's
not
was
and campaigner"
This association
they did
was
when the Singapore
The Alumni
at the same
education
1959
the University of Malaya. The Alumni
status
medical
organization until
(SMA.
Colonial Governor to
of
19Y65: 3-3).
Association was a
physicians.
(1968)
On
and Chen
the
(1965)
give the impression that the Straits Medical Association was also
known as the
Malayan Branch of
the British
Medical
Association.
The latter was in turn the immediate predecessor of the Singapore
Medical
Association.
This last change
the unification of the
divided
into local
and
medical profession in
European factions
respective associations. According
Medical
Association gave
was rather significant in
its
and transferred the assets of
full
to
represented by their
Gwee
support
the Malayan
Singapore hitherto
(1968)
the
British
to the change in name
Branch
to the new SMA.
35
The
320
SMA opened with
Journal.
Singaore_Medical
(Fong, 1982:133).
by converting
SMA, the
the
of
publication
official
the
into
journal
its
the merger
contributed to
Association
Alumni
membership
a total
of
objectives of SMA remain the same
The main
since 1959 and are
of the medical
and interests
honour
maintain the
to
and aim
the unity
profession.. .to foster and preserve
profession...to voice its
medical
of the
purpose
of
opinion and to acquaint the Government and other bodies
the profession (SMA,
attitude of
policy and
with the
1977:1).
other medical
influence
societies have
of professional
served as channels
the
within
inception,
their
since
(Koh,
Practice as well as
Society of General
Both SMA and the
1982:9).
Practice
General
the Society of
approved the formation of
1962 SMA
societies. In
other affiliated medical
From SMA sprang
boundaries
established by government intervention.
Law
The history of
several
features
the
legal
with medicine.
profession in
with,
To begin
traced to the British Crown's establishment
when Raffles founded Singapore. The
event
1980:lvii).
legal
is
the
First
By the time
profession
Charter
its origins are
of the English legal
official document reflecting
of
Justice
Raffles acquired Singapore
was relatively well
comparison with the other
shares
administered by the East India Company
system in the territories
this
Singapore
established
three professions.
1807
of
in
(Wee,
1819, the
in England, in
The administration
36
of
justice
and other matters of the state were almost entirely
the hands of
legal
organized into
experts
four
Inns
or professionals.
of
Court
The Bar
(Carr-Saunders
in
was already
and
Wilson,
1933: 29-43) .
The Act
of
the
of
1729 was the expression of
profession prevalent
century. It amalgamated
attorneys
them with a "professional
triggered a movement
in England
Society"
for
and solicitors
short.
of
association was upgraded to
the Law
incorporated
in
by the
Crown
"promoting
professional
acquisition
of professional
1933:45-47).
two
solicitors.
of
The
other
separation represented
today:
the solicitor
The
of
was concerned with
advice. The "specialist"
referrals
"of
opinion is
desired"
was
cases being
(1933:10).
1825 and
facilitating
the
and Wilson,
represented only one of the
in
branch was
as he was the first professional
or "Law
Society's purpose was
(Carr-Saunders
profession
a division
and Equity"
and
knowledge"
main
Society of
Society proper in
improvement
the legal
"The
1739 a
some transformations this
1845.
The Law Society however,
branches
Law
After undergoing
provided
and around
under the label
the Courts
and
This event indirectly
towards self-government
in
towards reform
in the early eighteenth
consciousness."
voluntary association was formed
Gentlemen Practisers
efforts
England namely, the
the
labour
barristers.
that still
"general
This
remains
practice" of law
a lay person would see for legal
the
taken
barrister
who
into court
or
would
attend
when a second
37
While solicitors in England formed their
1739,
barristers
in
professional
organization. Already in the
had
the
of
Inns
Court
institutions and voluntary
benchers or
Wilson,
declined
by
the
students were
expected
books
to
of
do
their
of
the
Inns
nineteenth century:
own
self-instruction
and gaining practice
of
(Carr-Saunders and
role
the
of
educational
Inns consisted
and students
educational
history
as
both
associations. The
first decade
reading the legal
court"
The
longer
fifteenth century they
served
which
readers, barristers
1933:36-37).
a
have
association
professional
first
had
the
by
"from attendance to
(1933:48).
In
the
1832
indicated that only
Commission
a Doctor
of
Inquiry
of Laws
Legal
on
from one
Education
English
of the
universities may be appointed as advocate. Twenty years later, in
1852, the Council
between the four
of Legal
Education
Inns of Court
(1933:30).
direction was taken in
was established by
the Bar
up by
agreement
This was a breakthrough
the barristers. A more decisive
in the process of unification of
step in this
was set
1883 when the Bar Committee
to represent
all
its
members as
a
profession. This Committee was reconstituted into a new body, the
Bar Council,
in
recognition as
1894,
receiving
"the accredited
the duty of dealing
"with all
increasing
legal
representative of
matters affecting
and
social
the Bar" with
the profession
<the barristers> and to take such action thereon as may be deemed
expedient"
(1933:16-17).
38
These developments of the legal
some influence on
the features taken
by the legal
Singapore, but there was no identical
shall
be
seen
shortly.
establishing courts and
time, in
a report to
In
1923
evolution
Raffles
and
alike, without
<depending on the>
1978:1-2).
local
The latter
Malays
in matters
means of the
distinction
But
it
part of the law of Singapore"
first half of
historical
in
1826 that,
by
Justice, the English law "became
of Justice
foundations for
of 1807 and
1826
the development
profession. The latter grew rather slowly during the
the nineteenth century.
accounts,
the subsequent
1978:3).
for the
marriage and inheritance
was actually
and Second Charters
position of judge or
(Soe,
(Soe,
to include # clause
of Muslim law
there was
According to the available
only one
the Straits Settlements--Penang, Singapore
all
conditions"
(Soe, 1978:3).
respectively, only provided the
of the legal
same
tribe or nation...
and
the prevalence
Second Charter of
The First
of
circumstances
regarding religion,
(Bartholomew, 1976:87).
About the
should be applied to all,
qualification led him
in a memorandum stressing
in the Colony as
Government., he suggested that
"the general principles of British law
equally
profession in
issued a regulation
appointing magistrates.
the British
in England had
practitioners
professional
lawyer in
and Malacca--with the
"Recorder." He was stationed in Penang where
recorders had
their headquarters
until
1855
Matters of
law were not
those early days.
involved
The
not just
people i.e.,
1978:3).
the
By
in
the exclusive hands of
Court of
Judicature
professional
Governor and
the
1867
lawyers
three Resident
included the Chief Justice,
a majority
of non-lawyers:
of
the
Secretary,
(1978:4).
the
Lieutenant
the Colonial
It is not
of
the
the Official
of
Engineer and
clear whether
but also lay
Penang,
(Soe,
Straits
the Attorney General,
Governor,
Governor
period
Councillors
Council
Settlements
Troops,
during this
as judges
Legislative
lawyers in
and
Commander
the
Colonial
four unofficial
Europeans
the four
unoffical
Europeans
were lawyers themselves or not.
As
it
was
noted
in
profession, there are
professional
the
practitioners
profession
lawyers arrived
monopoly
(Pillai,
as
the
legal
medical
in Singapore. The
A related feature
profession
Unfortunately,
1980:1).
the
judges representing the
East India Company.
of
of
of state intervention in the
the legal
British Crown through the
was
development
clear signs
origins and evolution of
first
the
the
by
British
available
information is insufficient to determine whether private practice
began simultaneously with the presence
if
so,
how widespread
the early years
Penang,
was.
there were
educated in the law as
in
it
Wee
(1960:lviii)
a mere
lawyers and
indicates that
handful
of
men trained
"in
and
attorneys or barristers who practiced law
Singapore and Malacca."
practice in the early
of government
It
is
likely
that the common
and perhaps mid-nineteenth
century was for
the Court to appoint a lawyer to defend plaintiffs. This could be
either because of the scarcity
of
lawyers in
private practice or
40
simply as
an early version
indigent plaintiff
entitled.
reference
of
to acquire the
These
assumptions
to defend
"a
in
the Straits
terms of
and solicitors.
its
"a
(Wee,
1980:lviii-lix).
Second Charter
of
lawyers"
the
only way
which he was
based
the
Wee's
a
into two
of
Singapore has been,
that
best
explanation
a
since
lawyer
for
this
judges appointed under the
of Juhdi catuire,
bringing with
lawyers"
Charter> in
them "the mental
(Bartholomew,
colony and
later known
trained as common
"they interpreted <the
between the
legal
branches,. barristers
"professionally
how,"
the
as an advocate and solicitor
the
were
of common
Another difference
the
sharp contrast with
which means
the ro'trt
consequence,
they knew
(1980:lviii)
lawyer "under
development
Recorders or
Justice~ to
habits and attitudes
on
"enrolled"
profession"
Supreme Court,
and in
to
profession in
Perhaps
that the
the
legal counsel
can--practice both
difference is
as
of
the division
fused
could--and still
assisting an
Settlements was its
The legal
origins,
is,
local plaintiff."
An outstanding feature
profession in
aid,
that
are
to a case when the Court
Second Charter"
England
legal
1976:102).
England was the
pace of evolution of professional organization among lawyers. The
nineteenth century
professional
solicitors.
organization
independence
witnessed in Britain
self-control
In
of
in
and representation among barristers and
contrast,
legal
a decisive move towards
no
specific
professionals appeared
1965. Yet,
measures were taken to control
before
legally
in
recognized
Singapore before
Independence. various legal
and regulate the
practice of law
41
in Singapore. These
Written
Laws
(Srinivasagam,
the advocates
Solicitors
of the
practice
the
Costs Ordinance
the legal
and
legal
The Advocates
repealed
1886 was
of
profession
costs and other
solicitors
profession.
the
of
by these
matters covered
The
1972:3-131).
1964 some
to
the Tables
in
with
dealing
of Singapore.,
measures involved
aspects of
are found
legislation
twelve pieces of
1866
From
state intervention.
of
implementation
the
again
represent
ordinances
and
acts
in
1907;
and
the
other acts and ordinances were passed from the 1930's onwards.
Legal
Singapore developed
education in
education. The King
1905. But the
Edward College
first university-level
than medical
later
was founded
of Medicine
in
of law only began
teaching
when the Law Department was opened at the University of Malaya in
1956,
legal
century
half a
education may
later.
Nevertheless,
back to
be traced
years
the last
of the
Baba Chinese families had begun to
nineteenth century when local
appreciate the value of
the efforts towards
English education
as a source
of power
and prosperity in the colony. They initiated the trend of sending
their
sons to British universities to obtain professional degrees
(Turnbull, 1977:104-105).
returned to Singapore in
in medicine;
law.
the
The first two
1893:
other was Song
graduates in this group
one, Lim Boon Keng,
Ong Siang, who
had a degree
had a degree in
This pair represented "the new group of Chinese professional
men who came to challange the apathy towards education" among the
bulk of the local population
(1977:105).
42
mid
This pattern continued until
to Britain
either as
financial
support
directly to the
practical
Queen's Scholars
"read
to
law
this
was
both Malaysia
the majority of the
were nevertheless
legal
the
over its
and predominance of British
of
only
profession
agree that the Allen-Braddell
was
form
(Cheang,
(1973:286)
thus
in Singapore:
the history
1955
known
colonies is
England
in
or
professionals practising
the legal
Malaya
would go
families's
university
and Singapore"
case of
of
or with their
a
British. Jonhson's
influence of Britain
Analysts
at
Students
proceed
Inns of Court...and the bar examinations. For all
purposes
education in
1950's.
1973:53).
legal
report
twofold mode of
supported by the
flow of students to
most
education in
Singapore
presented to the University
immediate
stimulus for the
Cheang, 1973:53-54;
This report outlined the basic
But
in Singapore
organization of a systematic, higher level training of
Singapore (Sheridan, 1961:3;
legal
practitoners locally.
of
the
of
features of a
lawyers in
Pillai,
1980:2).
programme on legal
education for Singapore. The reasons for the University's request
of a study on this
report, are
problem which outcome
less clear.
Cheang hints
was the Allen-Braddell
that there
"dissatisfaction" (1973:53)--most likely,
professional
lawyers themselves
the manner in which
that
the
new
arrive with little
also been stressed by
the
in Singapore. Considering
educated
knowledge "about
importance of grasping
believe, among
than among the public--regarding
law was practiced
graduates were
I
was a mood of
the "local"
Bartholomew
in
local
England, they would
law"
features
(1976) and,
of
(1973:53).
The
law practice has
apparently, was a
43;
agreement
basis for
strong
to
them
leading
suggestions
the
accept
in
interested parties
among
195,
the Allen-Braddell
of
report.
surrounding the
winds of
Japanese
formed and
In
1955.,
Marshall,
a
new
outspoken
figure,
A
was
a
founded by
group
The
momentum in
the
effects of the
government was
elected
was
lawyer,
David
local
first
the
had surfaced in the political
(PAP),
PAP
recovery from the
after a relative
occupation.
reached
rule
report.
the
of
and acceptance
from British
independence
early 1950's,
Minister.
presentation
circumstances
important
other
overlook
cannot
one
But
as
People's Action
the
Chief
Party
arena the previous year. The
of local
intellectuals
led by a
Barrister-at-Law, Lee Kuan Yew, who had been practising law since
and solicitor in the
1951 as advocate
legal
the
adviser to several
British were
to accept
(Chan,
1976:34).
and
implementation
the
as
would be expected,
unions. As it
reluctant
independence movement
the acceptance
trade
private sector as well
consequences of the
Against
this background,
of the recommendations stated
in the Allen-Braddell report represented both a consession on the
part of the British colonial government--by not opposing it-- and
the first
serious move towards autonomy from British
paternalism on the part of the local
lawyers.
professional
44
With all
pessimistic
its positive aspects, the Allen-Braddell
overtones:
department.
Its
it foresaw a very
forcast of
actual
number
of
first
(Sheridan, 1961:3;
lowest number of
1980:2).
annual
average
up to
increased to 58 between
1961
1965
in
legal
education was
15 students per year. The
emerging
In fact,
graduates since 1961
number of law graduates from
the
10 to
graduates
Pillai,
slow development of the
enrollment
rather conservative i.e, between
report had
and
to 1979
was 35
1966 and 1970;
in
1961
this has
was
22
been the
1962. Considering the
(cf. Pillai,
1980:3).,
graduates. This average
and to 96
graduates per
year from 1970 to 1979.
Discussing legal
education in Singapore, the first Professor
of Law and Head of the
Law Department, L.A. Sheridan, had a more
optimistic view of the
future in
increase in
law students and
was multifold involving jobs
teaching at
His estimation of
close to the actual
"all
He foresaw
believed that
in the public
the university, holding
general having access to
later.
1961.
the role of lawyers
and private sectors,
executive positions and,
branches of
the future for
a continuous
activity"
in
(1961:2-3).
legal practitioners was rather
development of the profession as will
be seen
45
The
basic
structure
report was
Allen-Braddell
practically
curriculum
and
unchanged
of
phases:
the
legal
until
four-year
1961:18).
taken
The
Faculty which
the legal
education
implemented
and
recently
place
Department
over
of
suggested
has
been
was
and
specialization,
the
first
Law was
the
maintained
divided
five
in
1980:2).
(F'illai,
LL.B. course
introductory, general
additions
used;
of
The
into three
with changes
years
(Sheridan,
later upgraded
to the Law
then functioned as "the standard route for entry to
profession"
Two other routes
(1961:22).
holding a degree from
way of
"articleship"
for at
least five years
England,
that is,
have also been
Scotland or
attachment
Ireland, or by
to a practising lawyer
(Pillai, 1980:5-6).
Regarding the influence of lawyers as professionals, one may
in
say that lawyers,
By
Independence.
lawyers
appointed
in
other
very
nature of
of
channels
held
important
Attorney General.
There were
As
influence.
local
profession,
their
service
government
the
connection with physicians,
their
decision-making in Singapore
Chief Justice,
positions as judges,
also
the
physicians,
manner than
definite
in policy
their influence
exerted
before
a more
young
earlier
mentioned
lawyers
who
in
obtained
degrees in England acted as de facto community leaders upon
their return. Moreover, lawyers appeared to be more inclined than
other professionals
because,
the
among other things,
context
outstanding
indicated
to participate
of
earlier
"the experience of
constitutional
political
and
actively in politics perhaps
leaders
(Sheridan,
law"
in
they played
politics
Singapore
a
were
significant
...
forms
1961:7).
lawyers
Some
as
role in the
46
process of
attaining self-government and
distinction must,
of
course,
be
exerted by lawyers as-individuals
later
made
between
on one hand,
the
influence
and the influence
of the legal profession as a collectivity on the other hand.
former
can be
difficult
to
documented most
substantiate
professionals'
again in
use of
more detail
of
time,
empirically.
channels of
later
the
A
independence.
but
This
The
the latter is
issue
influence shall
of
the
be taken up
on.
Architecture andEngi neer ing
The historical
in Singapore
backgrounds
of architecture
are closely intertwined;
this will
as the discussion develops.
For this reason
will
in
be dealt
medicine and
with together
law, looking into the
Singapore, one is
John
Shute who
Englishman
in
1563
architect. Shute believed that
learned
among
man and
other
architectural
an
things.
design
As
in
the case of
the origins of architecture
himself an architect"
expressed his
the ideal
reality,
and
the two professions
section.
"to call
artist, versed
In
become apparent
background of architecture in
inevitably led to
in England. The first
was
this
and engineering
work
surveyors and other related workers
in
of the ideal
architect should
be a
philosophy and medicine
however,
were
idea
those
involved
free-masons,
(Kostof, 1977:180).
in
foremen,
47
Carr-Saunders
architecture
seventeenth
because
as
a
profession
the
were
the
with the "growing
introduction of
shape
that
it
and
later
eighteenth
from
of
the
process
centuries
builders
building"
construction materials
sophistication of building
in
of
and
architects as a dictinct profession
commercialization
new
begining
was a slow
undistinguishable
almost
the
see
taking
seventeenth
contractors. The identity of
began
(1933:176)
They acknowledge
century.
during
architects
and Wilson
techniques
of
the
including
and the higher
Gothic
revival.
