42
Honorary Degrees Received
Of
the
303
geneticists
studied,
minimum of one honorary degree.
51
reported
receiving
Geneticists holding the
a
Ph.D.
degree received 53 percent of the honorary degrees,
followed by
M.D.'s who received 27.5 percent of such degrees.
Geneticists
having both the M.D. and Ph.D. degrees were awarded 9.8 percent of
honorary degrees, while D.D.S., D.Sc., and two other combinations
of degrees each received two percent (Table 14).
Board Certifications
Among
the
303
geneticists,
54
were
certified
professional board organizations listed in Table 15.
more M.D.'s
(49)
than Ph.D.'s
(4)
by
the
As expected,
were granted certification.
Forty-four percent of the 111 M.D.'s compared to approximately two
percent of the 208 Ph.D.'s were diplomates of at least one of the
professional organizations.
Due to 26 individuals receiving more
than one certification, the total number of board certifications
equaled 83.
The
American
Board of Medical
Genetics
(ABMG)
led
other
organizations for the most board certified geneticists in the
current
study.
Following
the
ABMG's
23
diplomates
were
the
American Board of Pediatrics with 18 diplomates and the American
Board of Internal Medicine with 14.
Other board organizations
which certified more than one geneticist in the current study were
the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, National Board of
Medical Examiners, American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology, and
'I
43
I
TABLE 14
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION BY DOCTORAL DEGREE TYPE FOR HONORARY
DEGREES GRANTED TO GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Doctoral
Degree
Type
Ph.D.
M.D.
Ph.D. and M.D.
D.D.S.
D.Sc.
M.D. and J.D.
Ph.D. and D.Sc.
No doctorate listed
Number of
Honorary
Degrees
27
14
5
1
1
1
1
1
Percent of
Honorary
Degrees
52.9
27.5
9.8
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
44
TABLE 15
PROFESSIONAL BOARD CERTIFICATIONS OF GENETICISTS IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
Organizations
Number of
Certifications
American Board of Medical Genetics
American Board of Pediatrics
American Board of Internal Medicine
American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology
American Board of Medical Examiners
American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology
American Board of Pathology
American Academy of Pediatrics
American Board of Allergy and Immunology
American Board of Forensic Anthropology
American Board of Medical Examiners
American Board of Medical Management
American Board of Medical Oncology
American Board of Neurology
American Board of Oral Pathology
American Board of Pediatric Endocrinology
American Board of Rheumatology
American Board of Surgery
American Board of Thoracic Surgery
National Board of Medical Licensure (Japan)
Psychology (not specified)
23
18
14
Total
83*
5
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
*The total is 83 because 28 of the 54 diplomates received
one certification, and 26 received two or more
certifications.
45
the American Board of Pathology.
Geneticists' Ages
In comparison to both the 1984 Mertens and Eastman study (4)
of GSA members and a Science (10) staff report about scientists and
engineers,
older.
the population of the current study is significantly
No individuals in the current study were under age 40, and
their ages ranged from 40 to 89 years,
occurring age being 62.
with the most commonly
A frequency distribution (Table 16) by age
of the current population compared to that of the 1984 study shows
dramatic differences between most age groups with the exception of
the 50 to 59 year old group.
group
comprised
populations.
In both studies the 50 to 59 year old
approximately
30
percent
of
the
respective
Of the 1,186 GSA members in the 1984 study,
percent were below the age of 50 years,
43.5
compared with only 7.9
percent of the 303 currently studied geneticists.
In comparison to the data reported in 1989 in Science (10),
the populations of both the current study and the 1984 study were
older than national averages of the ages of u.S. scientists and
engineers.
In 1989
just above ten percent of scientists and
engineers were over age 60, while in the 1984 and current studies
25.3 percent and 60.1 percent of geneticists were 60 years or
older.
As previously suggested by Mertens and Eastman (4), the
significantly higher ages of the geneticists may have been a result
-
of the strict criteria for inclusion in the study.
--------------
----
I
-
46
TABLE 16
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS BY AGE OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT
AND 1984 STUDIES
Ages
-
Current
Number of
Percent of
Geneticists Geneticists
1984
Number of
Percent of
Geneticists Geneticists
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60 - 69
70 - 79
80 and
over
Age
unknown
0
24
91
119
53
0
7.9
30.0
39.3
17.5
157
359
364
217
62
13.2
30.3
30.7
18.3
5.2
10
3.3
21
1.8
6
2.0
6
0.5
Total
303
100.0
1186
100.0
-
47
f
Geographic origins
The geographic origins of the 303 geneticists were rather
diverse.
Twenty-five countries (Table 17) were represented by the
geneticists, with the United states leading, as expected, with 241
native geneticists in the study.
Of the remaining geneticists, 58
were born in foreign countries, and the national origins for four
were unlisted.
Canada, Germany, and England were the leading producers of
foreign-born geneticists in this study.
Canada was the homeland of
19.0 percent of the foreign-born geneticists, followed by Germany,
the native country of 13.8 percent, and England, the native country
of 8.6 percent.
Austria,
India,
and switzerland each were the
birth country for three foreign-born geneticists.
The 241 U. s. born geneticists originated in thirty-nine states
plus the District of Columbia.
The birth state and employment
state data are reported in Table 18.
The states are divided among
nine regions of the U.s. as was done by Howard and Mertens (3).
Canadian provinces were also included in the current study.
The Middle Atlantic region which included both New York and
Pennsyl vania,
the two leading U. s.
birth states,
was the most
productive area for the birth of U.s. geneticists in the current
study.