These events gave rise to four "distinct societies" of architects
between
1791 and
1834
when Singapore
In consequence,
were already
two
London Architectural Society founded
years
of
life
Singapore's
professional
associations were
Architectural
Society
"professional"
of
1837
founded in
Architects or
in
all,
and
RIBA in
renamed
whithin
the process
sources
majority
indicate
of
the type of
and
other
Institute
of
Royal
the
RIBA's
British
rule,
one
in 1806
Institute
more
two
One was the
the
was
British
aims, this
professional
most
Architects
of
British
RIBA
was not
architects
and
falls
association
association delineated by
structural-functional
that
and the
1866. Judging by Carr-Saunders and Wilson's
(1933:178) description of
well
the
1791
London.
up in
set
1831
the
in
in
During the next fifty
British
under
architects
years later
a few
Wilson, 1933:177-178).
(Carr-Saunders and
of
Club founded
Architects'
in 1819, there
was founded
associations
professional
namely, the
Britain
(1933:177).
approaches.
truly
Yet,
representative
the
boundaries
other
of
of
the
the
48
profession remained
and
builder
1977:194).
diffuse as "the
many
continued in
The latter
the professional
Carr-Saunders
liason between the architect
instances
1936"
appears to be a more realistic
identity
(Kostof,
appraisal
of
architects than the one provided by
of
and Wilson
above.
Incidentally.,
for Singapore's association
working model
until
RIBA
of
is
still
a
architects as will
be discussed later.
It
would
manifested in
be expected
the birth
that the
of these
concern for
professionalism
organizations in
influence directly the architectural profession
Britain,
would
in Singapore. But
this did not happened. Perhaps due to the remoteness of Singapore
from London
in
those days, the
profession was rather
architect
to
slow,
practice
Coleman who arrived in
on
the
development of
the architectural
comparatively speaking.
professionally
in
Singapore
1822 as a government
consultant
development of
the
south bank
of
The
was
first
G.D.
"to advise
the Singapore River
(Seow, 1979:4).
Interestingly,
Raffles'
Coleman
Malay writer
first sign
of the
is
also referred to as an engineer by
and tutor
(Abdullah,
joint development
Singapore during most of the
of the
1927, a colourful
"architects"
found
amateurs engaged
in
in
officers trained
in
the
two professions in
the
assortment of practicing
Colony. Most
other occupations such as real
building contractors and traders;
army
This is
nineteenth century. Throughout this
period and even until
could be
1973:110).
but
of them
were
estate people,
there were also surveyors,
engineering,
engineers-architects and
49
priest-architects who came either on government service or church
duty to begin
1979:4).
building the
Thus, during
infrastucture of
this period in
the architect as a professional was
to building
(Seow,
the island
Singapore, the identity of
diffused or generally linked
contractors or engineers,
reflecting to some extent
one aspect of the profession's situation in Britain.
The joint practice of architecture and engineering is then a
salient feature of
the
development of these
(1977:192-193) reports
British architects to
cases of
the
hand,
military
British
the first
forces
of their logistic
indication of
the foundation
of the Society
1771.
"civil"
military
Their
numbers
the
body in 1818,
meant to
prompted the
complex problems,
Institution
clearer.
profession
later,
in
Institution
1927,
Association
But
another
of Consulting
was
success
British
strength. On the
and
Wilson,
need
Civil
to make
from
1933:156-157).
to solve
increasingly
a more professional
which
Engineers
professional
was
the main original
of the
the boundaries
was elusive.
Engineers,
them
differentiate
legally recognized by the Crown in 1828. One of
purposes of the
and
Engineers in Britain in
creation of
of
engineeres
skills of engineering was
of Civil
and the
one
a "consciousness of common
(Carr-Saunders
engineers
increase in
was
character
On the
century.
counted
interests" among people practising the
The term
"professional"
early nineteeth
engineering training as part
other hand,
vice-versa. Nevertheless,
a more solid
than architecture in
the
important contributions made by
engineering and
engineering seemed to have
professions. Kostof
Almost a century
association,
stated that
"it
is
the
quite
50
impossible
to
draw
any
hard
and
fast
line
between
the
professional services rendered as an architect and those rendered
as
a
'civil
Moreover,
one of
it
the
regulate
(Carr-Saunders
engineer'"
was not until
about 42 years after
Institution's
fundamental
engineering
1933:157-158;
Singapore, Swan &
two surveyors and
engineers,
A.A.
trained architect"
Despite
of
service
considered
control
Seow,
practice of their
and
Wilson,
It
firm
1880 by
services of
two
was only after
firm engaged
"its first
1973).
trade,
differs in terms
professional
a practical
and
Maclaren.
that this
(Seow, 1979:4;
the joint
and
to organize and
the first architectural
the names
and J.W.B.
architecture and engineering
organize
creation that
Maclaren,was formed around
incorporated
Swan
almost ten years
aims became
1933:155).
1977:192).
It is not surprising then that
to open in
its
(Carr-Saunders
training
Kostof,
and Wilson,
training.
field, intrinsically
the background of
of the efforts to
Engineering
was
bound to empirical
testing. The first manifestations of systematic academic training
of the subject
in England were
the Department of Engineering of
the King's College set up
in
in
Cambridge established between
Glaslow,
1875
Edinburgh and
1838 and the
(Carr-Saunders and Wilson,
1933:158).
chairs of engineering
1840 and
51
In contrast, architecture
"art"
and
thought of as
people are endowed.
and
systematic
century.
by
architectural
education
pupilage"
1840s but mainly
"in
the
of
Secretary
since
and
College
King's
and
most of
in
The
concept of
the basis
for
of
a
education"
Architectural
in the 1860s
RIBA became a
by-law in
Carr-Saunders
and Wilson,
for membership of the
constitution
the Institute's
progress,
of
architectural
suggestion
to
Engineering,
premature.
a
Commision of
set
up special
Surveying,
They
argued
1973;
Enquiry
schools
Medicine,
that
and
engineering
knowledge developed rather late
in Singapore. In its report on the system of
Colony,
(Seow,
1933:180).
training as systematic fields
the
And only until
(1977:199).
examination
qualifying
Compared to this
the first
systematic study tested by examination as
architectural
1887 the idea
the
The first
was also
1977:198).
the
in
instruction
1841
on
the University
and
Association was in fact the first body to implement
the "modern
based
aspects of design."
appointed
English
1795,
mainly
specialized
(Kostof,
RIBA
mid-nineteenth
before
the eighteenth
technical
of Architecture
(Carr-Saunders
prevented the advent of
irregular
London began providing
of
taught
Polytechnique
was
The
an
where systematic instruction had
throughout
centuries.
nineteenth
professor
Ecole
the
not be
architecture
contrast to France
been provided
College
could
as
with which only certain
This perspective
in
training
In
"articled
it
Thus
perceived
generally
a special gift
1933:180).
Wilson,
was
the
English education in
stated
in
1902 that the
"for the training
Assaying
evidence
of boys
etc.,"
collected
in
was
too
by
the
52
Commission
showed
"that there
is
not,
demand for such a separate institution
Gwee,
1980:47).
Yet,
in
at
present,
a sufficient
or institutions"
(Wong
the Supplementary Report
and
signed by five
of the eight members of the Commission, the former emphasized the
need for the provision
and
Medicine which
of professional
were
education
fields "mostly
needed
(1980:54-55). This clear disagreement on the
could
had
been
perspectives i.e.,
the
outcome
of
the.colonizers'
only local member of the
two
in Engineering
in the Colony"
needs of the Colony
different
and
and the locals'.
opposite
Indeed, the
Commission was among the five who wrote
the Supplementary report. Significantly, he was
Lim Boon Keng, a
physician who was mentioned earlier as a pioneering leader of the
local
community. The Supplementary Report apparently did not have
an immediate effect upon policy makers.
local professional architects
England, as a
of
1926. Then,
obtained
result of the
after
their degrees
were
In consequence, the first
trained
abroad,
mainly
in
passing of the Architects Ordinance
the First
World
from other
War, Singapore
countries as
Zealand, Australia, Canada and the United States
well
students
i.e.,
New
(Seow, 1979:4).
This dependence on overseas universities for the training of
engineers and architects--as
other
well
professionals--marked the
as
lawyers,
second phase
physicians
of
and
the historical
development of these professions in Singapore. The first phase as
hitherto described, was the monopoly of professional
practice
British
exclusion of
local
and other
talent.
The
European practitioners
initiative
professionals was taken by the
of
with
forming
a
Baba Chinese as
the
group
by
of
local
indicated
in the
53
with medicine and
first
two local
degree in
1935
(Seow,.
The
began
law. Only after
students,
architecture
about a
level
higher
the 1926 Architects' Act, the
and returned to
training
quarter of a
century later,
in
and Architecture.
1958.
During
the emphasis was on providing
expertise"
technological
professional
training.
for
The
professional
architects and
engineers
these schools into
predecesor, the
reorganized
in
in
Singapore
arrangenment,
remained in
It
must
1981:140)
high
level
be noted,
other
Singapore while
Kuala Lumpur division
than
produce
industrial
training
with
of
the
Kuala
engineering was
its
divisions" one
Lumpur.
Medicine and the
that
in 1949, had been
and
the Faculty of
to
however,
two,"largely autonomous
in
middle
the University of Singapore
1958 into
the
these
rather
actually began
Malaya founded
University of
of
steady supply of
of
academic
1982).
"a
years
implementation
The
(Motta,
the initial
was
policies.
incorporation of
It included the Schools of
objective
development
the
and engineering
with the establishment
(Tham,
needed
1968
Singapore to practice in
architecture
in
technicians
in
went to England for their
both Chinese,
of the Singapore Polytechnic
schools,
concern was
first
1979:4).
systematic
Engineering
But their
profession.
discussion of the medical
Under
this
Department of Law
transferred to the
(University of Malaya, 1962:7).
54
intervention
Government
development of
This is
the medical
also true
of
Singapore to occupy
and
later
and legal
became
in
as
irrigation,
in
in
the
Coleman,
Singapore,
case of physicians,
arrived
Surveyor
of
Coleman
the
in
first,
- Works.
divided his
private practice during the eighteen
government
light
engineering.
Superintendent
in Singapore
construction of roads,
element
of Government
Government
time between government and
years that he worked
key
professions in Singapore.
to practice
the position
Incidentally, as in the
brought
the
architecture and
architect-engineer
first
was
(Seow, 1979:4).
employees
to
bridges, public
and
direct the
buildings, water
sanitation
houses,
plan
Engineers were
and
other
works,
public works.
During the second half of the nineteenth century the Public Works
Department
engineers.
was
In
set
up
Surveyor General
He had two
(Straits
M.I.C.E. after his name
Colonial
Engineers.
among themselves and
engineering may be
1905.
It
with
as
was
Colonial
headed by A.
Engineer and as
1905:632).
Settlements,
suggest
The
initials
an inclination
their
counterparts
is also
in
significant in
the
fields
found in the staff
included Colonial
among
colonies to maintain professional
between
Engineer and
as two separate jobs or designations
involved different ranks
nucleus of government
Works Department
posts,
This
Works Department
official distinction
the
indicate his membership in the Institute
British engineers in the
Public
became
1905 the Public
Murray, M.I.C.E.
of
and
of
links
The
that the first
architecture
and
list of the Department in
Architectural
(1905:653).
of employees
England.
the
and it
This,
Assistant
of
course,
is possible
that
colonial
engineers still
towards
in 1927 when
professions took place
came into effect.
architects
and
architecture and
of
But a turn
of
the
the Architects' Act of
1926
control
or
intervention
government
to this time
the island.
practitioners to
and their
direct
fields
introducing the
consisted mainly in
engineering
government up
the colonial
influence of
The
work.
did architectural
This Act
made mandatory
restricted
registration
of
the registration
those
to
were
who
practicing the profession.and "were properly qualified or had sit
for
an
Singapore"
kind in the world.
limited
laws of Singapore
and
twelve
to
and
was
when Singapore was a
a Republic,
the
medical
analysis of
ordinances
on
three acts and
to the
are rather
and
legal
the written
(Srinivasagam, 1973:3-131),
the
profession
legal profession.
In
ordinances dealing with
exclusively with engineering. The
1926 was repealed in
included
on the professions
ordinances on the medical
none dealing
Architects' Act of
provision
period. An
during this period
contrast, there are only
architecture and
on
regulations
of 29 acts or
acts
it became
1965 when
professions during the same
shows a total
from 1866
and engineering
compared
its
(1979:4).
Nevertheless, the government regulations
Crown Colony until
that
the registration of architects was
In England
officially regulated only in 1931
of architecture
Architects,
the first of
is considered among
this government regulation
of
noteworthy
is particularly
It
(Seow, 1979:4).
Board
the
by
conducted
examination
effect
1941 with Act 23 where a
that
"persons holding
56
Act"
Act
Architects'
1982:19)
(Fong,
professional
incipient
the
of
efforts
protection
regulation of their fees
similar
cases of
recognition,
gets
illustrate
control
over
legal
recognition
Who gains more
as well
to attain
process:
a mutual-benefit
same time,
depends, of
This,
bodies lobbying
important
aspects
of
course, on
specific stipulations of the legislation
as other
legal
the government
profession's
the
the profession
the acts
work and the
their
titles,
(Seow, 1973:15).
that
recognition and
obtain legal
to their
professional
activities and, at the
the
1926 Act as the culmination of the
architects themselves to
to be given legal
architect
local
distinguished
interprets the passing of
of an
these professionals
identity--althought
a
Europeans.
was founded in
Architects
thus signaling the implementation
Indeed,
were
of
the
years before
intervention. Three
Society
and
general,
not be interpreted solely
should
government
1923., the
in
in
legislation
particular,
in
as an indication of
Singapore
of
existance
the
Act,
the two professions
in practice.
amalgamated
the
society where the
in a
kept
century still
legacy of the nineteenth
Yet,
expected step
was an
here
registration
The inclusion of engineering
1971:33-34).
(Attorney-General,
under the Architects
register
qualifications could
engineering
benefits from
and ordinances represent.
the particular
in question.
case and
57
the probability of overlapping
there is always
Moreover,
as individuals may influence government
Professionals
profession.
decisions through
Council
Legislative and Executive
(Soe,
1978:4-5).
activities as
policy-making
Pigott
Straits
the
Department of
of
Straits
were
duties
servant for 34 years fifteen of which were spent
his Annual
Engineer had
and the
the title
duties of
Colonial
Surveyor General
"considerable additional duties arising out of the war."
important
were
these
of
Committee, the Committee of
of
"Chairman
civil
in Singapore. In
that the
indicates
Report he
Departmental
F.J.
of
British
a
and
Settlements,
combined with
the Public Works
of
Head
Settlements
case
the
by
illustrated
Engineer,
Colonial
was
who
was
the
the
a member of
Engineer
professional
His
During
positions.
and unofficial
official
their
period, the Colonial
the colonial
the government and the
i.e.,
the membership of these two parties
in
the
Priority
and
The most
Indent
Inquiry into Conditions of Employment
and Supervision of Skilled Labour of the Singapore Harbour Board,
trades"
Shortage
on
the Advisory Committee
and "Licencing
Officer" for
skilled labour
on trafic control
chairman of a committee
and
Engineers
of
kindred
as well
as
(Straits Settlements,
1920:342-343).
The period
broad
brush
1819 to 1965
strokes
has been reviewed
have been
background of the professions,
indicate the
presence of
process, functional,
professions.
They
some
and power
also
point
used
in
they are,
of the
so far. Although
this brief historical
I hope,
features described by the
perspectives in the
to
sufficient to
the
main
study of the
differences
and
58
with the professions
similarities
in
England during
period, and a certain hint of
professional
their
patterns.
incipient organizational
Professionals and National
The
concern
of
this
engineering,
law
independence
is
page IS>
more
and
if
(a)
so,
has
in
professionals
like
manifestations of
way,
since
of
and
from
1965
these
what
to
1980.
To
professions changed,
is
the
independence?;
professional
architecture,
role of
are represented by the following
the structure
what
the three assumptions
professions in Singapore after
specifically,
recapitulate, these assumptions
questions:
probe
on the
and medicine as
or,
identity reflected in
Develoment
section
established earlier <cf.
the colonial
"production"
(c)
ideology?;
are
and
(d)
there
of
any
what channels
of influence do these professionals use ?
Ma!or changes and _EEsent structure
The most fundamental
1965
and
1980
was
change
the
attainment
prolonged period under
British
government
and almost
two years
Malasia. In
1965, Singapore
in
command
of
problems of
external
its
size,
own
occurring in
of
independence after the
rule, the
as
Singapore between
four
part of
found itself as
years of
self-
the Federation of
a Republic, totally
destiny and yet constrained by the serious
lack of
aggression and
natural
internal
resources, security
problems of
highly heterogeneous population. The People's
against
cohesion among a
Action Party which
was in
power,
reinforcing and implementing
in
wasted no time
it had begun drafting since 1961
economic development plans that
and
measures
legislative
creating
was clear
to policy-makers and
best and,
realistically, the
the
meet
to
in general
to the public
only natural
It
Situation.
new
the
resource
that the
of Singapore
is its people.
In consequence, the need to improve the efficiency
and skills of
the labour
this drive, the production of
worth pointing out
Singapore
The
before
covering
the
medical,
up to
1965
successor,
professions
and
legal
dealt with professionals
Thus, changes or modifications
had set up a professional
association
the Society of Architects as mentioned earlier.
the Federation
of
Malaya Society
functioning when independence took
and
two new professional
Institute of Architects
and the Singapore
in
1960.
had to be made. Architects
1923 i.e.,
professions
the
the
from both Malaysia and Singapore.
in
build up a skilled labour
history of
in
legislation
architectural
highly skilled professionals. It is
that this drive to
parallel
force has no
throughout
a vital part of
it involves, as
seventeen years and
these past
been emphasized
force has
place.
It was
Architects was
then dissolved
associations were created, the Malaysian
or Pertubohan
Akitek2 Malaysia,
Institute of Architects,
constitution and by-laws.
of
Its
<PAM>,
<SIA>, each with new
60
It
may be
recalled that
medical
practitioners
created their own association in Singapore in
Medical
Associaton,
independence
in
merger with its
<SMA),
this
and
respect.
counterpart
1965.
The
"much
against their
were
in the
plans were subsequently
professions,
wishes"
both
the
Engineers Singapore,
Law
CIES>,
Federation
1968:35).
Society
were
less
affected
by
was considering the
abandoned
(Gwee,
1959, the Singapore
thus
the SMA
But
had already
of Malaysia
(Chong,
As for
and
within the national boundaries of Singapore.
but
the other two
Institution
the
created after
1968:5)
in
1965,
of
completely
While the political
separation of Singapore from the
Federation of Malaysia prompted
these
the
new
arrangements
organization,
it
did
not
professionals
accross
the
significant that all
with
their
in
break
professions'
the
Causeway.
counterparts
in
communication
On
four professions
structural
the
between
contrary,
it is
have maintained their
Malaysia
in
consultation, organization of professional
terms
of
ties
mutual
conventions and other
related activities.
It
is relevant
dimension of
to
the link
mention
at this
between professionals
Many of the Singaporean and Malaysian
forty
years of age and whose first
at the former University of Malaya,
old
boys' relationship
political
leaders in
university classmates;
frequent.
juncture
different
both countries.
professionals who are over
university degree was obtained
tend to maintain a friendly,
among themselves.
both
in
a
Some
of the present
countries,
for example,
class reunions
and informal
Their friendship and close ties
represent
are
former
contacts are
an
intangible
61
yet
invaluable asset
countries. It
channels
of
to
from
Another aspect of
was professional
may
education
professional
need for
University of
In general,
Singapore had to be met now solely by the latter.
it
during that critical period, the sentiments
may be possible that,
President
SMA
of
on
the
made by
the comments
represented in
of most professionals were
former
more
life affected by indepedence
served jointly by the University of Malaya and the
the
be
meetings or conventions.
professional
education. The
among
contacts
countries
both
professional
effective than formal
terms of political
friendly
informal
influence,
professionals
individual
that in
to argue
is feasible
the two
between
relations
the harmonious
political
separation of
Singapore from Malaysia:
At heart, all doctors of both territories remained one,
they still maintained a great deal of contact and their
one
of
counterpart
fact,
in
were,
constitutions
privileges,
reciprocal
enjoyed
they
and
another,
of
both
journals
the
of
receipt
the
including
associations. (Gwee, 1968:35).
From these
identity, at
infer that
remarks one may
least
among physicians,
there was a professional
that surmounted
political
boundaries between the two nations.
From the historical description made earlier we know that by
1965
Singapore had
medical
already
and architectural
a comprehensive
professions:
the
legislation on the
Medical
Registration
Act and the Architects' Act, respectively. The following year the
Legal
the
Profession Act was passed,
Professional
Engineers
Act
and four years
was
approved
later,
in
in
1970,
Parliament.
62
Amendments have
been made
since 1965, following
controlling
to
to all
a dual
some extent
the provision of
these Acts
principle:
state intervention
the activities
legislative
from time to time
of
professionals and
means to facilitate
professionals' contribution
to the
in
and expedite the
economic development efforts
of the nation.
Legislation also helps to sharpen professional
case in
point
engineers
is
the
under the
Professional
common
former
Engineers Act
registration
of
Architects' Act
of
1970 was
architects
of
passed,
boundaries.
it
1941.
A
and
When the
included among
those entitled to registration, a person who "is registered under
subsection
(2)
engineers>
and
twelve months"
this
Act
of
section 6
who
after
(Republic
makes
of
the Architects'
application
the date
of
of Singapore,
repealed later
by the Professional
(Republic
Singapore,
of
differences -in
qualifications
architect
engineer.
or
remains in the
be seen later.
seats in
thus
required
Yet,
coming
Engineers
1977:73),
a
is,
for registration within
1970a:6).
current legislation
each profession
will
the
Act <that
into
But this section was
(Amendment)
making
for registration
trace
of
Act
1977
explicit
the
as
an
the old partnership
whereby a
the gatekeeping
operation of
representative of
body of
the other as
63
There are some fundamental
that are
directly relevant to
the four
professions.
Architecture
from
degree
professions.
For
Bachelor
of
a
of
approved
diploma from a
a
or
the university
the
by
or a Diploma
degree of Bachelor of Engineering from a university,
of
admission
Board
approved by the
examination.
medical
For
qualified
registration
as
a
that
any
other
"corporation, college or other
that
the Ministry
approve it
legal
requires
candidate
has
for
the
sit
to
degree
medical
university
a
physician,
granted by any
accepted provided
body" could be
Singapore Medical
and the
of Health
1971:195-198).
(Attorney-General,
profession
the
after
Engineers
is
or
diploma
of
passing of examinations
is the
he
Board
the
satisfied
other avenue
Singapore Polytechnic, the
the Register
into
of
in addition to a
engineers,
for other applicants. In the case of
in Engineering from the
Board
up qualifying examinations
also set
latter can
Architects, the
are not a monopoly
all
holders
institutions
other
polytechnic or
to
registration into
non of
in
specific
cases,
four
all
in
sine gqua
addition
in
architecture,
of the role of
holders
degree
university
the understanding
qualifications, however,
the profession. Such
of
the legislation
Firstly.,
listed as
qualifications are
similarities in
of
the degree
Admission
Bachelor
Council
into the
of Laws, a
prescribed period of pupillage, attendance to instruction courses
and the passing of examinations
prescribed by the Board of Legal
Education. Presently, another traditional
the
profession,
is
the occupation
articled clerk. This avenue
has been
for
avenue of
at least
used less
access into
five years as
frequently than
64
others
(Pillai,
The
first.
1980).
similarity
second
four
All
professions
in
a
have
prescribed
gatekeeper
from Stone
is borrowed
term gatekeeger
legislation. The
related to the
is
legislation
by
(1976)
and., in the present context, refers to a body which screens entry
into the
profession and
The gatekeeper of the
keeps the
architectural
house in order.
professional
Board of
is the
profession
Architects.
Its functions are to keep a register, hold or arrange
qualifying
examinations,
architects, and
profession
gatekeeper
arbitrate in
is the
Professional
following main functions:
registration,
Engineers Board,
which has the
a register, approve
keeping
conduct
professional
regulate
engineers'
The
1976:219).
arbitrate in disputes involving engineers
of
members of the
disputes involving
Singapore,
of
(Republic
conduct
and
ethics
regulate
and
or reject
ethics,
and
(Republic of Singapore,
1970a:4).
For the medical
profession,
gatekeeper, together
function of
Practitioners who is also
latter is, in
additional
with the
the Director of
any case, an ex-officio
function of
ethics and conduct
165;
the Medical
the Council
Council
Registrar of
Medical
1971:
member of the Council.
is to
195-207).
Medical
Services. The
An
regulate professional
(Singapore Law Revision Commission,
Attorney-General,
serves the
1970:153-
65
As for lawyers, they have two
of
Legal
Education
professional
other
training,
which
ethics,
to the
consultant
and the practice
charge
which roles are:
conduct
and
"in
government
of
in
law
in
of
registration,
and qualifying examinations.
education
is the Law Society
professional
is
gatekeepers. One is the Board
to uphold and regulate
to
discipline;
serve. as
legislation
matters affecting
Singapore";
The
and
interestingly,"to
members of the legal profession in
represent, protect and assist
Singapore and to promote in any manner the Society thinks fit the
of
interests
profession
the legal
Singapore"
in
(Republic of
Singapore, 1970b:28).
The
latter
deserves special
feature
of
attention.
the
legal profession's gatekeeper
This is
the
only one
of the
four
been created by
association has
professions
whose professional
legislation.
The Law Society's functions include representing the
profession and promoting its interests. These objectives are also
those of the Singapore
Institute of
Singapore
Medical
Architects <SIA>,
<IES>.
All
three
associations representing the
of the three has
are, of course,
and two of
been set up
Association (SMA>,
and the
are
the
Intitution of Engineers
national
professional
respective practitioners. And none
by legislation, although
legally registered in
them, the SIA and
the Singapore
the Register of
the IES, have legal
in their respective gatekeeping bodies.
they all
Societies
representatives
66
This point
leads
Who are the members
and control
or
of these bodies
or how are
they appointed,
the level of state
"corporate patronage."
of all
their mode of
Table
the four professions'
intervention
1 illustrates
the
gatekeepers in terms of
election or appointment.
For the Board
Engineers,
composition of the gatekeepers.
as an indication of
may be seen
membership
us to the
of
Architecture and
the
Board of
Professional
the majority of the members are government
five out of nine in the former and
where three of these
nine out of ten
nine come from a
appointees:
in the latter
list of nominees given by
the IES.
The
situation
professions.
Education,
government
is
Only four
and
none
appointees.
appointees out
different
of the
of
members
Medical
of
Council
the
and
medical
Board of Legal
Law Society are
has five
government
of thirteen members. Correspondingly,
of a total
these two professions
legal
the
ten members of the
the
The
for
have more
representatives elected
by the
professionals themselves than architecture or engineering.
Another feature of
gatekeepers is
the
presence of university representatives.
is only one in the Board
Professional
Board
of
training
Engineers,
Legal
and
interest regarding the composition of the
of Architects and none
while the
Education,
being
qualifications, does
in the Board of
Medical Council
specialized
have
the
There
in
has two. The
matters
of
highest number of
Table 1
Membership of Gatekeeping Bodies
BOARD OF
LEGAL
EDUCATION
BOARD OF
ARCHITECTS
BOARD OF
PROFESSIONAL
ENBINEERS
Appointed by Government directly
5
6
5
4
-
Appointed by Government from
nomination by professional
association
-
3
-
-
-
University representative
1
-
2
3
-
Representative of the members
of the profession
2
-
6
3
10
Representative of other
profession
1
1
-
-
-
9
10
13
10
10
MEMBERS
TOTAL
MEDICAL
COUNCIL
Source: Based of information from the respective Acts
(Republic of Singapore 1970a; 1970b; 1976; 1977)
LAN
SOCIETY
67
university
representatives.
revealing.
It
association
autonomy that the legal
of
level
and illustrates
the Law Society is
control
Indeed,
intervention as a continuum,
level of
engineering
role as a national
the
profession has and
government
the other professions.
lowest
of
clearly indicates the Society's
professional
lower
The membership
higher degree of
correspondingly,
the
and intervention, compared to
if one
were
to see
the legal profession
government
would be at the
intervention
followed
by medicine,
profession would
be found
at the
while
highest level
the
of
intervention, preceded by architecture.
For lawyers, this
is expected. Autonomy
is perceived as an
inalienable right of the profession mainly because in their view,
"an independent
Bar is a
democratic society"
Chief Justice
respected Bar,
(Tan, 1981:2).
But they
complained recently
that the
represented in the Faculty of Law" and
profession has no control
the cornerstone in any
are not
Law Society "is not
thus, in his opinion, the
"over the curriculum content to achieve
the objective of a
professional qualification"
The
the
fact
that
Board
of
Legal
representatives from both the Law Society
was not mentioned.
satisfied. A
(Wee, 1980:lix).
Education
involves
and the Faculty of Law
68
There appears to be a
of
three of
reinforces
the
professions
the codes
four
each of the
of
On
the
that
legislated
discipline.
gatekeepers
three
SIA,
IES,
the structure
establishes,
maintains
i.e.,
the
Engineers,
of
the
and
SMA,
and
On the one hand,
are expected to fulfill
hand,
associations i.e.,
system in
Professional
Council,
other
built-in
ethics and
Architects, the Board of
and the Medical
dual
Board
of
the Law Society
these functions.
professional
national
include
within
their
respective constitutions the same aim of witholding their code of
eLhics and professional
conduct. But
arrangement:
training
and
issue
by
their
taken
professional
1981:7-8;
2).
the same
association
Fong,
This dual
both
1981:69;
the
best
Law
is opportune
Society
is not
a
legislated
1970.
It
Society,
professional
member of
bodies
the
"promoting
standards of professional
on
policy-making
and
activities of SPC since
function more as
Institute
of
another
and
both
their
Architects,
Association,
performs
at this
1977:1-
profession:
roles
i.e.,
juncture that
and
are. The SPC was created
enhancing
and
conduct and ethics"
far,
of a definite
policy-implementation
its inception
an organizer of
the Law
Singapore Professional Centre
Singapore,"
in
there is no evidence so
gatekeeper
unique
association.
to mention
aims at
is
integrated in the legal
(SPC) while the other three professions
in
have a
qualifications
(Singapore
gatekeeper and professional
It
checking
Singapore Medical
system is
body,
architects
the status of
"encouraging
(Fong, 1981:7).
high
But
influence of the SPC
in
Singapore. The
suggest that it
tends to
local conventions and seminars
69
for
its
members
In
influence.
terms
profession has
as
than
of
an
active
organizational
then three main
the other professions.
professional
These
association
association's fully
channel
structure,
features that
features
as
a
of professional
set
are,
the
legalized
elected membership,
and
the
it
legal
apart from
role
of
gatekeeper,
its
its
the
absence from the
Singapore Professional Centre.
Although
engineering,
in
Singapore
been
during
decisive steps have been
as
associations;
have
the
have lobbied
obtained
this
their
legal
recognition.
to
some
extent,
gives legal
recognition at
measure
government
gatekeeping bodies.
that
the
position and
period
they
respective
have
national
and succeeded
in
the
Correspondingly,
the
higher training have coincided with
of building Singapore
service center of the region;
professions has,
years
level training schools at university level;
the government's economic policy
of
fifteen
the government
professions' efforts towards
professional
past
During
reorganized
setting up of higher
and
architecture,
taken to consolidate their
professions.
or
established
of
roots
law and medicine can be traced back eighty or ninety
years, it has
structure
the
satisfied
the same
control,
into the
and legislation on the
both
time that
particularly
parties:
it
its
represents a
through
the
70
Current
Professional Talent
Let us turn
talent
that
now
to
Singapore
the description
has
been
able
independence. One may approach this
firstly,
by
looking
at
general
professions and comparing
it with
all
workers
force
the
labour
secondly, by focusing
engineers,
lawyers
dimension will
and
and
put
professional
together
after
and
picture
professional
the
specific
physicians.
of
total
both
four
and technical
population;
features of
In
the
and
architects,
cases,
the time
be introduced when comparing the situation in 1970
1980 in order to identify trends and significant changes.
From a general
people
increase
involved
in
professional
the
on the
to
the
description from two angles:
the
in
of
in
the
and
proportion
perspective,
the
size
the increase
four
of
professions
the
labour
is
force
technical occupations from
of
workers
occupations remained around
population, the proportion
in
people
number of
higher than the
engaged
in
and
technical
of the total
in the
four
1980 as illustrated
working
professions
increased from 9.7 per cent of all professional/technical
in 1970 to 11.0 per cent in
all
1970 to 1980. While
professional
eight per cent
of
in the
workers
in Table 2.
7eA
Table 2
Professionals and Labour Force, 1970,
YEAR
(A)
TOTAL WORKING
POPULATION
10 YRS & OVER
1980
(C)
PERSONS IN THE
FOUR
PROFESSIONS
(B)
PERSONS IN
PROFESSIONAL &
TECH. OCCUP.
TOTAL
AS Z OF (A)
TOTAL
1970
650,892
55,899
8.6
5,434
1980
1,077,090
95,145
8.8
10,479
Source: Calculated from Arusainathan (1972a:63, 125-127)
and Khoo (1981b:29, 142-144)
AS Z OF (B)
9.7
11.0
71
This increase
did not occur
uniformly however.
growing profession during this
decade
three
at
professions
illustrated
a
1970 there
1980 the
(cf.
were
number
increase was
slower
pace.
The other
This
is
best
Table 3).
16.6 engineers
increased
to
in architecture.
four professions, engineers
physicians,
lawyers
per
29.3
are the
engineers
is
the
outcome
of
"increase four-fold
1970.
but in
slowest
that among the
that order.
deliberate
In
The
most numerous,
requirements of
of technology.
10,000.
also clear
and architects in
planning to meet the
higher level
10,000 population,
per
It is
ranking by size has not changed since
Times,
was engineering.
by the number of practitioners of each profession per
10,000 population
In
increased
The fastest
followed by
This relative
The higher number of
government
manpower
economic development
fact, the
at a
government plans to
the engineering population"
by 1985
(Straits
1981a).
As a multi-ethnic nation
of
distribution
opportunity in
proportional
occupational
Singapore is concerned
and
educational
category.
But
of
the
resources.
employment
Equal
be manifested in
education and employment would
representation
with equal
each
ethnic
ethnic
distribution
group
in
among
a
each
all
professional/technical workers and among the four professions, is
the most relevant
to
respective figures. If
total
this
discussion.
one takes the
Table
4
presents
the
ethnic distribution of the
population as a point of reference,
it
is
expected that the
71 A
Number of
Table 3
Professionals -2E 1000-Po
!970,41980
YEAR
FOUR PROFESSIONS
1970
1980
Architects
1.8
2.5
Engineers
16.6
29.3
Lawyers
1.9
4.3
Physicians
5.9
7.3
Source: Calculated from Table 2.
2u
lationt
72
ethnic distribution
would follow
of
workers
the former
in
each
closely. A
occupational
category
comparison of these figures
would then identify deviations or ethnic enclaves.
The ethnic distribution
of
changed significantly from 1970
the total
to
population has
1980. But interesting changes
have taken place at the top of the occupational ladder
and
among
slightly
the
four
professions
over-represented
occupations.
But
the
Chinese,
Malay
or
particular.
the
ethnic
Eurasians, Caucasians, Arabs,
than
in
in
category
Japanese,
Indian--had
six per cent
and
1970 and
of al.1
1980.
Chinese were
"Others"--involving
and all
a
more
persons
other
pronounced over-
per cent of
the total
Yet, they comprised eight and
professional/technical
occupations
in
1970
1980 respectively. The Malays, on the other hand, were under-
represented in this occupational
fifteen per cent of the total
category. While
A similar pattern of over
four professions
with the total
Others
1970 were Malays;
and under-representation
Table
4).
In
1970,
is found
but the differences
taken together,
population are even greater
(cf.
there were no
1980.
changes in their distribution in
among the
they comprised
population, only 8 per cent of the
professional/technical workers in
and
in general
professional/technical
representation. The latter formed only two
population both in
not
in the case of Malays
only
two
per
cent of
practitioners in the four professions were Malays. Although there
was an increase
in absolute numbers
in
1980, Malays amounted to
72.A
Table 4
Ethnic Distribution of Professionals and Total F'o2 ul at ion
ETHNIC GROUP
TOTAL POPULATION
TOTAL PROF/TECH
1970
1980
FOUR PROFESSIONS
---
t
I
1970
1980
1970
1980
Chinese
76
77
77
79
67
72
Nalays
15
15
8
8
2
I
Indians
7
6
7
7
7
8
Others
2
2
8
6
24
19
100
(5,434)
100
(10,479)
Total
(N)
100
(2,074,507)
100
(2,413945)
Source: Arumainathan (1972:6); Khoo (1981a:11);
Arumainathan (1972:125-127); Khoo (1981b:142-144).