New
York
contributed
24.9
percent
of
American-born
geneticists, while Pennsylvania added another 7.1 percent.
Second
among birth regions was the East North Central area which included
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin.
Forty-six
48
TABLE 17
BIRTH COUNTRIES OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Birth Country
Number of
Geneticists
Percent of
Geneticists
United States of America
Canada
Germany
England
Austria
India
Switzerland
China
Czechoslovakia
France
Hungary
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
Chile
Columbia
Egypt
Greece
Indonesia
Ireland
Israel
Korea
Poland
Romania
Spain
Unknown
241
11
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
79.54
3.63
2.64
1. 65
0.99
0.99
0.99
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.66
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
0.33
1. 32
Total
303
100.00
8
5
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
49
TABLE 18
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH STATES
AND EMPLOYMENT STATES OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Regions
NEW ENGLAND
Maine
Vermont
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Total
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
EAST NORTH CENTRAL
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Delaware
Maryland
District of Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Total
r'
Number of
Births
Number
Employed
2
0
0
0
0
12
2
3
14
1
5
19
22
60
6
17
31
4
13
83
48
12
5
15
2
6
7
8
21
12
8
6
46
54
0
0
4
3
5
1
5
2
3
12
3
7
0
0
19
1
5
4
23
51
-
50
TABLE 18 (cont)
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH STATES
AND EMPLOYMENT STATES OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Regions
Number
Employed
MOUNTAIN
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
Nevada
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
0
0
1
0
3
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
5
2
0
1
Total
5
9
4
5
5
1
0
2
9
6
10
0
0
4
0
24
29
3
2
4
1
2
4
3
0
10
9
1
1
3
7
0
0
0
12
12
12
WEST NORTH CENTRAL
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Total
EAST SOUTH CENTRAL
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Total
WEST SOUTH CENTRAL
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Total
r
Number of
Births
7
51
TABLE 18 (cont)
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH STATES
AND EMPLOYMENT STATES OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Regions
Number of
Births
Number
Employed
PACIFIC
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Hawaii
4
4
9
1
10
0
1
47
Total
19
57
5
1
0
1
2
1
CANADA
Quebec
Nova Scotia
British Columbia
Manitoba
Saskatchewan
Ontario
Total
Non-U.S. or Canada
Unknown
Grand Total
0
0
1
3
0
1
1
5
11
10
47
0
4
2
303
303
52
individuals, or 19.1 percent of the American-born geneticists, were
born in those states.
Following the Middle Atlantic and East North Central regions
for
number of geneticists'
births were the West North Central
region with 24 births, the South Atlantic region with 23 births,
the Pacific and New England areas each with 19, and the West South
Central region with 12.
Finally,
the regions with the fewest
births of U.S. geneticists were the East South Central region with
ten births and the Mountain region with only five births.
Five
states in the Mountain region (Arizona, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, and
New Mexico)
were
included
among
11
states
which
produced
no
geneticists for this study.
Seventy-five
American-born
percent,
geneticists
Mississippi River
or
were
(Figure 1).
181,
of
born
the
in
currently
states
east
studied
of
Among the eastern states,
the
those
which border the Great Lakes produced the most geneticists for this
study.
Of those states west of the Mississippi River,
seven
produced no geneticists, compared to only four such states east of
the river.
Employment: Geographic Distributions
Due to the integration of the foreign born geneticists into
the American and Canadian labor forces,
slight increases in the
rate of state employments were expected over those of state births.
Compared to 241 U.S. births, 291 geneticists were employed in the
United States.
Canada experienced only a small decline of
53
FIGURE 1
NUMBER OF CURRENTLY STUDIED GENETICISTS BORN PER REGION OF
THE UNITED STATES
-
54
geneticists from 11 births to ten employments.
The work places of
two of the 303 geneticists were not given.
Changing demographic trends may have been responsible in part
for the large shift of geneticists to the west coast between their
births and later employment.
(Table
led
u.s.
with
83
18)
geneticists
birth
births,
While the Middle Atlantic region
rates
it
of
fell
the
to
currently
fourth
studied
place
among
employment regions, employing only 48 geneticists, nine of them
foreign born.
Conversely,
the Pacific region which had ranked
fifth with 19 births, rose to first place among employment states
with 57 geneticists,
nine of them foreign born.
New York and
California were the two states in those regions experiencing the
greatest fluctuation between birth and employment rates.
New
York's birth and employment rates of the geneticists under study
were 60 and 31 respectively, while those of California were ten and
47.
Three regions in which more than 50 of the geneticists were
employed were the Pacific (with 57), South Atlantic (with 51), and
the East North Central (with 54).
The two former areas experienced
large increases of employment rates over birth rates while the East
North Central region experienced only a small increase from 24
births to 29 employments.
Among the three regions, the employment
rates were significantly higher than birth rates in the following
states:
California,
Maryland,
North
Carolina,
Illinois,
and
Michigan.
r-
Following the Pacific, East North Central and South Atlantic
-
55
regions for the number of employed geneticists in this study were
the Middle Atlantic region with 48 employed geneticists, the west
North Central region with 29, and New England and the West South
Central region with 22 and 12 employed geneticists respectively.
Finally the East South Central and Mountain regions completed the
list, each with nine employed geneticists.
Compared to only 11 birth states which produced no geneticists
in the current study, 17 states employed none.
The Mountain region
remained least productive with four states employing none of the
303 geneticists studied.
The West North Central and West South
Central regions each had three states employing no geneticists:
North Dakota, South Dakota, and Kansas in the former region,
and
Arkansas, Louisiana, and Oklahoma in the latter.