100
(55,899)
100
(95,145)
A
73,
only one percent
all
practitioners
the number of
increase
in
119
1980,
in
of
the
practitioners among
shows
a
a
increase of
faster
Chinese were
The
Indians
a
had
population. But
distribution
the category
population
the total
from
deviation
marked
1970 to
from 84 in
group
with
the
total
of the
these professions. The
ethnic groups.
and
rather close to that
"Others"
pace
other
under-represented
slightly
this
Malays in
keep
not
did
in
distribution: they were highly over-represented. One would expect
to
find
about
per
two
of
cent
cent in 1980.
19 per
ethnic distribution is
four professions
is
in
Table 5
where each
of the
seen separately.
Changes occurring between
trend. Five main
four
revealing picture of the
A more
presented in
the
cent of the total
professions. Instead, they comprised 24 per
1970 and
among
"Others"
1970 and
1980
characteristics of
these figures:
identified
through
drastically
under-represented
ethnic distribution
Malays
(a)
the
throughout
found in the legal
are more likely to be
do not follow a uniform
can be
continued
decade.
and medical
(b)
to be
Indians
professions
than
in architecture or engineering. They are over-represented in
the
former
of
representation
extent,
but
two,
but
Chinese in
it has
in
particularly
in
representation
in both engineering
the population
distribution.
(c)
The
has diminished
architecture
increased
law.
overto some
medicine. Meanwhile, Chinese
and
law is
getting closer to
(d) Practitioners from other ethnic
groups are clearly over-represented
in all
four
professions but
7-3A
TablIe 5.
Ethnic Distribution of the Four Professions
!2Z2.L 1980 _(In erEetages)
ETHNIC GROUP
ENSINEERS
ARCHITECTS
LAMYERS
PHYSICIANS
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
89
82
61
68
63
69
78
83
Nalay
1
*
2
1
3
3
I
1
Indian
I
3
4
6
21
21
14
12
Other
9
15
33
25
13
8
7
4
Total
(N)
100
(370)
100
(608)
100
(3,449)
100
(7,079)
100
(392)
100
(1,032)
100
(1,223)
Chinese
Source: Sase as Table 4
100
(1,760)
74
not
medicine
engineers
1970 went down to one fourth
This point
status of
citizenship
of people in
to
uS
leads
cent of
the "Other"
group
that
ethnicity
talent,
namely,
the
proportion
A significant
1970,
In
while 51
Singapore were citizens,
In
citizens.
were
is
cent of the Malays and 78 per
85 per
in
of
1980.
in
ethnic groups are non-citizens.
Indians living
Others
this
of
our professionals.
93 per cent of the Chinese,
cent of the
total
aspect of
an
number
of the
dependence on foreign
closely related to the
per
third
one
category which constituted
in
The "Others"
engineering.
in
be
to
likely
most
and
be found
likely to
less
They are
same degree.
in the
1980
pattern
same
the
remained for Chinese, Malays and Indians, but only 36 per cent of
citizens, six per cent were
people from other ethnic groups were
residents
permanent
residents
58
per
cent were non-
(Arumainathan, 1972b:28-32).
Considering
professions
four
the
observe in Table 6 that,
status of
the remaining
and
professionals
one
individually,
can
during the past decade, the citizenship
architecture,
in
engineering,
law
and
medicine, remained relatively stable. The large majority of these
professionals are citizens;
reliance on
local
talent. Yet,
each profession between
differences
between
law
the overall
thus
1970
and
architecture and engineering on
a closer
and
1980
medicine
the other
look
picture is
at the changes in
identifies
on
one of
the
one
hand. The
significant
hand, and
former two
Citizenshi
2
Table 6
of Professionals
_Status
(In
Citizenship
eentag2!
Architects
1970*,-19)**
es)
Engineers
1--9
1980
1970
79
90
85
80
11
12
6
8
9
34
9
4
7
11
100
(7,079)
100
(392)
P 1980 1 1970
1970
1980
197(
Citizens
71
67
55
55
Perm. Residents
10
13
9
Non-Residents
19
20
36
100
(370)
100
(608)
Total
(N)
Source: * Aruaainathan (1972b:147-148)
H Khoo (1981b:142-144)
100
(3,449)
Physicians
Lawyers
1
100
(1,032)
100
(1,223)
1980
100
(1,760)
75
have a higher proportion
law and
legal
engineering displaying
increasing
proportion
lawyers in
1970
and
contrast,
only
55
Singapore in
90
1970 and
non-residents
cent
of
1980 were
in
all
towards higher
79
1980
cent in
the
two, with
opposite features. The
of citizens;
per
per
than the latter
the most
profession manifests a trend
i.e.,
of
of citizens
"localization"
per
were
cent of
citizens.
engineers
the
In
practising in
citizens. The largest proportion
four
professions
is
found
among
engineers.
This contrast is to be expected because engineering has been
the most recently developed
the
manpower
development.
of the
planning required
four professions as
to
As the "production"
of
part of
attain higher technological
local
engineers could not be
speeded fast enough to meet the demand, Singapore has had to rely
heavily
on
expatriate architects.
is
not
of demand for
high influx of
particularly
(44 per
in
cent),
1981b:160).
It
and
is for
mining
(76
mechanical
some
engineers.
in
1980.
per cent),
engineering
chemical
is
engineers.
among
and 1980
censuses,
increased by
176 per cent
the next largest increase
with
has
engineering
(Khoo,
(38 per cent)
that the largest
Engineers
on
in all its fields,
increase in
Comparing
the number
resident engineers increased by 92 per cent from
2,393
extent,
Engineering
this reason
from the 1970
statistics
to
expatriate talent
professionals
non-citizen
and
scale public housing programme
The large
the only source
received a
but
engineers,
expatriate
permanent
1,244 in
residence
of
the
non-
1970 to
status
during the same period. The group with
in non-citizens were
architects;
they
76
had an increase of
111
per cent
in permanent residents and 80 per
cent increase in non-residents. Non-resident physicians
by 124 per cent and permanent residents
increased
by 66 per cent from 1970
to 1980.
In contrast, lawyers present
Their trend
seen
in
is towards a
Table
professionals
total
6.
The
different situation.
more Singaporean
profession as can be
increase
is largest
in
the
among lawyers.
increase is almost totally due to
in citizens among
lawyers. Such rapid
entirely the outcome of
local
law graduates
annual
total
a rather
of
863 gradutes
this period
increase is mostly but no
(Pillai,
1980:3).
If
1979,
amounting to a
the Faculty
of them
all
practice in Singapore, there would
The production of
there has been a steady
129 in
emerging from
of
More importantly, this
internal production.
in 1970 to
number
the 210 per cent increse
has been rewarding:
increase from 60
total
of Law during
had remained
be 1,255 lawyers in
in
1980. But
some of the graduates each year are Malaysians who may or may.not
choose to work in Singapore.
The "localization"
advantages,
of
mostly in
acquainted with the
the
terms of
particular
legal
profession
having practitioners
legal
has
had
its
who are fully
problems of
Singapore and
the neighbouring countries. It must be recalled that this was one
of
the main
lobbying
for
arguments
the
forward
establishment of
University of Malaya.
introduced in
brought
the legal
Nevertheless, a
circles
during the
the
Law
profession's
Department at the
new perspective
recently.
It
was actually
has been
a move
77
Authority of Singapore
by the Monetary
evaluation of
allowed
legal
banks in
all
of
the concept
firms to
international
localization.
handle their
international
loans and offshore banking.
this move--seen by local
legal
that
services
availability
will
as
development
a financial
legal
experts
and exposure of
move was not
the local
assets,
of
Law
entitled
"The
have
Times,
may expect the
from
more
1970,
citizens,
87 per
5
in
of the
to
The
cent
of
available
the training
to this
government
an attempt to strengthen
profession headed
on
legal
by the
a biennial series
institute
perspective.
the
not
The
and that the presence
International
profession
changes in these
see the
of
1981f).
is
Business
determined
level and one
trend to continue.
"localization"
category
occupational
Times,
these specialised areas of the
Conferences
general
Singapore's
contribute to
But
1982a).
with
(Straits
profession
decided
for
demand and their
competition at an international
is useful to
a
the
the leaders
to face up to the
It
of
Singapore
(Straits
high
expertise was
lawyers to
local
deals such
justification
"keeping
such
positive at first.
Faculty
Law"
to
foreign
as unfair competition-- was
could also
The reaction
profession.
MAS's
are in
centre"
that
the MAS
mid-1981
financing
lawyers in Singapore
among the practising
of foreign
firms
contribute
premise was
underlying
In
to engage the services of
Singapore
these specialised
a re-
that initiated
(MAS)
four professions
Considering
"professional/technical"
labour
per cent were permanent
8 per cent were non-residents.
force in
residents,
the
total
workers,
in
this category were
and the remaining
Ten years later, the 1980 census
78
reports that
88 per
are citizens,
4
the
occupational
has the
and
residents
latter
8 per
non-
cent
proportion of
a higher
law has
workers
with the citizenship
figures
individual professions,
citizens, medicine
total
the professional/technical
permanent
cent
Comparing
residents.
status of
per
cent of
to that of the
distribution closest
shows the most deviant
group, and engineering
distribution with the highest proportion of non-residents and the
lowest proportion of citizens.
professionals
their
is
young:
relatively
youth.
per cent of
Correspondingly,
1972a:1).
professionals in
counterparts
in industrialized countries. The
average age
an
of
33.7
years.
professions are
the four
important
deviations from these
expected
from the
graduates,
33.5 years,
years.
recent
engineering
which is
There
A similar
workers in
a rather
was
group
averages emerge.
in
and
trend towards rejuvenation
1970
small
1980.
some
As it
may be
influx of new
average age in
from the
the
and 1980 census
observed individually,
had the youngest
and the
calculation of
1970
recruitment drive
a decrease
general,
younger than their
increase to 33.9 years for the same occupational
When
((Arumainathan,
and technical
figures indicates that professional
had
in
on average,
on the
1980 were
in
1970, this age group
In
the labour force
based
is
population
the total population
are,
of professionals
age
mean
particular,
Singapore
the population
of
(Khoo, 1981a:9).
below 35 years of age
amounted to 73
Singapore's
per cent
70
of
characteristic
interesting
Another
1980 i.e..
1970 average of 34.9
was experienced by
lawyers:
their mean
35.3 years
in
age in
1980.
this decrease was
1970 was
In the case
the
illustrated earlier.
In contrast,
1970
which
years in
A
1980.
local graduates
the medical
in
as
and architectural
Physicians had
an average
increased to 38.1 years in 1980.
1970 was
more
of
decreasing to
the main factor
lawyers
more mature.
The mean age of architects in
36.2
of
large production
professions have become
age of 36.8 years in
36.8 years,
34.3 years;
it went up to
detailed description
of
the age
distribution of the four professions is presented in Table 7.
The majority of
the workers
occupations are young, that
is,
in the
below 40 years of age. While the
nation's first generation leaders may
50, it
has been younger
higher
skills
development
have
policies
81 per cent in
implemented
have
brought
of this. In
years of age;
1980. For all
farther side of
through their attainment of
successfully
Engineers are a good ill.ustration
of them were below 40
be at the
people who
that
professional/technical
the
economic
Singapore
1970,
forward.
73 per cent
this proportion increased to
the four professions, the figures in
Table 7 confirm the trends in age distribution discussed above.
Another important feature
distribution.
The presence
of the
professions is
of females in
the total
their sex
labour force
of Singapore has increased from 24.6 per cent in 1970 to 44.8 per
cent in
1980. But
age, reaching the
female labour
highest
peak
declining steadily from there on.
force participation varies with
in
In
the
age
group
20-24
and
1970, 53.6 per cent of women
Table 7
Professionals by Age grou2 1970q
(In _2ercentages)
AGE
GROUP
TOTAL
PROF/TECH.
ARCHITECS
1970
1980
1970
20-39
79*
79
76
40-59
21
20
60 +
ns
1
TOTAL
(N)
100
100
(55,899) (95,145)
1980)
ENGINEERS
LANYERS
PHYSICIANS
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
68
73
81
63
73
63
61
24
30
27
18
37
23
37
35
ns
2
ns
1
ns
4
ns
4
1980__j
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
(370)
(608)
(3,449)
(7,079)
(392)
(1,032)
(1,223)
(1,760)
Source: Arumainathan (1972b:114-115); Khoo (1981b:124-125)
ns : Not specified. The 1970 census used "50 and over".
* : Including 2,757 persons below 20 years of age.
80
in
this
age
per cent
in
group were working;
1981.
1980.
It
is
10 per
Nevertheless, only
female labour force was
in
this proportion increased to 79
in professional
not surprising then to
minority among
the practitioners
in
the sex distribution
these
cent of
or technical
find
in the
that women
the total
occupations
are also a
four professions. Yet,
professions is
illuminating
(cf.
Table 8)
Female participation
in all
speedily in law
1970;
at the
small,
considers
has
two
engineering. The
taken
things.
proportion of women
in medicine, and
and architecture, slowly
slowest pace in
however
four professions has increased since
place
Firstly,
in the
is
fact that an increase,
more
there
remarkable
was
total category
no
if
change
one
in the
of professional
and
technical occupations. Secondly, the bulk of the females in these
occupations are in
teachers
and
Indeed,
nurses.
and
professional
traditionally
"female"
per
43
and technical workers
jobs
cent
in 1980 were
namely
of
all
school
school
female
teachers
24 per cent were nurses.
The social
professions
is
class
another
relevant
attention. In Singapore, education
means of social
mobility;
distribution.
characteristic
is heralded as
in fact, one of
this is that education has reduced
occupational
people entering
background of
into these
meriting
the principal
the documented signs of
the influence of ethnicity on
Moreover, meritocracy
is the working
~o
Sex
Table 8
Distribution of Professionals
1970.
1980
(Inne!rcent ages)
SEX
TOTAL
PROF/TECH.
ARCHITECTS
ENGINEERS
LAWYERS
PHYSICIANS
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
MALES
61
61
90
80
99
97
85
66
79
71
FEMALES
39
39
10
20
1
3
15
34
21
29
100
(370)
100
(608)
100
(392)
(1,032)
TOTAL
(N)
100
100
(55,899) (95,145)
100
(3,449)
100
(7,079)
Source: Arumainathan 11972b:125-127); Khoo (1981b:160-161).
100
100
(1,233)
100
(1,760)
81
in
principle
highest school
Only applicants with the
"45
that
indicated
1976
results are
examination
1976).
(Chen, 1973- Pang,
admitted into the university
conducted in
to higher education.
people access
granting young
year
first
cent of
per
A survey
students at the University of Singapore had fathers who had never
attended school
engineering
off families."
educated families.
law and medical students come in
In contrast,
Perhaps one
greater proportions from English-educated families.
of
the reasons
physicians and
parents.
Furthermore,
take
to
lawyers
the inclination
is
for this
if
up
has
one
may
they
physicians or lawyers,
that
show
come from Chinese-
also more likely to
They are
and
architecture
to be from less well-
likely
"the most
students are
income families"
income
family
on
data
survey
His
engineering.
including
fields
other
in
students
income and
law and medical
that
from higher
to come
students "are more likely
than
reports
(1978a)
Pang
Nevertheless,
lower-middle
1978a).
(Pang,
working class background"
from
"are
students
of the
the majority
and in general,
only primary education,"
or had
the
close
among children of
profession
relatives
also influence,
unwittingly, the young person's career choice.
their
of
that
wittingly
About half
are
or
of the
(1978b) survey rated their family
first year students
in Pang's
and relatives as an
important influence in their career choices.
Other
case
physicians
studies
have
(Chua, 1978;
confirmed
Heng,
1978).
this
among
lawyers
and
82
Apart
from
the background
such as ethnicity,
class,
social
professions'
These
features
sectors,
and
relation
citizenship, age
there
link
are
with
are
in
the
professionals
may
when they
employees;
or
performing their
body either in
be
set
in
with
in
the
nation.
economic
other producers or
porfessional
non-employers
up their
own
if
are either
may
services;
or
they are self-employed
practice
be
but have
employees
no
paid
themselves,
services for a corporation or a service provider
the public or private
the four
sector of the economy. The
professions in
1970 and
1980 is
Table 9.
are
past decade:
the workers in professional
employees.
This
employees formed
a detailed look
at each
brings their differences from the main
surface.
the
professionals
workers in this occupational category in
However,
indicate
placement
have
of
professionals
technical occupations
1980.
that
paid assistants or subordinates working
The overwhelming majority of
changed in the
distributions, and
Emploment status refers to the
economy:
provision
employment status of
illustrated
the
professionals
structure of
status,
professionals may
employers when they have
i.e.,
economic
employment
in
and sex
features
income distribution.
that
them
three
the
providers of services
for
characteristics of
1970
situation
has
and
not
93 per cent of all
and 94 per cent in
of the four professions
occupational
group to the
Lawyers and physicians have, in that order, the highest
Table 9
ETE1y~e!tStatu~s of Professionals
11[_2rcntgs)
TOTAL
PROF/TECH.
EMPLOYMENT
STATUS
1970
ARCHITECTS
1980
1970
PHYSICIANS
LAWYERS
1970
1980
1970
1980
1970
1980
a.
EMPLOYERS
2
3
18
20
3
3
27
37
24
36
NON-EMPLOYERS
5
4
5
3
1
1
16
4
11
5
93
93
77
77
96
96
57
59
65
59
100
(608)
100
(3,449)
100
(7,079)
EMPLOYEES
TOTAL
(N)
g
ENSINEERS
1980
4
1970*L1 980**
a
100
100
(55,899) (95,145)
|
100
(370)
Source: Calculated from
* Arumainathan (1972b:158-159)
I
Khoo (1981b:196-198)
Note: Unpaid family workers are included inthe total
prof/tech. category but excluded fromthe four professions as their numbers are negligible.
100
(392)
100
(1,032)
100
(1,223)
100
(1,760)
83.
proportion
of employers,
the contrary, are
technical
group:
followed by
rather
close to
only three per
architects. Engineers, on
the
total
cent of
professional
and
them are employers and
this situation has remained unchanged since 1970.
Employment status
autonomy
over
the
Professionals who
enjoy a higher
employees.
also reveals
content
of
Consequently,
a trend towards
physicians.
levels
the
the
numbers
towards
of
expansion
compared to
level
their
are
those
proportion of
among
of
work.
likely
who
Table 9 are indicative
of autonomy
to
are
of
lawyers
and
employers increased in
but also the concomitant decrease
non-employer
of
of
or non-employers
the figures in
higher
Not only
structure
autonomy
both groups from 1970 to 1980,
in
and
are employers
level
the professionals'
practitioners
professional
service
hints
a trend
corporations,
partnerships and other larger systems of practice.
The same trend is
modest
in comparison.
found among
Engineers
architects but it
have an
even
autonomy if not over the content of their work,
structure.
Ninety-six
per cent
of engineers
is rather
lower degree of
at least over its
are employees in
public or private bodies or corporations. One may expect that, as
employees of large bodies, engineers have to follow the goals and
methods of the
organization. Yet,
form part of the
strengthened
outside of
the engineers
themselves
management, their autonomy may be substantially
and their own
influence may
the organization. The
on the larger
if
society are
of
be felt both inside and
repercusions of such influence
course related
to
the size
and
84
importance of
aspect of
the
organization
professional
where they
work.
be taken
which shall
influence
This
is
an
up again
later on with respect to all the four professions.
The
second
feature
that
provides
professionals' link with the nation's
various sectors of
on the
from
the 1970
nine
used
in the
sectors
international
activities
and
standard industrial
are
followed
in
services" includes medical,
community and other social
the
structure. Data on this
Therefore, the
1980 censuses.
classification
census
on
economy is their placement
the economic
link are taken
information
classification
10.
Table
educational,
and personal
The
public
services
based on the
of all
economic
category
"Other
administration,
(Khoo, 1981b:19-
25).
Considering that the four professions cover only 11
of
all
Table
workers
2),
the
in
professional
technical occupations
and
economic
in
deviations
per cent
sector
(cf.
distribution
presented by these professions are interesting. Engineers are the
most widely distributed across
by
architects.
Lawyers
business services, but
physicians
services".
whose
tend
sectors
to
are still
primary
focus
of the economy, followed
concentrate
more
is,
in financial and
widely distributed
expectedly,
on
than
"Other
Tabl e 10:
Distribution of Prof essionalis byEconomX Sector.
and 1960** (InpRcESntaqes)
ECONOMY
SECTOR
TOTAL
PROF/TECH.
1970
ARCHITECTS
ENGINEERS
1980
1970
1980
1970
197o*
PHYSICIANS
1980
{
1970
1980
-
-
LAWYERS
1970
1980
ABRICULTURE/FISHING
NINING/AUARRYINS
3
MANUFACTURING
9
UTILITIES
1
CONSTRUCTION
2
COMRERCE/TRADE
3
17
42
48
2
I
9
4
1
1
3
12
10
18
9
78
4
6
5
1
I
-
I
-
-
1
I
TRANSP/COMMIUNIC.
4
9
13
12
FINANCIAL/BUSINESS
6
13
6
16
57
78
I
OTHER SERVICES
73
52
9
4
21
9
99
100
(370)
100
1608)
TOTAL
(N)
100
100
(55,899) (95,145)
100
(3,449)
100
(7,079)
2
Source: Compiled from * Arumainathan (1972b:180-183)
,I Khoo (1981b:230-235)
Note: # less than 1 per cent.
100
(1,223)
99
100
(1,760)
83
87
14
9
100
(392)
100
(1,032)
85
mining,
economy than the
1970 however. Engineers
place since
taken
moving
into
architects appear
that this trend
buisiness
and
financial
a reflexion
is
addressed to transform Singapore
six per
and
were in financial
link
their
with
engineers,
physicians
earners in
Singapore.
in
business jobs
in
1979
the
and
1970;
top
this
workers
proportion
include
earners
lawyers
list;
(Straits
among
are
lawyers
is the third aspect
Architects,
structure.
economic
Figures on the
sharebrokers who head the
among
Indeed, only
and technical
Finally, the professionals' income level
earners
policies
13 per cent in 1980.
doubled to
of
is possible
economic
of the region.
all professional
cent of
It
into not just a high technology
centre but also the financial centre
a mere
and
lawyers
same path.
national
of
the only ones
are not
services;
be following the
to
been
changes have
Some
other professionals.
to
sectors of the
in more
their presence
partly explains
systems analysis
from
engineering fields
The range of
top
the
income
average income of the top
in
place
second
after
engineers occupy the lowest rank
Times,
the
All
1981a).
four
professions were included in the list of the top three earners in
various companies and
professions. Their
rank
with respect
each other according to this report is as follows:
Sharebrokers
Lawyers
Physicians
Architects
Engineers
S$1,576,305 annual
"
843,028
"
491,359
"
206,543
"
166,421
income
"
"
to
86
The report
indicates that
the minimum earnings of these
benefits were included,
people;
(Straits
found when the
the relevant
Times,
annual mean
figures
Among the
mean annual
if other cash and material
The
income
taken
from
a
survey
of
11 gives
employment
of
lawyers
engineers the
receive the highest
lowest. But comparing all
in
other fields,
the former
occupy the top income levels.
The income
attention.
When
indicator of
ranking of
the four
the
since
length
years
of career, the
professions merits further
graduation
the longer their
only after
in Table
experience,
the sixth year
11
appears.
and earnings is
the higher their
This correlation
Table
practice, physicians are the top
at the
bottom of
the scale
graduation, reach the
fifth year and
used
as
an
12.
professionals,
earnings.
second position
become the top earners
is
it
If
length of career
one compares
their
first
income earners.
during the
But
the ranking observed
between
four professions during
graduates in all
For all
of practice that
presented in
are
earnings of practitioners in
the four professions take a new dimension.
of
ranking is
in 1980 (Internal Revenue Department,
four professions,
income and
same relative
quantified
is considered. Table
four professions with practitioners
still
represent
15 per cent or more of
1981a).
graduates in twelve fields
1982).
actually
the above figures would be higher because
"the true benefits often total
earnings"
these figures
five
fresh
years
Lawyers are
first three years after
between
their third
and
after their sixth year of
Table 11
Professions'
nECTOal Mean Income in the
1980
Public and Private Sectors.
} PUBLIC SECTOR
BOTH SECTORS
S$76,734
S$48,957
SS62,845.5
PHYSICIANS
75,019
39,852
57,435.5
ARCHITECTS
57,777
38,130
47,953.5
ENGINEERS
43,963
32,084
38.023.5
PROFESSION
LAWYERS
PRIVATE SECTOR
Source: Internal Revenue Departent (1982:22-23)
Note: Exchange rate as of January, 1983: US$1 = S$2.20
r-6
Table 12
Professions' Annual Mean Income by
Years After Graduation. 196
Source: Calculated from Internal Revenue Department (1982:22-23)
87
practice.
The other
important
part of
between the public and private
11,
the private
sector
the
story is
sectors.
provides
higher
monetary
the first years of professional practice
increases progressively
increase. The greatest mean
for
all
lawyers with
professional
experience.
Senior
receive a
mean annual
income of
earned by their public
the
years of practice
income for all
twenty or
lawyers
for
four professions
difference in annual
occurs among
rewards
is narrower during
in all
as
professions
gap
As illustrated in Table
professionals than the public sector. This gap
and
the income
in the
more years of
private sector
S$218,695 compared to S$92,536
sector colleages
with the same
experience. The corresponding mean annual
years of
income among physicians
with twenty or more years of experience in the public and private
sectors
are
S$84,228
and
architects the figures are
S$64,512
in
the
public
S$64,703
S$112,818 in
sector.
narrowest gap with a mean annual
in the private and
Department,
The
respectively.
the private
Senior
For senior
sector and
engineers present the
income of S$79,884 and S$60,665
public sectors respectively
(Internal
Revenue
1982:39-40).
lower rewards
given
in
the public
sector are neither
unique to Singapore nor are they a new phenomenon. The complaints
of
low
salaries in
traced bac
century.
.
the
the
medical service,
British colonial
The current
statistics just
the size of the problem today.
period
for
example, can be
in the
discussed
Eighteenth
convey clearly
A continuous exodus in search of
88
greener pastures from
sector,
has
affected
physicians and
medical
the government
lawyers
service,
policy-makers
all four
in particular,
who have
so far
measures
private
specialists
medical
officers
are
(New Nation,
1973);
more
1977:9)
and a greater reliance on the
the
principle that the
implemented several
appointments
of
frequent promotions of
and salary increases
students at the university
population
move of
the concern of
consultancy
1981);
of
attracted
drain to the private sector. Some
higher intake of medical
needs
the case of
attention. The
designed and
1980);
medical
Yet,
private
more public
has
part-time
(Chua,
into the
professions.
has received
measures to minimize the brain
of these
service
(Goh,
(Chew,
private sector to serve the
(Goh,
physicians
1981)
under
from the
the new
public to
the
private sector is not a loss to the nation.
It is more
difficult to
find
solutions to
lawyers from the public to the private sector.
judges
and
professional
officers are some
acknowledging
allowances
of the measures
that
disparities
the exodus
Pay increases for
given
to
legal
service
taken by policy-makers.
between
of
the
two
sectors
But,
are
practically impossible to solve, the Prime Minister manifested in
Parliament that one
recruiting
good
last
lawyers
appoint foreign judges
resort
into
solution
the
(Lee,1981).
public
to
the
sector
problem
of
would be to
89
Overall,
the gap between the public
been reduced. The government
the
competitiveness
professional
of
revisions recommended
1981.
The
has taken definite steps to improve
the
manpower.
public
The most
by
and private sectors has
the
sector
recent
National
NWC's recommendations
in
step
recruiting
was the salary
Wages Council
were implemented
(NWC)
in April
in
1982
giving the public sector
employees "substantial
wage increases"
(Ministry
Industry, 1982:57-58).
Since 1972, all
public
of Trade
officials
allowance,
sector"
the
which
and
receive
is
(Quah Jon,
only
reason
"a
thirteen
comparable
1982:56-57).
for the
to
But
month
the
bonus
periodic
move has also
need to be corrupt among civil
Despite
these
improvements
in salary and
It has been said
(Quah Jon,
the
1982:57).
public sector cannot
with the private^
sector to
Prime Minister acknowledged this when
attract professionals. The
announcing the latest
servants"
for dollar
not be
the purpose of reducing "the
efforts, however,
afford to compete dollar
in the private
competitiveness may
working conditions for public sector employees.
that this government
non-pensionable
salary
increases
for
political
leaders,
judges and members of Parliament:
pay
the
government to
possible for
be
It would not
paid in banks or what lawyers
what top men Care> being
alone sharebrokers, Care>
or medical practitioners let
taken
has
government
the
Nonetheless,
earning.
under which it
cognizance of the changed circumstances
for the public
talent
for
top-ranking
is
competing
(Straits
political leadership.
sector, especially for
Times, 1981a).
This
reference
to
income
discussion of professional
of
input.
professionals
rounds
up
the
Collective consciousness and channels of influence
The term collective
context,
to
the
identification
interests
status in
of
with
and
role
in
the community,
of
of
And
Landsbury
to
among other things.
by
(1978),
the
form
a
data suggest
change
of
was
collective
all
professions.
expertise
external
what
these
in any or
all
collective
consciousness
of
the
see it,
dimensions would
within a
2xEtise dimension refers to the
and
their
Although
the
simple presence or
among professionals,
work-base
As I
the three
The Singapore data
the
not a monolithic
which apply to
dimensions are tentatively
competition dimension.
seen as an
(1977) and others
consciousness is
the
the use
section.
Larson
for
how
and channels of
least three dimensions
These
dimension,
Thus,
characteristics.
search
that collective
be
ideology
coallitions.
those
to
Furthermore,
this
an
they justify their
of professionals
consciousness
It comprises at
the
manifest
encompasses
ideology.
(1973),
heterogeneity
concept.
four
their
Freidson
and
intention
absence of
present
profession's
professionals may
consciousness,
provide some evidence
initial
the
their
and how
be discussed together in
have pointed to
tendency
to
ideology
society,
influence
collective
influence shall
in
professionals
commitment
expression or implementation of
issues
refers,
a profession think of themselves as a group,
their
channels
which
ideology.
in
they define
to
extent
and
practitioners
consciousness
labelled
dimension,
and
the
rifts or dissensions
reduce
the level
given professional group.
division of
of
The
professionals into
91
generalists and specialists.
respect to
their claims
expertise and/or the
upon a
distinction
the same
stem
from
salary
technology
and
perceived preferential
that might
research
treatment in
local
presence of
to
and
high
even
a
the possible
practitioners of the same
here when local
service
those mentioned
the work-base dimension.
collective
access
deals with
foreign colleagues
market, or
situation of each profession
between
the allocation of projects.
competition in the
in
arise
facilities,
and foreign
profession. A dissension may occur
oppose the
upon
in the public and
differential
And the external__com2etition dimension
distinction between
privileges
private sector dissension could
differences,
equipment
with
The work-base dimension
profession working
private sectors. A public versus
may clash
distinct area of
rights and
their services.
possible
practitioners of
two groups
particular or
corresponding
clients or consumers of
focuses on the
These
for
in relation to
practitioners
on grounds of unfair
reasons similar
to
Let us consider the
these dimensions-of
consciousness.
Lawyers tend to see
characteristics which
in matters of
law.
supreme court judge
themselves as a
go beyond
there cannot
told them "we
among legal
respected
profession.
perceived
respect
by
The
the
at the Bar
true that
(Ghows, 1982).
in
1982, a
Attorney
that
General
the
without
There
practitioners of
fact
expertise
lawyers are the harbingers of
obviously
be civilization"
feeling of pride
the mere professional
Greeting new lawyers
civilization...because it is
profession with unique
law,
is also a
being part
of a
explained
such
legal
and
medical
92?
leavers"
Two things
require clarification
the quality
of
at this
in
1981;
must have obtained
is
Centre,
"A"
Certificate
of
obtained at the
end of four
years of secondary school
requirement
engineering
certain
examination"
Research
(Economic
English
and two years of pre-university or
flexible
level
the applicant
The General
1981a:27-28).
level
in
proficiency
high
into the Law Faculty has
passes at the GCE A'
"good
law. Since
(Sunday Times,
other fields;
requirements compared to
no special
and
admission
Moreover,
1983).
Wong,
The
the cream' of
into medicine and dentristy
university applicants"
talent.
and
per cent of
more than 15
it was
University of Singapore
then, the official policy of the National
has been to accept "no
the
were asked to
who
medicine were engineering
change their choice of
some of
of
areas
by students
taken
common alternatives
Law
would continue to go to
medicine thus depriving other professional
most
the
to other fields;
of the top students
felt then that most
Firstly,
to
to divert
1979
in medicine
applicants wanting to enroll
point.
leavers applying
school
government decided
Faculty, the
best school
very
the
from
1981a:1-2).
(Tan,
regarding
taken
are
professions
two
these
"aspirants to
as
include the leaders of the community
professions
than
and medicine,
required
Minister--himself
generation of
those
all
lawyer--has
for
to
do
(GCE)
This is
a more
entry into architecture,
good passes
which specify
referred
"the least
lawyers as
able ones...have chosen
junior college.
Interestingly
subjects.
a
of
Education
able of
medicine or
enough,
to
the
the
in
Prime
younger
our students. The
engineering"
(Lee,
93
1981b).
the perception
Secondly,
prestige may
of high
the past three years
present, very accurate. For example, during
lawyers for breach
there has been a series of court cases against
of
trust, mismanagement
other offences.
monies and
of clients'
not be. at
Most of the cases and proceedings have appeared in the press, and
1981d; Sunday Times,
1982a;
Nation,
1982a;
1981a;
New
1982c).
Such a
public's
(cf. Straits Times,
Straits
Times,
1982c; New
1982b,
the
views reflects
the every-day, business-like
of
weaknesses and
the profession's
practice, and
legal
negative
Nation,
1982a,
Monitor,
Singapore
awareness
increasing
aspects of
common
venting of
public
lawyers' high
are
shortcommings
other
and
fees
complaining about
the editor
readers' letters to
strengths.
There
are
one of the
excellent
manifested
profession's leaders
as
diplomats
posses
they
legal
frontiers of domain,
at further
Aiming
profession's ideology.
the
of
features
interesting
other
"the
that lawyers
ability
make
to obtain,
analyse and evaluate information...<and the ability> to negotiate
and settle
disputes."
see
themselves as
for
highly suited
Moreover, the profession is
then,
It follows,
politics (Rajah, 1975:10-11).
as a branch of
defines diplomacy
He also
now in
the
that lawyers may
business of politics.
the process of
widening its
boundaries to include activities related to public administration
and
business
introducing
administration.
"non-law" subjects
The
in the
process
has
begun
by
Law Faculty's curriculum
94
(Straits Times,
part,
de
1981b;
Faculty of
in recognition of
facto
involved
appointments
Sheridan
due to
twenty
in
British tradition
a positive trait
public
the nature
years
also
ago
or
of
was
business
their
jobs.
accurate:
1982).
with
He
activities
(Sheridan,
perceive themselves
as
in Singapore, although
in the minds of
English
was referring
custom
as
in 1974
An
consultation with Chief
conservative
dress
perceive
as
it
profession.
A
an
rule
the
One of them
in Singapore is so
legal
system"
the dress
(Winslow,
code which
more suitable garments
a rule of
Justice."
important,
last bastion of
climate, to wear wigs and dark
1978 "by
recent tax
(Singapore Monitor,
our
particularly to
shows
1961).
this is not necessarily
attempt to introduce
was reversed in
forecast by
foresaw lawyers
some practitioners.
requires lawyers, in our tropical
suits in court.
in
administration
The
he
complained recently that "no other profession
burdened
This move is,
the fact that some practising lawyers are
branching into multifold
Lawyers
Law, 1981).