Within the West
South
rates
Central
region
the
birth
and
employment
remained
constant; however, while at least one geneticist was born in each
of the region's four states, all 12 employed geneticists worked in
Texas.
Only the Middle Atlantic and East North Central regions
employed geneticists in all of their states.
Foreign born geneticists entered the u.S. labor force in four
primary regions: Middle Atlantic, Pacific, East North Central, and
South Atlantic.
These four regions accounted for the employment of
39 of the 58 foreign born geneticists.
The Canadian work force
claimed ten of the 58, leaving eight geneticists employed among the
West South Central, New England, Mountain, and East South Central
regions.
~'
Only the West South Central
region was
employing none of the foreign born geneticists.
reported as
The employment
56
state of one of the foreign born geneticists was not given.
Overall,
a more even distribution of employment rates than
birth rates was found across the united states (Figure 2).
The
states east of the Mississippi River were still in the majority;
however,
only 63.2 percent of the 303 geneticists were employed
there, compared to the 75 percent born in the eastern u.s.
The
geneticists' employment states were not as concentrated around the
Great Lakes area as were their birth states.
Many geneticists were
employed along the west and east coasts as well.
The southwestern
portion of the Unites states remained the least productive area
overall, producing and employing the fewest of the 303 geneticists.
While the numbers of geneticists born and employed in Canada
were about equal, their geographic locations by provinces varied
considerably.
Quebec and ontario reversed numbers between birth
and employment counts with Quebec being the birth province of five
geneticists and the employment province of only one and ontario
being the birth province of only one but employing five.
geneticists
born
in Canada,
five
joined the
U. S •
Of the 11
work
force,
leaving six native Canadian geneticists employed in Canada.
remaining
four
Canadian-employed
geneticists
emigrated
The
from
England, Egypt, and Indonesia.
The data reported in Table 19 are a comparison of the regional
employment patterns of the 291 currently studied u.s.
employed
geneticists with the 1113 American employed geneticists in the 1984
-
1
study
(4).
Al though employment patterns for both studies were
quite similar, slight differences were noted among the Middle
57
FIGURE 2
NUMBER OF CURRENTLY STUDIED GENETICISTS EMPLOYED PER REGION
OF THE UNITED STATES
-
58
TABLE 19
REGIONAL EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN 291*
GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY AND 1113 GENETICISTS IN THE
1984 STUDY
Region
New England
Middle Atlantic
East North Central
West North Central
East South Central
South Atlantic
West South Central
Mountain
Pacific
Total
Current Percent
Employed
1984 Percent
Employed
7.6
16.5
18.6
10.0
3.1
17.5
4.1
3.1
19.6
8.1
19.0
17.7
9.8
4.0
15.5
6.0
4.6
15.5
100.1+
100.2+
*Ten geneticists are employed in Canada and 2 individuals'
employment states are unknown.
+Tota1 exceeds 100 percent due to rounding.
59
Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Pacific regions.
In the 1984 study
the South Atlantic and Pacific regions each employed 15.5 percent
of the 1113 geneticists, while in the current study these regions
respectively employed 17.5 and 19.6 percent of the 291 geneticists.
In addition,
19 percent of the 1984 study's American employed
geneticists were located in the Middle Atlantic region, but only
16.5 percent of those in the current study were employed in that
area.
Employment: Types of Employers and Employment
Colleges and universities were the largest group of employers
of
the
303
geneticists currently studied
(Table
20).
Of
223
individuals employed by colleges and universities, 127 worked for
state supported institutions while 76 were employed by independent
nonprofit institutions.
percent
of
1186
universities,
GSA
While a 1983 study
members
to
be
(13)
employed
by
reported 82.8
colleges
and
the current study found only 73.7 percent of its
geneticists to be employed by such institutions.
Hospitals and medical centers were the second leading group of
employers, accounting for 9.9 percent of geneticists in the current
study,
and private
percent.
laboratories
and
insti tutions
employed
7.3
Finally, federal and state governments employed eight of
the 303 geneticists, and business and industry employed only four.
Sixteen individuals were either retired or employed in another
I
-
sector, or insufficient information was available about their
employers.
60
TABLE 20
TYPES OF EMPLOYERS OF THE GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Type of Employer
Number of
Geneticists
Colleges and universities
State supported
Private independent
Foreign/ not classified
Private independent and
denominational
Private denominational
Hospitals and Medical Centers
Private labs and institutes
Government - Federal and state
Business and Industry
Retired/ other
223
Total
303
Percent of
Geneticists
73.7
127
76
12
41.9
25.1
4.0
5
3
1.7
1.0
30
22
8
4
16
*Total exceeds 100 percent due to rounding.
9.9
7.3
2.6
1.3
5.3
100.1*
61
Thirty-seven state supported and 27
institutions
were
responsible
for
independent nonprofit
employing
203
geneticists.
Listed in Table 21 are the leading insti tutions employing the
geneticists.
While Harvard University ranked number one among the
geneticists' degree-granting institutions, it was not among the top
ten
university
employers
of
which
only
two
were
independent
nonprofit.
One hundred twenty-nine geneticists identified themselves as
having one profession,
listed
with
three
140 were listed as having two,
professions,
and
one
geneticist
33 were
identified
himself as having four professions; therefore, the total number of
professions listed was 512 (Table 22).
As might have been expected
from the large number of university employers, a majority (220) of
the 303 geneticists listed themselves as educators.
Following a distant second behind educators were geneticists
of
which
there
professions
were
were
71
identified.
physicians,
Completing
researchers,
the
top
ten
biologists,
pediatricians, administrators, biochemists, medical geneticists,
and scientists.