The
that
the Law Society in
re-introduction
the
majority
distinctive
relief
1982e) has given
for
the
of lawyers
of
their
lawyers' black clothes
societal
importance of symbolic clothing to lawyers.
symbol
of
recognition to the
Up
to now there has
expertise dimension of
the
historical
earlier,
been no noticeable dissension along the
lawyers'
tradition
there
are
.generalists. and
no
of
collective
common
obvious
barristers
have joint degrees.
distinction between
A
law
but it
has
to
barristers and
not found
developments triggered off by
The
work-base
lawyers working in
salaries with
The income
indicated
four
those of
gap
favours
earlier, are
professions.
Parliament
peak of
that
their
"it
The
is
earning
Chief
Justice in 1980
so far.
(Wee,
Yet, recent
foreign competition,
extent as will be seen in the
does
reveal
public sector
the
private
the best
Prime
among
they compare
their
sector
lawyers
who,
as
in all
the
acknowledged
in
paid practitioners
not realistic
public
strain
in the private sector.
Minister
capacity
some
when
their colleagues
has
to expect
to
give
up
lawyers at the
their
lucrative
sector> for appointments to the bench"
Lawyers working
a
official
competion dimension.
practices Cin the private
(Lee, 1981b).
an
solicitors following England
the issue of
dimension
the
solicitors
Most practitioners
establish
supporters
have changed the situation to some
discussion of the external
between
(specialists>.
suggestion
Due to
in Singapore discussed
cleaveges
and other countries, was made by the
1980),
consciousness.
in the public sector see themselves
literally
doing
service
practice.
Younger practitioners have,
by
not
going into private
however, the advantage of
gaining working experience and establishing contacts while in the
public sector.
Both factors can
opt for
in the private
a job
prove rather valuable once they
sector. And
the pay gap actually
96
reverses
in
favour of
government because
green' graduates"
But it is
that
the
"the
government
in terms
of the
profession
As the
the profession
pay
external
manifests
there
lawyers
was a
until
discontinued by the government's
lawyers
as
soul
a direct
to
the
has
threat to their
apparently
has
itself
with
competition
practitioners.
competition
has
the
edge
level
Society and the Faculty of
This
initiative
legal
monopoly
was
reaction of
was
at best a
negative assessments. Some saw
own practices.
decided
foreign
to
to
the
the legal
government's
improve
specialization
with the
But after some
situation,
legal
Thus, improvement efforts
at the institutional
monopoly of
The initial
look at the
of
serious
the localization' of
virtual
accommodated
decision. The profession
for
for
dimension
potentially
recently.
government's
searching and a realistic
profession
salaries
decision to allow foreign legal
combination of mixed feelings and
it
job with the
competition
a
firms to bid for contracts in Singapore.
local
first
the best
earlier discussion on
revealed,
practice by local
who get their
(Lee, 1981b).
legal
dissension.
beginners
and
firms.
over
prepare
External
the
local
have taken place both
involvement
of the
Law, and at the individual
Legal
level.
The
latter is manifested in a new trend towards specialization as the
Attorney-General recently explained:
"a
noticeable
increase
in
the
number
of
lawyers
that
concern
the
law
in
branches of
specialising
a welcomed
development.
international transactions is
There
is
a
definite
discernible
trend
even
among
one's own
desire to choose
general practitioners of a
field of specialisation" (Tan, 1983).
97
Regarding the
among physicians, there have
dimension
due to
access to
high
problems
of collective consciousness
three dimensions
been dissensions
salary
differences in
technology
equipment;
arise at
presence of foreign
the
external
physicians
at the work-base
public sector and
the
and,
occasionally
dimension when the
competition
seen with
is
some
reservation.
But
these are only minor problems at present. Today, the most. serious
dissension may be identified at the expertise dimension.
it
the
that
appears
consciousness as a
more ideal
disease is
real
than
ideal recently when he
philosophy...a
behaviour"
1981).
more
become
profession
has
dissension.
It began with two
the
advertising.
booklet
additional
Guide
on
information to
Regulations put into effect
(Advertisement
and
Sale)
superior
professional
threatening
the
serious
and related problems
and specialists,
and
the
Ministry of Health published
Advertisements
the Medicines
the same
Act
rift within
time namely, the division of
1977 the
Medical
of the
just a set a
controversial
practitioners
In
ethics
more than
noticeable,
for a long
haunting the profession
labour between general
code of
years a
few
code
profession invoked such
guide to
the past
In reality, during
issue on
the
declared that the
rules... it is a
The ideal
stated in the medical
Association <SMA> "is
Singapore Medical
(Lim,
of
leaders
of the
ethics. One
today.
in Singapore
unity of the profession is officially
of
against
dedicated fighters
of
unified body
collective
classical
physicians'
Indeed,
of
to
serve
as
(Medical Advertisements)
year and to
1969.
These
the Medicines
regulations
98
prohibit,
among
other
offering medical skill
The law explicitly
"advertisements
things,
(Ministry of
or service"
prohibits the naming
but not the reference to speciality
used in
physicians'
On the other
stipulates
that
hand,
professional
against
only
the
physician's
In
misconduct.
to prevent
One year later,
The
SMA's code
and by
The
"unfair"
main
competition
its
SMA.
Times,
up as
SMA
1980).
convention to
issues.
one of those
Ministry of Health,
Both speakers emphasized the
the code and
to refrain from
undue attention to their qualifications
Services was of
the opinion that the inclusion of
Nevertheless,
the nameplates and signboards is
information
constitute advertising.
the
including ethical
1981e).
useful
regulation
been,
12th national
(Straits Times,
provides
offence nor
a
(Straits
of Medical Services,
of
for
has
was brought
need for the profession to abide by
using signboards to call
a "heinous"
rationale
the profession,
the past president
appear in
"at least 150 members
signboards
on advertising
should
no punitive power" because
neither
the SMA dedicated
issues by the Director
name
advertising
1980, the SMA announced that such
is
through
a self-assessment of
code on
considering that
regulation
advertising'
declared,
1977:5).
the diseases treated
ethics
contravene it and the association has
of this
Health,
nameplates and signboards
in
the SMA's
might be revised
a breach
individuals
clinics.
his/her clinic's signboard.
a code
of
of
the Director
beneficial
and,
in
his
of
Medical
specialities on
to the
view,
public as it
it
does not
99C
Up to
had been
specialists
But
profession.
to
discussions
of
jurisdiction
and
advertising
mass
the
the press among physicians
debates in
debate has not
ended
and
the
speciality must be included
to get access to specialits.
need for a
clear
division
disagree on the boundaries.
practitioner
informal
the
within
is, a
are
who
mentioned
being
The
medical
on
who argue that their
on signboards and nameplates because
will
find it easier
on the
Both factions seem to agree
of
in
labour
General
medicine;
but
or family
they
practitioners see themselves
entry into the health care system.
as the patient's point of
general
of
stream
to be informed and
the public has the right
convention's
practitioners,
and specialists,
signboards and nameplates;
the
problem was and still
specialities
physicians'
the
against
medical
voicing opposite views.
general
between
up
a
dissention
profession has aggravated. Thebasic
conflict of interests
took
media
versus
of the
confines
thus triggering
the public
practitioners
general
within the
kept
regarding
opinion
in
differences
the
time,
that
The
physician--as they are labelling
themselves now--is then responsible, in their view, for referring
the patient to a specialist
Leong,
general
1981;
Ho,
1981).
practitioners
about their
general
that
if
(Wong, 1976;
a feeling
among
specialists include information
and area
nameplates, patients
bypassing the general
there is
Accordingly,
qualifications
signboards and
if he deems it necessary
of
specialization
might go
practitioner's
practitioners explain that this
on their
directly to them,
clinic. More
importantly,
would not be in the best
interest of the patient who, as a lay person, would not
know what
1 C0
is wrong with
words,
the
him and
assumed
what type
ignorance
justification for their
disagree:
directory
of
Specialists
position,
of
position
the
he needs.
patient
In
is
in this argument.
other
their main
Specialists
they believe specialities should be shown on signboards
and nameplates
Director
of care
and
even
specialists
have
of
has
the
Medical
more,
they
should
tacit
be
backing
Services,
manifested
that
think
provided
of
the
reflecting
if
that
patients
to
an
official
the public.
government;
the
want
the
government's
to
see
a
specialist, "the cost of medicine must not be made expensive by a
middle person"
(Sunday Nation,
1982).
101
This
conflict
within
stage
serious
associations
with
the
the
prohibit
the
display
of
nameplates, and the other is
specialists for
Nation,
1982)
the sole
The
practitioners
although the
over the years.
the SMA and
Singapore
represent
The above
<APMPS>, which
both
general
are
general
and
presented by
Practitioners of
January,
in
1981
to
in the
specialists
the join memorandum first
meeting
general
of the proposal
is free
the patient
he
first
will
do
because
seek health
if
laymen
required to make a good choice of
later to
the basic ideology of
and
to
well
some days
reported after the meeting a
president of APMPS
unanimous approval
practitioner
only formed
representatives signed
it. The
but,
Private Medical
practitioners
and called an extraordinary
chooses
(Sunday
specialists has increased
proposals were jointly
was
register of
profession
members
and
and who are members of SMA.
The APMPS
members:
official
SMA
number of
the Association of
private sector
discuss
the
one is
signboards
on
the medical
of
The SMA
Medical Council:
to prepare an
majority
profession-Al
gatekeeper.
specialities
use of
reached a more
the
profession's
presented two proposals to the Singapore
to
has
of
involvement
the medical
and
profession
he
do
specialist.
goes
not
its
care anywhere he
to
the
general
have the knowledge
Furthermore,
in
an
implicit reply to the government's position he added that
is the first
physician
The general practitioner/family
when he has a
should consult
the patient
person whom
a
not)
is
physician
family
problem...<the
medical
"middleman" levying on an extra charge for doing little
the public not
or nothing...The association appeals to
a product.
selling
as
tradesmen
doctors
to
regard
10Z
Doctors are profesionals
with an
to
a
social
duty
patient
and
1982).
the name of
are
practising at
qualified professionals"
to
our
profession"
in
and
code
ethical
We
shopkeepers.
nor
tradesmen
times
all
the
represented
by
specialists
might
SMA;
its members openly
he sees it,
constitution review
all
association is
the
profession
that
own
their
this is the
association's position.
As
is necessary
to
of SMA
the national
professional
been formed
association
Therefore,
practitioners.
medical
that
the association when a group of
committee has
working on this problem
Naturally,
acknowledged
reorganization
character as
truly representing
form
dissent with the
a complete
maintain its
and
SMA
from
first time ever in the history of
indicated
have
not
position
their
them
of
some
withdraw
and
heard
not
SMA president
The
association.
is
voice
the
Because
general practitioners, specialists
members are
that their
the
and the SMA in
dissension.
serious
facing
particular, are still
feel
of
1982a).
(Yong,
of SMA
and
accordance
traditions
highest
the
"in
in
"we
trained
are
Despite these vows, the profession in general
majority
that
emphatically asserted
association. He
the
neither
exactly the same position
the SMA expressed
The president of
ethical duty
to the
(Loo,
the community.
and is presently
(Yong, 1982b).
something more than the representativeness of
at stake.
united.
a
One of
The
the
medical
objectives of SMA is
profession
maintain a unified front for about 21 years.
Now,
to
the
keep
has managed
to
differences in
o3
perception of
roles and squabbles
it to split
into factions,
professional
conduct and
no
longer
a
developments indicate
prevalent
during
the
jurisdiction
each arguing
ethics.
unified
over
It
two
decades
among
professional
on the internal
The social
and work does play a part
main dissension among
environment
as well.
The
the
principles of independence
between
local
and
in
terms
opposing parties
physicians was justifiable
of their norm
with
deeds judging
playing in the
expressed
in
by the
current
letters
physicians as any other
service should receive
appear to
part that
press
versus
with the
them.
and
equality
the situation is
on
be substantiated
general practitioners are
In
fact, public
and
editorials, perceives
And people feel
information
available and how to obtain
external
1980s do not see eye
professionals namely,
or service in the market.
the
The latter's constant claim
does not
the
the
were local
physicians. But
controversy.
to
of
British tutelage
profession.
of altruism
they live
before 1959,
public's sympathy
different now. Health care consumers in the
to eye with the medical
ideology do not
then in terms of the well-known
from
expatriate
medical
restoration.
within which
For example,
British <expatriate> physicians. The
local
latest
dynamics of the professional
physicians was
competition dimension.
The
unified collective consciousness
The development and changes in
groups concerned.
of
be said that there is
profession may be crumbling and is in urgent need of
depend exclusively
in terms
consciousness.
that the
past
its case
could
collective
have caused
the
selling
opinion
a product
that those who need a
range
of
services
The alledged norm of altruism
104
by the medical profession
similar
A
profession.
It
trend
has
has been
Singaporean is
is begining to be questioned.
a rather
1983
Annual
Report
September
1983,
(Straits
Times,
consumers of
to
the
it
Law
Society
of
reason
for this
objectivity of
professional
In
however,
the
as
in Singapore refer
Singapore
instead
consumers'
lawyers"
their complaints
of
bringing their
to the High
Court on their
ignorance
interpretation is
1982 to
dissatisfied
technically possible (Low, 1983).
is
avenue. Another
October
fresh complaints against
complaints against a lawyer directly
own name as it is
the average
his/her rights
the period
Interestingly,
services
of
but
services. The Law Society disclosed in
received "41
legal
regarding the legal
more aware
that during
1983b).
appear
slow process,
steadily becoming
a consumer of professional
its
begun to
One possible
of this
that the
technical
consumers trust the
the Law Society in its role as the watchdog of the
conduct of
contrast
to
lawyers.
law
and
medicine,
the
professions
of
architecture and engineering have a more restricted and realistic
ideology;
it
might
consciousness of these
of
formation.
Apart
professions differ from
be
perhaps
because
two professions are
from
these
common
one another in
still
collective
in the process
features,
several
ideology and consolidation as professions.
the
the
two
aspects of their
One of these aspects
is that engineering has enjoyed a decisive government sponsorship
that architecture
itself
as
a
has
not
had.
profession mainly
Architecture
on
its
own
has
established
efforts.
Indeed,
105
engineering was propelled
national
the
part of
1970s as
early
construction and
Manufacturing,
needed
infrastructure
of
which
for
all
increased their
engineers,
further
in
economy provided the
the
of
cent
28.4 per
in 1959 to
sectors
two
latter
and the
plans.
public utilities,
per cent
GNP contribution from 10
1971;
economic development
and electric
civil
require mechanical,
1960s and
the late
in
by the government
(Goh,
development
industrial
1973: 12, 16).
As the economy improved in
as mining, metallurgic
although
speciality,
for
This
improvement.
members
Lnder the chairmanship of
the twelve members were systems
The
a team of young professionals
formed
education
study
education
team was
easily qualify
planning,
work
well
Further
engineers
the
beyond the
help
to
of
engineers are
is
employed
the
of the
policy,
such as manpower
of which are
all
boundaries of engineering.
engineers
by
of
1979).
Times,
introduction
handle matters
the fact that
Eleven
able trouble-shooters whose
commonly known
encourage
himself.
(Straits
public
twelve
comprised
team
the Minister
defence policy and educational
engineering fields
all
them to
system and present proposals
study
engineering profession as a group
skills
The Minister for
move.
due to a government's
Singapore's educational
to evaluate
profession in 1979,
prominence to the
Goh Keng Swee,
Dr
Education,
small minority of
a
by
represented only
latter
The
engineering.
systems
and
engineers, served to give
again, this time,
branches of engineering such
included other
technical expertise
the emphasis on
the late 1970s,
to
seek
in
work
between 30 to 40 per
government
and
non-
cent of
"the
most
10(
scholastically able"
of these
are given
scholarships for post-
graduate degrees and thereafter bonded by the government
in the civil
and military service in
"administrators
Technology,
team
and
1977:3;
assembled
by
jobs that include posts as
educators"
(Ministry
Lim and Pang,
1981:61).
Goh
and
in
1978
to serve
of
Science
and
The education study
1979
is
again
a
good
illustration of this grooming of engineers by the government. The
team members, ranging in
age between 24
selected, among other things,
and 33 years
because of their scholastic ability
and their assumed versatility in
problem solving
1979).
the
Their
Finance had
previous
work at
included. policy
promoted after
1979 to
Ministry
of
Ministries
formulation.
positions of
Ministry of Education,
the Public
Defence;
old, were
their
Most
(Straits Times,
of
Defence and
of
them
were
more responsibility at the
Service
current
Commission, and
work
involves
the
policy
formulation, manpower planning and resource planning.
But government's
influence is not
engineers outside their realm of
their
professional
ideology,
the conviction that they
specialized
fields"
(Gudgeon, 1977).
A leading
and
1982).
develop
American engineer
areas
such
as part of
engineers themselves profess
should move
a
"away
from narrow
"multidisciplinary" outlook
This conviction is not restricted to Singapore.
raise their educational.
other
expertise. In fact,
some
can and
the only factor bringing
as
exorted his
standards and
arts,
colleagues recently to
search
humanities
for knowledge
and politics
in
(Florman,
10T
this
indicate
Technology, 1977),
were occupying
trend
jobs. This
(1977:22-24).
wanted
cent of
most importantly, 40 per
eight
courses;
per
cent were
to
In
say
that
consciousness.
engineering
engineers
But
some
profession
to the external
field,
from a
61 per
managerial
in the public
ound that
the
training;
but,
take business
courses related to
cent
per
wanted
a unified profession is
establish directly with the available
more
a
have
qualifications
shows some
and a more
is is possible
profession,
unified
are
dissension
dimension of collective consciousness;
work-base dimension;
the
(1977:31).
the medical
comparison with
er
only 52
and
training in engineering
another issue difficult to
furth
these wanted to
Whether engineers see themselves as
data.
also
interested in
science;
education and computer
additional
to attain
of
the engineers
in
of engineers
cent
national survey
This
of engineers
majority
were
sector
private
21 per
compared to
positions
sector
the
in
engineers
cent of
assumes
Science and
private sector:
in the
is
posi tions in their
or manager ial
more common
is
of
cent of
that 48.6 per
senior managerial
Data
(M inistry
survey of engineering manpower
national
profes sional
a vailable
is
information
interesting
some
expression
an
beyond their
go
engineers' inclination to
then
is
one
if
But
Singapore.
positions
management
holding
that
in
engineers
among
opinion
how widespread
ascertain precisely
to
difficult
is
It
in
collective
order.