Further down on the list were identified some
specific genetics-related occupations which are listed separately
in Table 23.
genetics
with genetics education being combined with other
professions,
individuals
finding
the
total
employment
number
of
specifically
currently
studied
identified
with
genetics was 150.
Twenty-nine disciplines, listed in Table 24, were taught by
the 220 educators in the present study.
Not surprisingly, genetics
62
TABLE 21
LEADING UNIVERSITY EMPLOYERS OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT
STUDY
Name of Institution
Number Employed
California, University of
Stanford University
Chicago, University of
Michigan, University of
Minnesota, University of
North Carolina State University
Texas, University of
Illinois, University of
Washington, University of
Wisconsin, University of
21
10
8
8
Total
87
8
7
7
6
6
6
63
TABLE 22
PROFESSIONS OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Profession
Educator
Geneticist
Physician
Researcher
Biologist
Pediatrician
Administrator
Biochemist
Medical Geneticist
Scientist
Executive
Microbiologist
Molecular Biologist
Author
Neurologist
Psychiatrist
Cell Biologist
Consultant
Molecular Geneticist
Obstetrician/Gynecologist
Pathologist
Zoologist
Biophysicist
Botanist
Entomologist
Neurogeneticist
Oncologist
Plant Breeder
Plant Geneticist
Astronomer
Bioethicist
Clinical Geneticist
Developmental Specialist
Genetic Counselor
Genetic Epidemiologist
Genetic Toxicologist
Government Official
Internist
Investigator
Lawyer
Neurophysicist
Opthalmologist
Number of geneticists
220
71
42
24
17
15
14
10
9
9
7
7
6
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
64
TABLE 22 (cont)
PROFESSIONS OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Profession
Pharmacologist
Radiobiologist
Surgeon
Total
Number of Geneticists
1
1
1
512*
*In their biographies, 129 geneticists were identified as
having one profession, 140 were listed with two, 33 were
listed with three, and one individual had four professions.
Therefore, the total was 512 professions.
65
TABLE 23
EMPLOYMENT OF MEMBERS OF THE CURRENT STUDY IN GENETICS
RELATED FIELDS
Field Name
Geneticist
Genetics Educator
Medical Geneticist
Molecular Geneticist
Neurogeneticist
Plant Geneticist
Clinical Geneticist
Genetic Counselor
Genetic Epidemiologist
Genetic Toxicologist
Total
Number of Geneticists
71
59*
9
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
150
* These 59 individuals were identified as Genetics Educators
on the basis of courses taught
(See Table 24).
66
TABLE 24
DISCIPLINES TAUGHT BY THE 220 EDUCATORS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Subject
Genetics
Biology
Pediatrics
Medicine
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Molecular biology
Psychiatry
Zoology
Cell biology
Neurology
Botany
Evolution
Molecular genetics
Pathology
Bacteriology
Entomology
Obstetrics/ Gynecology
Anatomy
Anthropology
Dentistry
Hematology
Human genetics
Immunology
Physiology
Psychiatric genetics
Religious studies
Science
Sociology
Not listed
Number of Educators
Teaching the Subject
54
40
23
20
14
7
5
5
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
67
was the subject most commonly taught
(by 54 educators).
Other
subjects taught by 20 or more educators were biology, pediatrics,
and medicine.
subjects further from the genetics realm taught by
members of this study included anthropology, religious studies, and
sociology.
Data summarized in Table 25 identify the leading professions
reported by members of the current study, listed by their decade of
birth.
In each age group the leading profession was that of an
educator, although for those in the study born between 1950 and
1959, three professions tied for first place.
Geneticist was the
second leading profession for those born between 1900 and 1939.
However, for those born between 1940 and 1949, the second leading
profession was that of a researcher.
Physician ranked as the third
leading profession for those born between 1910 and 1939 and fourth
for those born between 1940 and 1949.
Professional Memberships, Honors, and Recognitions
Inclusion in either the Genetics Society of America (GSA) or
the American society of Human Genetics
selection
in
this
study.
(ASHG)
Consequently,
was required for
the
two
leading
professional organizations of membership (Table 26) were the GSA
with 192 members and the ASHG with 159 members.
Several other
organizations or honoraries were also reported for some of the
geneticists.
In positions three through six were the American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) with 157 members
r-
in the current study, sigma xi with 109 members, National Academy
r-
68
TABLE 25
LEADING PROFESSIONS OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY BY
DECADE OF BIRTH
Decade of
Birth
1900 - 1909
1910
r
-
Number of
Geneticists
Born Per Decade
6
Profession
Percent of
Geneticists
Employed
Educator
Geneticist
Botanist
Author
83.3
50.0
50.0
16.7
Educator
Geneticist
Physician
Biologist
Consultant
Microbiologist
Researcher
74.4
25.6
10.3
7.7
5.1
5.1
5.1
1919
39
1920 - 1929
III
Educator
Geneticist
Physician
Biologist
Pediatrician
Biochemist
Researcher
69.4
21.6
18.9
6.3
6.3
5.4
5.4
1930 - 1939
105
Educator
Geneticist
Physician
Researcher
Administrator
Medical
geneticist
Pediatrician
Biologist
73.3
25.7
12.4
7.6
5.7
5.7
5.7
4.8
-
69
TABLE 25 (cont)
LEADING PROFESSIONS OF GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY BY
DECADE OF BIRTH
Decade of
Birth
1940 - 1949
1950 - 1959
Number of
Geneticists
Born Per Decade
34
2
Profession
Percent of
Geneticists
Employed
Educator
Researcher
Geneticist
Physician
Administrator
Biologist
Medical
geneticist
76.5
20.6
14.7
Educator
Molecular
biologist
Executive
50.0
11. 8
5.9
5.9
5.9
50.0
50.0
NOTE: Sufficient data regarding birth date were not
available for six individuals.
-
(
70
TABLE 26
TOP TEN PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND HONORARIES OF THE
GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Organization
Number of
Geneticists
Genetics Society of America
American Society of Human Genetics
American Association for the Advancement of
Science
Sigma Xi
National Academy of Science
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American Society of Biological Chemists
American Society of Microbiology
American Board Of Medical Genetics
Phi Beta Kappa
American Genetics Association
American Pediatric Society
192
159
157
109
88
54
47
47
46*
42
32
21
*Differences between the numbers of ABMG members reported
here and in Table 15 are due to the source of data.
Table
15 data were obtained from biographies of the geneticists
while Table 26 data were obtained from the Membership
Directory (2) used to identify the geneticists.
71
of Science (NAS) with 88 listed members, and the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences with 54 members.
Among those organizations
with fewer than 50 members but more than 20 in the current study
were the American Society of Biological Chemists, American Society
of Microbiology
(ASM),
the American Board of Medical
Genetics
(ABMG), Phi Beta Kappa, the American Genetics Association (AGA),
and the American Pediatric Society.
Many geneticists in the current study belonged to more than
one genetics organization.
The most common combinations included
the ASHG and ABMG with 37 members belonging to both, the ASHG and
GSA with 33 members in common, and the AGA and GSA with 22 shared
members.
Eight individuals, not included in the above figures,
belonged to the ABMG,
ASHG,
and the GSA while one additional
geneticist was a member of those three organizations plus the AGA.
Presidencies in the above mentioned genetics organizations
were held by 24 geneticists in this study.,
presidents of two organizations.
four of whom were
The ASHG led other organizations
with 17 presidencies held by the currently studied geneticists.
Six geneticists had been president of the AGA, followed by three in
the GSA and two in the ABMG.
Although 63.4 percent of currently
studied geneticists were memners of the GSA, presidencies in that
organization accounted for only 10.7 percent of presidencies held.
The ASHG, however, was responsible for 60.7 percent of presidencies
held, but of the population under study, only 52.5 percent were
ASHG members.
Nearly half of the 303 geneticists (47.5 percent) were
72
involved in some capacity with the National Institutes of Health
(NIH)
(Table 27).
Most common was participation in NIH special
study sections; 54 individuals participated in these studies which
had wide ranges of subject matter including genetics, zoology, and
Forty-five of the 303 geneticists were
pathology among others.
recipients of either an NIH grant or fellowship, while 22 had been
employed by the NIH at Bethesda, Maryland.
Finally, 38 individuals
were involved in other NIH activities including special committees
or review boards and peer or consulting groups.
Grants,
fellowships,
scholarships,
and notable prizes from
sources other than the NIH were awarded to many of the currently
studied
geneticists
(Table
28).
A total
of
69
members
were
recipients of monies from either Guggenheim, Fulbright, or Gairdner
grants.
Notable prizes awarded included the NIH Research Career
Development Award to 18 members of the current study, the Lilly
Research Award to 12 members,
the National Medal of Science to
eight, and, finally, the Nobel Prize to seven members.
Comparisons of Male and Female Geneticists
Of geneticists in the current study, 268 -- 88.4 percent -were males, compared to only 35 -- 11.6 percent
(9)
reported
that
in
1988 women
comprised
females. The NSF
30
percent
of
all
individuals employed in the biological sciences in the U. S.,
a
decidedly higher percentage than that found among the population of
geneticists in the current study.
rI
Furthermore, NSF reported (9)
that 45 percent of the total American work force was female.
73
TABLE 27
PARTICIPATION IN RESEARCH AND OTHER PROGRAMS OF THE NATIONAL
INSTITUTES OF HEALTH (NIH) BY THE GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT
STUDY
NIH Activity
Fellowship
Grant
Employed at Bethesda
NIH study section
Other*
Number of Geneticists
Participating
21
24
22
54
38
*Other activities include NIH committees, consulting, review
boards, peer groups, or awards.
NOTE: A total of 144 geneticists in the current study were
involved with the NIH; 132 individuals had one involvement,
while 12 individuals listed involvement in two areas.
74
TABLE 28
SIGNIFICANT RECOGNITIONS GRANTED TO GENETICISTS IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
Recognition
Guggenheim Fellowship
Fulbright Scholar
NIH Research Career Development
Award
Gairdner Fellowship
Lilly Research Award
National Medal of Science
Nobel Prize
Number of
Geneticists
Percent of
Geneticists
34
11.2
19
18
6.3
5.9
16
5.3
12
4.0
8
7
2.6
2.3
-
75
Baccalaureate origins of Males and Females
Two hundred thirty-eight -- 88.8 percent -- of males were
reported as having earned a bachelor's degree, while 31 -- 88.6
percent -- of females were reported as having done so.
Likewise,
the distribution of male and female baccalaureates between the arts
and sciences was relatively equal with 45.8 percent of males and
45.2 percent of females earning B.S. degrees, and 55.5 percent of
males and 54.8 percent of females earning B.A.'s.
While the numbers and types of baccalaureate degrees earned by
females were similar to those of males, differences existed between
the
universities
granting
those
degrees.
A
total
of
124
institutions granted baccalaureate degrees to males in the current
study while
26
institutions
awarded
such
degrees
to
females.