The
at the expertise
very low dissension at the
serious dissension with respect
competition dimension.
108
Regarding
the
expertise dimension,
managing director of
explained
that
experience leave
non-technical
there is a
many
the profession
areas
of
engineering
or are
takes them
with
limited
over-anxious to work
firms
seems to have
their profession. There is
"engineering ethos."
graduates
engineering
engineers perhaps because it
in
lack of
engineering
Experience in management
those
senior engineer and
a private corporation told his colleagues in
Singapore recently that
He
a
(Hardy,
in
1981).
a special attraction
for
beyond the boundaries of
then one first division of engineers:
fields
and
their
colleagues
in
non-
expertise
is
that
engineering fields.
A more explicit
division
by
represented
paper
versus
generalist
specialist
graduates from one
either a
professional
engineer's
that
university
a Ph.D.
bodies either
professional
engineers
with
engineering-related
one
graduates
Master or
in
a
other
Among
division.
finds diploma
polytechnic
of the
university
engineers with a
terms of
qualifications,
in Singapore,
practitioners
holders i.e.,
in
schools;
degree. In
current
holders who are
general
qualification
degree
are
jobs than the others
It
more
both,
and
i.e.,
addition, membership
foreign or
qualifications.
diploma
the
the
with a Bach'elor's degree;
post-graduate
local,
words,
add to
in
an
has been estimated
likely
(Lim and Pang,
to
be
in
1981:61).
109
Despite
these
there
qualifications,
differences
in
appears to be
among engineers a pragmatic
engineers
feel
demonstrate
a
that
above
with
colleague
average
of
a
only
in
ability
or
diploma
can
of
the
practice
the
paper
dissension. Some
least diminishes
or at
attitude that prevents
academic
the
field.
experience
in
Conversely, specialization by means
of a higher
degree does not
automatically propel one's career.
It can actually restrict the
profession
to
thanks
engineer's clientele.
(IES>
and
the
Board
stipulated that when an
years
The
of
Institution of
Engineers
Singapore
Engineers have recently
Professional
engineer registers
as specialist
he is
only allowed to practice in the particular field specified in the
registration papers. Civil
concerned neither
is not shared
by all
engineers
Differences in
the time.
applied all
is it
sub-
(Leong, 1983).
specialities covered by this regulation
But this pragmatic attitude
several
alone has
engineering
paper qualifications are felt at the worksite althought they have
not been
expressed as
in
major rifts
years of
engineer with a diploma and several
find himself under the supervision
the
IES.
For example,
an
work experience may
of a degree holder fresh from
the university. One such practitioner declared that
that
human
only
is
it
circumstances
such
under
older
strained. The
are
relations and communications
two choices, play
with
is left
graduate
Polytechnic
party's
the other
showing Lp
to avoid
down his role
Centre,
(Economic Research
resign.
or
inexperience
1981).
Formal
dissension
because of
among engineers
differences
in
might
qualifications.
increase
The
in the future
government
has
110
established
practical
at
the Nanyang
Technological
engineers thus assigning to
the National
University of
engineers geared to research
generation of
distinct
salaries
effort
may
and career
to dispel
engineers will
practice-oriented
affect
"second
then
their
employment
The NTI
rate"
and private
While
just
of
longer
projects;
and,
working
hours;
unless the
In
contrast,
corresponding
challenging
between
a
shared
be
in
or
responsibility
or belongs
usually of
the public
public
appear to offer
engineering-related
individual
not
1983).
is
offers higher earnings, it also
responsibility
(Leong,
private
In
to a large
scale
or
sector's emoluments are
team work;
for
projects;
large scale,
general
sector's
for
large
job
then,
there is
and the
unusual
the choice
depends
engineer's subjective definition of job satisfaction.
Professional s
S.R.Quah
its
salaries between the
nature of some government projects may be of
and
they will
consciousness,
usually involved in
lower but the engineer is
a
because
sectors
engineer owns
are
corporation, the projects
challenging.
stressed that
collective
Yet, both
sector.
the private sector
requires
prospects,
administration in an
has
positive alternatives to engineers engaged
jobs.
The next
bear two additional
is a gap in
important to recall that there
public
task of training
(Singapore Monitor, 1982d).
work-base dimension
On the
will
public's concern,
not be
the
Engineering
and consultancy services.
development.
the
to train
(NTI>
the Faculty of
Singapore,
graduate engineers
labels which
Institute
on
the
111
In
fact,
there
practitioners
Association
in
of
is
both
an
A
sectors.
Consulting
that the development
implicit
of
will
long
international
level
Perhaps
amounting
run
not just
one
to
benefit
of
the
at
the national
level
efforts among engineers in the
research and development
in the
president
between
Singapore, has manifested
the profession
public and private sectors,
but also in
former
Engineers
requires the continuous sharing of
collaboration
in
infrastructure projects
projects.
Such collaboration
the profession's
image
at
the
(Gudgeon, 1977).
indication
of
perceived
dissension--along the
differences--not
work-base
dimension is the
preference expressed by some engineers working on non-engineering
jobs
in the
public sector,
than engineers
difference
to be
(Straits Times,
between
1979).
themselves
the
among
public sector;
those
this
engineers
government agencies.
They perceive a fundamental
and
account of the administrative and
in
called administrators rather
their
other
managerial
duties they perform
self-perception
involved
in
colleagues on
policy
may be reinforced
formulation
in
as mentioned earlier, the inclination
But,
towards managerial positions appears to be common among engineers
in both sectors
(cf. Hardy, 1981).
A potentially more
local
and
collective
dimension.
Singapore
foreign
serious rift
Keeping in
does
along
engineers
consciousness
i.e.,
mind
maintain
can be
the
that the
links
with
the
identified between
third
external
dimension
of
competition
engineering profession in
engineering
professional
112
bodies
in
other
collective
countries,
consciousness
colleagues.
This
would
assumption
professions of course. But a
law occurs in engineering.
local
engineers with
practice
projects.
construction
of
or
A
to do the job.
said
that
engineers
foreign
Some of
they
include
might
to
other
as
three
that found in
case
in
Mass
who set
up
projects, particularly
local
point
Rapid
is
the
Transit
forecomming
System.
companies are
The
concerned
see in finding good quality engineers
have
to
resort
to
have already
employing
foreign
The government's acceptance of
firms' biddings
unfair' by
for
this
some local
government remains firm in its principles of
if
the
the construction companies
projects are labelled as
competition:
engineers
foreign colleagues
bid for
(Straits Times, 1983).
engineering
expected that their
foreign
applies
local construction
with the difficulties they
be
Some antagonism may be detected among
Singapore's
government and some
would
situation similar to
respect to
in Singapore
government
it
and other local
engineers. The
free market and open
local engineers want to succeed in their biddings
against foreign competitors, then their project proposals must be
competitive that
1982).
It
is, of
and reasonable
is too soon to expect an official
to the challange of
the
high quality
external competition.
legal profession has set
higher skills and
is the government'
challange
reaction from the IES
But if
the reaction of
of foreign
a profession.
active recruitment
strenghten the teaching
(Goh,
a pattern, then engineers will seek
accept the
both as individuals and as
cost
staff
of the
of
new
competition
A rel evant development
foreign engineers
to
Nanyang Technological
1135
Institute
and
of
University
lecturers and
contrary,
learn
the
Faculty
Singapore
Engineering
(New
Nation,
professors are not
the general
from
of
advanced
feeling
engineering
the
1981b).
perceived
seems
of
to
knowledge
But
National
expatriate
as competition.
be
that
in
other
On the
Singapore must
countries.
The issue of collective consciousness among architects takes
a similar
tone
to
that
of
engineers
on
two
of
its
three
dimensions, the work-base and the external competition dimension.
Architects differ from
expertise
the
other professions
dimension. Dissension
although, as
graduated
in
engineering,
from a
here
there
polytechnic,
serious
problems,
they
are
profession, away from the
disputes
between
are
degree
and
the
holders
who
holders and some
If
within
public view.
generalists
diploma
degrees.
kept
terms of
is practically negligible
general
practitioners with post-graduate
in
there
the
are
any
confines of the
There have been
no open
specialists in architecture,
comparable to those occurring among physicians. Neither has there
been a large exodus of
architects into management similar to the
move observed among engineers.
But
architects
professions
in
consciousness.
the
They
are
not
too
work-base
dimension
face the same
graduates
work base during their
find the
first few
experience and contacts that
will
of
from
their
the
other
collective
contrast in salaries between
the public and private sectors. As in
architecture
different
the case of lawyers, fresh
government
years of
service a positive
practice due
become important
to the
later on when
114
they go to
the
practices. The
individually
private sector
drawback is
the same
or
as for
in
lawyers;
have to accommodate to the lower salaries. Still,
as physicians, lawyers and
of
increasing
earnings
consequently,
with
reasonable to
conclude
engineers,
for
between the private and public
rift in the profession;
with
experience.
that
they will
architects just
have rather good prospects
concomitant
their
partnership
their
In
architects,
age
general,
the
and,
it
is
differences
sectors do not constitute a major
one sector
is seen as
complementary to
the other.
The external competition dimension
that
indicates some
architects.
dissension in
Nevertheless,
the
foreign architects tend to
professions.
new for
local
architects
government
are
has had
allowing foreign
But
collective
between
local
external competition is not
to
used
long
professionals to
the SIA acknowledges that
foreign
time "an
competition
open door
practice here"
as
policy
(Chen,
firms from complaining of
foreign consultants in
Professional
the
awarding of
Centre, 1978:14).
the
of
1982a).
being used to competition has not prevented architectural
engineering
and
be under-emphasized compared to other
president of
for a
only one
consciousness among
differences
This is mostly because
architects. The
is perhaps the
and
excessive competition from
local projects
(Singapore
its
This problem,
the Ministry of
to architectural
National
Singapore,
have a more
comprehensive
as
the
Development,
practice by
(Republic of
charge of
construction boom in
prompted the profession's gatekepper
Singapore,
of
together with the current
means of
1982b).
control
to add
the
The
with the approval
some flexibility
new Architects'
rules permit
of
their
architects to
designs by
taking
the building process themselves. This approach is known
design
countries.
and
build'
This change
concept
already
could increase
used
in
Yet, the permission to design
enthusiastic response from local
of
members
presumed benefits of
ethical principles:
the
the
projects.
and build has not received an
practitioners.
profession
look
concept. Some
"It's like
other
the capability of local
architects to compete with foreign colleagues for local
regular
Rules
Both leading and
skeptically
at
the
it infringes
argue that
a lawyer acting for both parties.
How can they assure their clients that they are giving...the best
value for money?"
(New Nation,
the
architect
in
corporations, is reduced
to that of
deal
or full
that
the
role
this, he has
proportion
of
to
of the
become a
full
New Nation,
large
corporation's shares,
1982b).
Others feel
design-and-build
a mere employee. To prevent
partner holding
believe that very few architects could
1982a;
1982b).
a
substantial
but some practitioners
afford the expense
(Chen,
116
A further aspect that ameliorates serious dissension between
local
and foreign
architects
is the
international orientation. Many of
profession's regional
the present older
the profession have received their degrees abroad
States,
Europe
engineering.
relatively
The
more
"professional
in
gearing
particularly
Australia
just
difference
aware
of
their
(Choe,
that
the
need
professions during
to
centre of
to
the United
law
seem
refine
to
and
regional
of
be
step
interests
Southeast
years,
and
adapt
as an important
serve
past few
government's intention to build up
i.e,
architects
awareness has begun
the
leaders of
medicine,
<Association
ASEAN
This
in
local needs"
profession
1977).
as
is
practices to suit
within
Nations>
other
or
and
Asian
to permeate the
nurtured by the
Singapore as the professional
the region.
Lest a misconception has been created, one must not overlook
some
cracks
in
the
otherwise
consciousness of architects.
last year of what they
architects'
SIA also
respect
projects by the Urban
code
countries,
and
rejected in
other
preferential
of
abstein
ethics
from
countries
treatment
(Fan, 1982).
SIA publicly
complained
Redevelopment Authority
from the
and
architects or developers is
projects
The vigilant
collective
thought was a preference given to foreign
urged architects
the
comparatively strong
of
United
architects
submitting
(Chen,
1982b).
stressed
not a
States
that
criterion
in
in
<URA>.
and Japan to
Commonwealth
Singapore projects
The
URA denied
the
in
any
nationality of
its
awarding of
117
three
When all
consciousness are
other
three
architects
have a
more
the
general
cohesive
like
requires
close
is made with the
impression
1979).
It
to
themselves
portray
teams.
interaction
is this
that contributes to
with
perception of
their sense of
foreign colleagues and with
The nature of
"a
oveT-
clients
ideology.
A
is
yet
leading local
as
a
as
their
multiplicity
of
(Foo, 1979:17;
role
unity in their dealings with
other professions.
an exaggerated norm of
another
that
their professional
practitioners in
Moreover, self-assurance without
is
themselves
consultants and collaborators" including engineers
Wong,
collective
perception of
"multi-disciplinary"
of
architects'
a comparison
the
Architects
coordinators
of
considered and
professions,
profession.
work
dimensions
characteristic
architect
has
of
authority
architects'
presented this point
simply:
basically problem
solving. Very often
Architecture is
is
quite
perceived
by
the architect
the problem as
is why
client's...That
that
of
the
different
from
There is
a constant
actual designing is
so exciting.
feedback
between
client
and
architect.
One doesn't
design in the vacuum... (Wong, 1979:16).
The
dealt
have
paragraphs
preceding
with
professions.
four
collective
consciousness
in
dimensions
of collective
consciousness have
all
four professions;
It
is opportune
professional
attempts
to
now
Three
been identified in
they facilitate the analysis of dissension.
briefly
to discuss
ideology that
attain power
society. The main
the
and
ideology
is,
and
assumption is
the
to
way in
the implementation of
which each
profession
influence decision-making in
that
of the
five channels
of
8
I
influence given
by Mosher
more likely to use
political
in
or
office,
or
exert
managerial
public sectors
channels are used in
might
professionals
appointment
three i.e.,
judicial
the private
(1978),
and
in Singapore
or election
are
to high
or executive positions
consultancy work.
These
addition to whatever influence professionals
through
their
respective
national
professional
associations.
As it has
the four
become apparent
professional
throughout this
associations,
Society have been active in
SIA, IES,
discussion, all
SMA, and the Law
voicing their members'
views and in
lobbying
for
beneficial
to their professions. Of the four associations, SMA is
the
legislative
most troubled
changes,,
by discontent
Some older physicians complaint
interests of the profession with
former Alumni
the context
Government
of its
that SMA
of
active
government
restricts
the
lobbying has
not succeeded
in stoping
contrary
the
addiction and use
students. In
that
medical
view of
period
(Ho, 1982).
profession's
barbiturates and
this, a
in
Singapore.
associations'
lobbying. To
abortion, professional
of
manifested by the
intervention
of
on
is not representing the
colonial
influence and effectiveness
legislation
omissions
these associations must be assessed within
intervention
to
or
membership at present.
the same zeal
Association during the
But the activities of
additions
scope of
illustrate,
SMA's
legislation which may be
ideology
secrecy
the
for
related to drug
bonding of
former president
example,
medical
of SMA lamented
119
... there
seems
to
be
an
unfortunate
lack
of
between
the
government
and
the
communication
professional
organizations...This
lack
of
communication
and understanding is unfortunate as both government and
the medical
profession have
at heart
the interest of
the people whom they serve... <this happens>:: not only in
the medical
but
profession
other
in
(Lim,
professions.
1979:38).
what
But
of
situation
characterizes the Singapore
side of the story. The
accurate description of one
Lim gives an
the government.
part of
on the
intervention and flexibility
a combination
is
side is that notwithstanding government intervention, these
other
within their realm of
the
that
and suggestions
their views
and asked for
time to time,
policy-makers from
consulted by
associations are
on problems
falling
expertise. It is through this consultancy'
to
contributed
have
associations
policy-making
in
Singapore.
Regarding
professions
other
in
countries
other
(Larson,
exception.
Actually,
Singapore--population
the
small
size
probability of a citizen with
to the
top. Such
mobility
recruitment
generation
of
by
educated
of leaders
(Quah,
the
1983).
common
"proximity to
talent
are
pool
to
not
in
the
by the prevailing
nepotism or
political
the
qualifications to get
strengthened
Singaporeans
on
million--increases
professional
probability is
and
the
of
2.4
only
the
professionals
size
emphasis on meritocracy as opposed to
social
documented
have
Singapore
1977:xv).
studies
seek and maintain
tendency among professionals to
power"
influence,
of
channels
other means of
leadership's
form
the
active
second
120
It
not
is thus
and
Parliament,
Cabinet,
is
professions
represented
more
professional
individual
at
a
holding
top,
the
question. But
the
of
which
four
does
and
position
high
an
actually
There are available
of his profession?
represent the interests
data on the first
is,
question
The
agencies.
government
statutory boards and other
posts in
key
the
in
professionals
to find
surprising
is rather difficult to assess
it
the second question objectively.
Of
Minister for Law
Minister for
and the
three are architects:
Development, and the
Minister Without
All
the trade unions.
legal service are,
of the
and members
the judiciary
The other
Home Affairs.
de facto representative of
who is
the
the Minister for Communications and Labour,
the Minister for National
Portfolio
are
five
the Prime Minister,
Three of them are lawyers:
professionals.
1982,
in
members
Cabinet
sixteen
the
of
course,
lawyers.