Listed in Table 29 are the five leading institutions granting
bachelor's degrees to each group.
All of those institutions listed
for males were independent nonprofit compared to only one such
university
for
females,
the
University
of
Chicago.
This
insti tution awarded two baccalaureate degrees to the currently
studied
females
and
ranked
third
among
male
baccalaureate
institutions, granting eight degrees.
Master's Degree Origins of Males and Females
Forty-three percent of females and 41.4 percent of males in
the current study were reported as receiving master's degrees.
-
(
Information was not given for the remaining 20 females or 157
males.
Of those reported as receiving master's degrees, 57.9
76
TABLE 29
LEADING BACCALAUREATE INSTITUTIONS OF MALES AND FEMALES IN
THE CURRENT STUDY
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
to Males
Harvard University
Number of
Degrees
18
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
To Females
Number of
Degrees
Brooklyn College
2
Yale University
9
Hunter College
2
Chicago.
University of
8
Alabama.
University of
2
Columbia University
7
Chicago,
University of
2
Washington.
University of
2
New York University
7
;-
77
percent of males and 53.3 percent of females earned Master of
Science degrees while 39.5 and 46.7 percent of males and females
respectively earned Master of Arts degrees.
No female was reported
to have earned more than one master's degree; however, three males
were found to have done so.
In a comparison of the nine institutions granting master's
degrees to females with the nine leading master's institutions of
males
(Table 30), three universities were found to have granted
master's degrees to each group.
of
women's
master's
Columbia University led the list
institutions,
granting
33.3
percent
of
master's degrees to females, while it ranked second for men in the
study, granting only 6.1 percent of the males' master's degrees.
The universities of California and Texas appeared on both lists as
well.
Of the leading master's institutions for males, five were
state supported and four were independent nonprofit compared to
seven
state
supported
and
two
independent
nonprofit
master's
institutions for females.
Doctoral Origins of Males and Females
Each of the 35
female~
in the current study was reported to
have earned at least one doctoral degree, and four women earned two
such degrees.
Of the 268 men under study,
all but two were
reported to have received at least one doctorate, while 23 earned
two.
The
types
of
doctoral
degrees
granted
were
not
as
proportionately distributed to the two sexes as were the types of
r-
bachelor's and master's degrees awarded.
For both sexes, Ph.D.'s
78
TABLE 30
LEADING MASTER'S INSTITUTIONS OF MALES AND FEMALES IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
to Males
Harvard University
Columbia University
Number of
Degrees
14
7
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
to Females
Number of
Degrees
Columbia University
5
California,
University of
2
Illinois,
University of
6
Washington,
University of
2
California,
University of
5
Colorado,
University of
1
Michigan,
University of
5
Kentucky,
University of
1
Yale University
5
Mills College
1
Chicago,
University of
Rutgers University
1
4
Nebraska,
University of
4
Tennessee,
University of
1
Texas,
University of
4
Texas,
University of
1
-
79
were more frequently awarded than M.D.'s; however, 37.7 percent of
males as opposed to only 28.6 percent of females earned an M.D.
One hundred eighty men and 28 women were granted Ph.D.'s.
Of the
balance of doctoral degrees, eight males earned a D.Sc., D.D.S., or
D.Ch. degree while one female earned a J.D. degree.
The leading institutions granting doctoral degrees to males
and
females
are
compared
in
Table
31.
Four
of
the
five
universities granting doctorates to males and three of the six
institutions
awarding
doctorates
to
females
were
independent
nonprofit institutions with the remainder being state supported.
Two
institutions,
Columbia
University
and
the
university
of
California, appeared on both lists.
Among the institutions granting Ph. D. 's to females in the
current study
(Table 32)
state supported and
universities.
females
were seven independent nonprofit,
five
six
foreign or unclassified colleges and
Seven of the 18 institutions granting Ph.D.'s to
appeared
among
the
list
of
ten
leading
granting Ph.D.'s to males in this study (Table 32).
institutions
They were
Columbia, Johns Hopkins and Yale Universities and the universities
of California, Chicago, Texas, and Wisconsin.
Harvard University,
which granted no doctoral degrees to females, ranked at the top of
the lists for both the leading Ph.D. and M.D.-granting institutions
for males.
Only two of ten institutions which granted M.D.'s to
the females in the study (Table 33) appeared among the ten leading
male M.D.-granting institutions: New York University and University
of Chicago.
-
80
TABLE 31
LEADING INSTITUTIONS GRANTING DOCTORATES TO
FEMALES IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
to Males
Number of
Degrees
MALES AND
Institutions
Awarding Degrees
to Females
Number of
Degrees
Harvard University
32
Columbia University
7
Columbia University
23
California,
University of
5
Rockefeller
University
2
Chicago,
University of
2
Washington,
University of
2
Wisconsin,
University of
2
Yale University
California,
University of
California
Institute of
Technology
20
15
12
-
81
TABLE 32
LEADING INSTITUTIONS GRANTING Ph.D. 's TO MALES COMPARED TO
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING Ph.D. 's TO FEMALES IN THE CURRENT
STUDY
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Males
Number of
Ph.D.' s
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Females
Number of
Ph.D.' s
Harvard University
18
Columbia University
7
California,
University of
15
California,
University of
4
Yale University
14
Rockefeller
University
2
Albert Einstein
College of Medicine
1
Cornell University
1
California
Institute of
Technology
12
Columbia University
12
Minnesota.
University of
8
Johns Hopkins
University
1
Wisconsin.