Among
professionals
university
practice;
are
three
found:
professor
one
lawyers,
other
the
and
Parliament
of
lawyers
two
following
the
in
a
is
whom
private
two physicians, both in active private practice, one of
and Speaker
them a specialist
management
of
members
75
the
position;
private practice,
and
one is
of
engineers,
five
the
Parliament;
director of a
one
architect
three of
in
a
whom are in
statutory board,
and
the other is the Minister of State for Education. Law enforcement
agencies also have
Commissioner,
their
share
of
professionals:
the Superintendent of Police,
one of
the
Police
the two Deputy
121
are
Professionals
for
engineers
example,
and
number
have the
architects
policy-making
two out
of
architects, and five out
of
lawyers;
1,032
group with the
colleagues in these
to
engineers.
out
five
out of
four
1,760 physicians;
7,079
Parliament,
and
listing amounts
bodies. The above
the
few.
a
just
proportion of
highest
of
and architects in
Cabinet
in
professionals
these
of
well;
Authority
professional
each
of
size
the
as
boards
statutory
mention
to
Board,
lawyers.
all
the Telecommunications
in
Development
Comparing
of
helm
Public Utilities Board;
Singapore and the
Housing
at the
found
are
Commissioner,
and one Assistant
Commissioners,
of
608
these figures
But
exclude the judiciary and the legal service, both entirely in the
professionals
channel
direct
However,
closest proximity
with the
of
due to this
to power
influence.
interpretation
an
such
professionals in high
political
the
presence
of
must
be
office
judiciary
or
these
whether
determine
to
necessary
available--is
of
detailed analysis of direct data--not
handled with caution. More
yet
the
are
lawyers
then,
Technically,
lawyers.
of
hands
individuals actually represent their professions while in office.
Important questions must
concept
ranking
officers
professions'
from
their
work? Are
lobbying
other
answered
influence;
officials protect the
the course of
own
of
of channels
be
for
example,
interests of their
they more likely
than
professions?
do these high
professions in
to yield
non-professional
Anderson
(1978)
Mosher's
to test
and his
to their
officers
or
colleagues
122
term this
(1980)
conflict
between
the
commitment
these questions
information.
of
current
Yet,
trends
here because
although they are,
conclusions.
in
power
high
one's
the
profession and his
it
is not
of the
there are two cases
draw general
a
to
Unfortunately,
commitment to the office.
address
that is,
problem a case of divided loyalties
possible to
absence of direct
that may served as a sign
of course,
insufficient
to
These cases suggest that a professional
position
may
not
necessarily represent his
profession's interests.
The first
case refers
against lawyers for
treated as criminal
conduct
that
(Straits
lawyers
position in
criminal
breach
of
trust
should
offences but rather as unethical
Times,
should not
this
to a lawyer's suggestion that charges
1981d).
The
be immune
matter was
that of acting in
goals and roles of his high judiciary
be
professional
Attorney-General
to criminal
not
replied
prosecution.
His
accordance to the
office when he declared
part
which
on
their
<the
lawyers'>
any
conduct
transgresses the law must
be judged in the same manner
as like conduct of any other citizen... it is difficult
to find
acceptable excuse for exemption for lawyers who
<the client's> trust of confidence for
abuse that
personal gain. (Tan, 1981b).
The second case
foreign
was
in
legal
fact,
refers
to the
government's
firms to handle projects for banks in
proposal,
and the Attorney-General who approved
profession
countries.
and may not
Suffice it
it.
Singapore.
It
and the Minister for Law
Both cases are from the
be typical of
to say at this
allow
Monetary Authority of
decision between the
a joint
Singapore which presented the
legal
decision to
point,
what occur in other
that the channels of
123
influence concept needs to be tested empirically in
and for every
that
the
profession. The
four professions
another with respect to
influence.
might
differ
their access to
In Singapore channels of
they can also be given,
In this
indirect data
integrated' approach.
retain power.
varies from one
nations.
that Ritzer
(1976) sees
watchdogs of
act as
been
devised
in
over
firstly, that
across
not unique to
welfare states
In fact, specific
medical profession,
for the
the
(1977) included
time, and
a feature of
the professionals.
Canada,
by the state.
of the professions
intervention is
state monitoring programmes, mainly
have
are:
power
to another,
it as
just taken;
dominant elites to obtain
secondly, the
profession
channels of
some extent, two of
These aspects
Furthermore, government
Singapore. Tuohy
that
And
and use of
confirm to
the professions actually depend on the
and
indicate
considerably from one
influence are not
the three aspects of the professions
in his
available
facilitated, or withdrawn
respect, Singapore data
every society
States and Germany
United
Landsberg, 1980).
(Stone, 1976;
Conclusion
A discussion of
Singapore
has
the main features
completed
been
relevant concepts, and
engineering,
the
historical
law and medicine in
recapitulation
of
the
after
findings
of professional
reviewing
roots
a
briefly
in
a few
architecture,
It is time now for a
Singapore.
and
of
talent
brief
Singapore with other countries in the region.
comparison
of
124
The recapitulation
assumptions
of
guiding this
findings
brings
analysis. First,
present at various periods
of their
us
to
the
three
the four professions
history and
with different
degrees of emphasis, some of the features of professions outlined
by
the
structural-functional,
Regarding
the
latter,
all
four
engagement, have a national
have sought
of the
training
each school
autonomy
the functional
the medical
and
engineering,
legal
recognition. But
has
not
efforts. The
although all
ethics, and
the development
been
state
solely
the
has played an
the establishment of
devoid
approach--is
four
of
to
external
held more forcefully by
than
by
architecture
the codes
norm of
self-interest and
declare
of ethics
and
publicly
and
of all
altruism i.e.,
the
committed
the
to
and lawyers are
again, physicians
it
control--
professions regard professional
clearly a
well-being. Here
inclined
freedom from
Similarly,
professions express
claim of being
or
professions
autonomy as important.
more
code of
factors involved in
included in
community's
approaches.
vary from profession to profession.
The norm of
four
process
professions involve full-time
schools
professions'
important part and the
and
association, a
and obtained legal
of the respective
outcome
power
more
than
often
architects and engineers.
physicians and
The same distinction between
hand, and
architects and engineers
found with respect to
claim
of
authority
the norm
is based
of
on
on the
lawyers
on one
other hand, has been
authority over
the alledged
clients. This
ignorance of
the
125
client.
The manipulation
order to preserve their
(1949),
Ritzer
legal
or
the professionals
data with some
and
recognition of
laymen, as a sine qua non
doctor-patient'
former,
in
ignorance
particular,
their
among
ignorance as
professional-client or
over client
architects
and
for the client's
there is a lesser
and the assumption
and
engineers.
tend to perceive the client
informed person who can and
substantiated
own
In comparison,
emphasis on the norm of authority
client's
need
of a successful
relationship.
is
qualifications. The medical
professions emphasize constantly the
in
as Moore and TUnin
and others have indicated,
patient's trust
of
by
priviledged position,
(1977)
by the Singapore
of ignorance
The
as an able and
should discuss in detail the type of
services required with the professional.
The concepts of
of
norm of autonomy,
authority over clients
may all
norm of altruism,
presented by the
functional
and norm
approach,
be seen as elements of the concept of ideology introduced
by the power approach.
More specifically,
the findings suggest
that a profession's ideology
is formed around the practitioners'
belief
importance of
in
the
Furthermore,
professionals
currency
the
very
promotes
consciousness which is
study.
and
existance
the
of
formation
the theme of
these
an
of
three
norms.
ideology
a
among
collective
the second assumption
in
this
126
This second
assumption
is
that a collective
or more specifically stratum consciousness,
found within each professional
scarce and
a
consciousness
Singapore. Perhaps the
<SPC>
in 1970
process of formation of
professional
The
professionals
Singapore
the first
in
Professional
step in the difficult
such collecti.ve consciousness. Twenty-two
institutions
SPC. Its membership
all
of the
has been
professions.
suggest the absence of
embracing
creation
more likely to be
than across
indirect data available indeed
collective
Centre
group
is
consciousness,
and associations
includes
architects,
are
members of the
chemists,
engineers,
dentists, food scientists, marketing experts, physicians, nurses,
pharmacists,
physiotherapists,
radiographers, chartered
and
veterinary
occupations
frailty of an
(Fong,
absence
overall
planners,
secretaries, social
surgeons
and the
town
1982).
of
lawyers
collective
psychologists,
workers, surveyors,
This
are
wide
range
of
indicative of the
consciousness, if
it
indeed
exists.
Yet,
the medical
and
aware of common interests.
legal
profesions are
Indeed,
becoming
more
there is a growing eargerness
among physicians and lawyers to join efforts
in a field that can
be
legal
rewarding
for
both
professions
medicine. The Medico-Legal
some
years age
Society
and represents
i.e.,
of Singapore
this
Asian
Pacific
Congress
Sciences" in September,
1983, in
on
Legal
forensic
was established
common interest.
Society has moved into the international
"1st
or
Now the
scene and will host the
Medicine
and Forensic
collaboration with the Ministry
of Health, the Law Society, the Academy of Medicine, the SMA, and
127
the
importantly,
More
organizations.
this
congress will
Law,
Medicine
and Science to coordinate and correlate all
of the formation of
medico-
promote
the
While only
and
lawyers
this activity
pathologists--are involved, all
to
(Chao., 1983).
practice"
fields--criminal
both
in
region... <and)
the
advancement of medico-legal
specialists
purpose of
the main
the "Asian Pacific Association of
be to form
societies... in
legal
Society's
Medico-Legal
the
announced that
president, a physician, has
international
three
and
Chambers,
Attorney--General
forensic
is a manifestation
a collective consciousness comprising law and
medicine.
A
more
obvious
and
decisive
found within each of the four
professions. More importantly, the
the presence of
findings suggest
collective consciousness is
three dimensions of collective
consciousness, tentatively labelled the expertise dimensions, the
work-base
Each
dimension,
presents
profession
a
professions
characteristics in common
competition dimension.
external
the
picture
distinct
these
along
consciousness
traditional'
and
i.e.,
dimensions;
three
medicine,
and
law
consciousness
collective
dissensions among the
been
found in
dimension
all
and intensity.
members of
four
serve
a
yet,
the
have
more
than with the newer'
in this respect
professions of architecture and engineering.
of
collective
of
to
The three dimensions
identify
possible
profession. Dissension
professions but
it
varies
in
has
terms of
1z5
Finally,
Mosher's
the third
concept
(1978)
stipulates
assumption
of
in this
channels
that the -four professions
channels of
influence,
election to
difficult
high political
to verify
policy-making
positions
particularly
by
bodies.
But
interests of their
of
whether
professionals
is based on
influence
and
it
Singapore
do make use of
means of
appointment or
or judiciary
the presence
individual
in
of
study
office.
It
is
professionals in
by
occupaying
actually
respective professions,
not too
national
these
represent
top
the
cannot be ascertained
with the available data. Nevertheless, from
the findings of this
preliminary analysis one may derive the following assumption that
could be tested
further in
four professions
face two factors
the nature of the
are:
(a) strong
channels of
government
roles of the professions
well
as
by
means
of
illustration is the
Larson's
(1977)
analysis
and
of
the
Europe
possibility
and accept
And
that
once
high political
the goals
giving them priority
may be even more likely
and
over their
for
full-time
These factors
the activities and
social
policies.
it
historical
where the
(b)
the
gatekeeping bodies as
engineering;
propelled the development
appointed or elected to
assume
intervention in
of
the benefit of the state.
likely
influence concept.
economic
case
In Singapore,
that may modify substantially
both through the
professions in continental
planned or
future research.
A good
approximates
to
development
of
political
authority
of certain professions for
the second
factor is
individual
professionals
or
roles of
judicial
their
the very
office,
are
they
new positions
own profession's interests.
This
appointments and when one's
ia2
political
party commitments and
loyalty
override his professional
ideology.
Taken a wider perspective
on the reported
acknowledge that the situation
of
findings,
professionals in
I
must
Singapore may
be quite different from that of other countries in some respects.
Singapore has a unique
combination of
population in religion,
distinct
political
(Quah, 1982;
Quah,
ethnicity
system and
Chan
small
language;
and
pattern
and
size;
and
a
rather
of economic development
1983).
Seah,
a heterogenous
differences
These
notwithstanding, the structure and nature of the four professions
There
countries.
their counterparts
that of
in Singapore resembles
are
also
to
respect
the
Southeast Asian neighbours
and
structure
and
similarities
interesting
differences between Singapore and its
with
in developed
organization
of
these
professions.
In the
developed recently;
common professional
national
associations and codes of ethics are
major difference with Singapore
features. A
is that the Filipino professional
of
control
reports that
government
"laws
professions
do have
but,
as
proposed--sometimes
associations"
own
certain
indicated
A Filipino analyst
the professions
affecting
imposed as
associations enjoy a great deal
affecting them.
over legislation
professions'
them
the professions have only
Philippines, for example,
(Carino,
influence
earlier,
constraints such influence. The role
are
so
much
even drafted---by the
1973:81).
on
not
legislation
government
The Singapore
affecting
intervention
of their gate keepers is in
130
many respects determined by government intervention.
Carino
(1973) indicates
that there is
female professionals in the Philippines.
the preceding
discussion, this
professions in the
two
extent of brain
Philippines,
A third
and their
drain which
particularly
difference
between
Filipino counterparts, is the
appears to
among
be considerable
physicians
Regrettably, there are
no reliable
systematic comparison,
but there
does not face a
As may be recalled from
marks another difference between
countries.
Singapore professionals
a high proportion of
in the
(Carino, 1973:82).
figures that
would allow
a
are indications that Singapore
problem of similar
intensity in this
regard. A
further difference is that higher education in the Philippines is
not an active instrument of
social
mobility. In
National University
of Singapore
the students at the
University of the
educated fathers
Thai
two thirds of
Philippines have college-
another
To the
neighbour
that
provides
extent that Silcock's
interesting
(1977) description of
professionals is accurate, there is a significant difference
between
Thailand
and Singapore.
indigenised professional
control;
codes
professional
set
of ethics
common practice;
up,
class
brain drain
associations
or
Silcock
where
aristocratic
lax;
is a serious
are
not
found
in Thailand an
has
government
are relatively
representative. Furthermore, Thai
upper
students, about
(Pang, 1978).
Thailand is
differences.
contrast to the
professionals
background
moonlighting is a
problem;
very
little
and national
active
tend to
or
truly
have an
(London, 1979:35) and
131
presence in
their
the
is
military
1979) .
In
rather
Malaysia,
mobility to
presents a trend of
of the civil
is
With respect to
to power
proximity
inclined to study
group,
a
Their
development.
professionals,
1960s but
the
Before
in
Chen
play
regional
from power
Kuan Yew, a lawyer,
in Singapore.
to
1971
professionals.
of the Thai
lawyers,
and
Dhiravegin
elites whether
in
role
a
example,
national
is that
developments
until
positions since then.
in
But other
(1975),
indicates that all
were
for
(1978)
Indonesia;
and Lee
analysts disagree
they affirm that professionals are
with the presumed withdrawal;
Philippines,
there is not
a physician, at the helm
Sukarno, an engineer,
Agpalo
professionals'
exerted some power
of the elite,
have withdrawn
or
Singapore do not have access to
they
on
opinion
Evers
and
although
as members
power.
Malaysia
the top ranks
Asian countries,
Southeast
1960, they say, there was Ritzal,
in
while lower
engineering.
influence
of
channels
in the Philippines;
still
class
Singapore than the case of Thailand.
believe that the professionals in
as
(1980:61)
the Malaysian situation
In both respects,
consensus among scholars.
power
social
upper
medicine and law,
to study
appointment of professionals in
service.
closer to that of
professions,
the different
students are more
means of
study by Singh
Data from a
likely
London,
(Dhiravegin, 1975;
university serves as a
some extent.
students are more
public bureaucracy and
the
noticeable
the
suggests that comparing
class
ranks of
the upper
citing
the Filipino
(1975)
of
the
presidents from 1935
legislators
most
case
the
tended
to
be
reports that about 93 per cent
military,
governmental
or
business
13Z
elites, are college graduates.
Discussing the
region--Indonesia,
(1975)
-Shaw
of
situation
Malaysia,
Philippines,
a
identifies
in all
for national
In
ASEAN
Singapore and Thailand-
"development
development.
the
in
comprising
elite"
technology and other
professionals handling high
required
professionals
his view,
knowledge areas
the governments
the ASEAN countries are forcefully fostering the growth of
this development elite,
following
development. Shaw explains
the
same
goal
of
economic
that professionals in the development
elite occupy top positions in power by virtue of their expertise.
Evers
and
Silcock
(1977:16)
go
further,
asserting
that
professionals in Southeast Asia have made active use of political
parties
and
played
democratic political
Given the
to take all
role
level
analysis
the
views with
can only
different
concerned. The situation may
even the internal
be answered with
professions in
data from in-depth
each
vary considerably in
example,
analysis of
a
question of
or actual exercise of power at
use of
(1972:52)
I am inclined
some reservation. The
impact on the professionals'
in Malaysia unveiled
"the functioning of
verification,
ethnic differences in
Hodgkins's
in
systems".
proximity to power
the national
of
principal
absence of empirical
these
professionals'
a
difference
of the nations
each case and
each nation may have an
channels of
influence. For
foreign-trained
between
Indian,
persons
Malay
and
Chinese professionals regarding their probabilities to get to the
top power positions.
Ethnicity is
indeed
a major
qualifying
1.33
-factor in some nations in the region.
Furthermore, it
available data
is
worth
on the role
stressing
given nation are
major
of professionals
fact that members of the political
in a
a
weakness
of
in the region. The
elite or policy-making bodies
university graduates,
cannot be taken at
face value as an indication of a profession's power position. The
case of
Singapore's professionals
direct evidence before
highlights the
an association
of this
need for more
type is
said to
exist. The concept of ideology or how professionals justify their
privileged
status
that
implies
privileged status in the
professionals
community.
professionals by
are highly
with high
participation
In this
in
under
on
study professionals have
their inherent
the prevailing
strong
so far. The
been found to
professionals'
be walking on a
inclination towards
service
on specific
profession. Concluding
be surprising.
autonomy
to the nation
performed the balancing
current modus vivendi
some questions should not
of
questions,
the most challenging.
is
principle of
but future developments depend
profession to
a number of
extent
government intervention. They have
act well,
from
the
power as collectivities
tight rope between
and
one
nature
incomes and above average
This exploratory analysis has raised
this
their very
positions?
collectivities, access to power
perhaps
a
characteristics guarantee them, as
social prestige. But do these
but
enjoy
It has been amply documented
internationally that indeed
educated people
do
is likely to persist
issues and
may vary
this discussion with
The goals set
at the
134
begining
subject
were
matter
progressed.
In
few and
became
order
limited.
increasingly
to
remain
without overlooking important new
all
encountered
Yet,
complexity of the
apparent
within
as
the
study
the established scope
perspectives, one has
gaps into questions,
and hope that they will
the
present
the most
to word
important
stimulate further inquiry.
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