University of
8
Edinburgh
University
1
Johns Hopkins
University
6
Massachusetts
Institute of
Technology
1
Rutgers University
1
Chicago,
University of
1
Freiburg,
University of
1
Milan,
University of
1
Pennsylvania.
University of
1
Texas.
University of
6
Chicago,
University of
5
82
TABLE 32 (cont)
LEADING INSTITUTIONS GRANTING Ph.D's TO MALES COMPARED TO
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING Ph.D.'s TO FEMALES IN THE CURRENT
STUDY
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Males
Number of
Ph.D.'s
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Females
Number of
Ph.D.' s
Texas, University of
1
Toronto,
University of
1
Washington,
University of
1
Wisconsin,
University of
1
Yale University
1
-
83
TABLE 33
LEADING INSTITUTIONS GRANTING M.D. 's TO MALES COMPARED TO
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING M.D. 's TO FEMALES IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Males
Harvard University
Columbia University
-
j
Number of
M.D. 's
14
9
Institutions
Granting Degrees
to Females
Number of
M.D. 's
McGill University
1
Medical College of
Virginia
1
New York University
7
New York University
1
Pennsylvania,
University of
6
Alabama,
University of
1
Yale University
6
California,
University of
1
Rochester,
University of
5
Chicago,
University of
1
Chicago,
University of
4
Michigan,
University of
1
Northwestern
University
4
Washington,
University of
1
Johns Hopkins
University
3
Wisconsin,
University of
1
Oregon,
University of
3
Western Reserve
University
1
-
84
A comparison of the ages at which the 266 male and 35 female
geneticists received their first doctorates
(Table 34)
revealed
that by age 29, 83.6 percent of the males and only 65.7 percent of
the females had done so.
By the age of 34, 97 percent of males and
82.8 percent of females had earned their first doctoral degree.
Finally, two females earned their first doctorates between the ages
of 35 and 39, and one earned hers between 45 and 49 years of age.
Pertinent data regarding age of doctoral receipt was not available
for four men and three women.
Time Span Between Completion of Baccalaureate and Doctoral Degrees
for Males and Females
Most women in the current study spent more time between the
completion of their baccalaureate and doctoral degrees than did
their male counterparts.
time elapsed for females,
Al though the males'
Five years was the most common length of
and their group mean was seven years.
time range of zero to 27 years was a
bit
broader than the two to 25 year time span for females, the men in
the study averaged 5.3 years between degrees, with four years being
the most common.
Listed in Table 35 are the numbers and percents
of males and females completing their baccalaureate and doctoral
degrees within various time spans.
At the five year mark beyond
receipt of the bachelor's degree 61.9 percent of males and only
45.8 percent of females had completed a doctoral degree.
-
Only 4.1
percent of males spent longer than ten years between the two
degrees, while 11.4 percent of women did so.
-
85
TABLE 34
AGES AT WHICH FIRST DOCTORAL DEGREES WERE RECEIVED BY MALE
AND FEMALE GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Age
-
Number of
Males
Percent of
Males
Number of
Females
Percent of
Females
20 - 24
25 - 29
30 - 34
35 - 39
40 - 44
45 - 49
Not given
55
169
36
4
0
0
4
20.5
63.1
13.4
1.5
0.0
0.0
1.5
3
20
6
2
0
1
3
8.6
57.1
17.1
5.7
0.0
2.9
8.6
Total
268
100.0
35
100.0
,-
86
TABLE 35
TIME ELAPSED BETWEEN COMPLETION OF BACCALAUREATE AND
DOCTORAL DEGREES BY MALES AND FEMALES IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Years
Elapsed
Number of
Males
Percent of
Males
Number of
Females
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
0
8
36
70
51
23
16
13
3
5
4
0
4
0
0
1
1
0.4
0.0
3.0
13.4
26.1
19.0
8.6
6.0
4.9
l.1
l.9
l.5
0.0
l.5
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.4
0
0
1
3
5
7
4
1
2
3
1
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0.0
0.0
2.9
8.6
14.3
20.0
1l. 4
2.9
5.7
8.6
2.9
0.0
2.9
0.0
0.0
5.7
0.0
0.0
25
26
27
Unknown
0
0
1
31
0.0
0.0
0.4
1l. 6
1
0
0
4
2.9
0.0
0.0
1l. 4
Total
1
268
100.2*
35
*Tota1 does not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
-
Percent of
Females
100.2*
,-
87
Honorary Degrees and Board certifications of Males and Females
Of
the
51
geneticists
who
received
percent were female and 84 percent were male.
honorary degrees,
16
In comparison to the
whole population of males and females, 16 percent of all men and
22.9 percent of all women under current study received at least one
honorary degree.
The board certifications granted were much more
disproportionate between males and females; 51 males received 94.4
percent of certifications,
and only three females received the
remaining 5.6 percent.
Ages of Males and Females
Twenty-three percent of the female and only 13.8 percent of
the male geneticists were born between 1900 and 1919 (Table 36).
However, by
1939, 87.7 percent of males and only 74.3 percent of
the females under current study had been born.
From 1940 through
1959, 17.1 percent of the females and 11.2 percent of the males
were born.
females.
No birth years were given for three males and three
In a comparison of the birth decades, the distributions
of ages seemed fairly even with females being among the youngest
and the oldest in the study.
Geographic Origins of Males and Females
Due to the larger number of men than women studied, the birth
countries of the males (Table 37) were more diverse than those of
-
females (Table 38).
However, 25.7 percent of females and only 18.3
percent of males were foreign born.
Six countries appeared on
,-
88
TABLE 36
DECADES OF BIRTH OF MALES AND FEMALES IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Decade
Number of Males
Number of Females
1900 - 1909
1910 - 1919
1920 - 1929
1930 - 1939
1940 - 1949
1950 - 1959
Unknown
4
33
102
96
28
2
3
2
6
9
9
6
0
3
Total
268
35
-
89
TABLE 37
BIRTH COUNTRIES OF MALE GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Country of Birth
Number of
Males
Austria
Canada
Chile
China
Columbia
Czechoslovakia
Egypt
England
France
Germany
Greece
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Ireland
Israel
Japan
Korea
Netherlands
Poland
Romania
Spain
Switzerland
United States of America
Unknown
3
9
1
2
1
2
1
4
1
6
1
2
3
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
216
3
1.12
3.36
0.37
0.75
0.37
0.75
0.37
1. 49
0.37
2.24
0.37
0.75
1.12
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.75
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
1.12
80.60
1.12
Total
268
99.98*
Percent of
Males
* Total does not equal 100 percent due to rounding.
-
90
TABLE 38
BIRTH COUNTRIES OF FEMALE GENETICISTS IN THE CURRENT STUDY
Country of Birth
-
Number of
Females
Percent of
Females
Canada
England
France
Germany
Italy
Netherlands
United States of America
Unknown
2
1
1
2
2
1
25
1
5.71
2.86
2.86
5.71
5.71
2.86
71.43
2.86
Total
35
100.00
-
91
both the list of 24 birth countries of male geneticists and the
list of seven birth countries of female geneticists.
Italy was the
only birth country unique to females.
Second to the united states' 216 births of currently studied
male
geneticists
was
Canada
with
nine
followed with six and England with four.
male
births.
Germany
Among the females' birth
countries the u.s. ranked first with 25 births, followed by Canada,
England, and Italy, each with two female births.
Data regarding
the country of birth for three males and one female were not
available.
Geographic Origins and Employment Regions within the United states
for Males and Females
within the U.S., birth and employment states varied for males
and females (Table 39).
The Middle Atlantic region was the leading
birth region for both sexes, producing 73 males and 10 females.
While it remained the leading region for female employment with
nine, it fell to fourth place on the men's list (with 39 employed
male geneticists) following the Pacific region with 51 employed,
the South Atlantic with 49 and the East North Central with 48.
The
latter region appeared among the leading birth and employment
regions for both males and females.
site of the fewest births of both male and female geneticists
was
the Mountain Region,
employed the fewest
while the West North
females
(zero).
Central
region
Al though no females were
employed in the West North Central region, 10.8 percent of the 268
r
-
92
TABLE 39
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH AND
EMPLOYMENT STATES OF MALE AND FEMALE GENETICISTS IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
BiI:ths
Regions
Males
NEW ENGLAND
Maine
Vermont
New Hampshire
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Total
MIDDLE ATLANTIC
New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
EAST NORTH CENTRAL
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
Michigan
Wisconsin
Total
SOUTH ATLANTIC
Delaware
Maryland
District of
Columbia
Virginia
West Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
-
Total
Em£2lQyment
Females
Males
Females
1
0
0
11
2
3
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
2
0
11
1
5
0
0
0
3
0
0
17
2
19
3
53
4
16
7
2
1
25
3
11
1
73
10
39
9
12
4
14
6
7
0
1
1
0
1
7
8
18
9
6
0
0
3
3
0
43
3
48
6
0
4
0
0
0
11
0
1
3
4
1
5
2
3
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
7
0
18
1
5
4
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
22
1
49
2
6
2
-
93
TABLE 39 (cont)
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH AND
EMPLOYMENT STATES OF MALE AND FEMALE GENETICISTS IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
BiI:ths
Regions
Males
MOUNTAIN
Montana
Idaho
Wyoming
Nevada
Colorado
New Mexico
Arizona
Utah
Total
WEST NORTH CENTRAL
Minnesota
Iowa
Missouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Total
EAST SOUTH CENTRAL
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Mississippi
Total
WEST SOUTH CENTRAL
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
-
Total
EmJ;!lQ~meDt
Females
Males
Females
1
0
0
0
5
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
8
1
4
5
5
1
0
6
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
9
6
10
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
2
29
0
1
2
2
3
2
3
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
7
3
7
2
1
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
1
9
3
11
1
9
3
0
0
1
0
3
1
1
I
-
94
TABLE 39 (cont)
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: BIRTH AND
EMPLOYMENT STATES OF MALE AND FEMALE GENETICISTS IN THE
CURRENT STUDY
Regions
Males
Females
EWJ;!lQJlment
Males
Females
PACIFIC
Washington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Hawaii
2
4
10
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
8
1
42
0
0
0
5
0
0
Total
16
3
51
6
4
1
2
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
5
1
0
1
0
0
0
9
2
8
2
40
7
0
0
3
1
1
1
268
35
268
35
CANADA
Quebec
Nova Scotia
British Columbia
Manitoba
Saskatchewan
Ontario
Total
Non-U.S. or Canada
Unknown
Grand Total
-
Bil:ths
1
1
,-
95
male geneticists were.
Employment: Employers and Professions of Males and Females
The types of employers of male and female geneticists in the
study (Table 40) were similar, with the largest difference existing
between educational institutions.
Independent nonprofit colleges
and universities hired 26.1 percent of the
compared
to
only
17.1
percent
of
their
men in the study
female
counterparts.
However, 8.6 percent of females and only 3.4 percent of men were
hired by foreign or unclassified institutions.
state universities
were the largest employers of both men (42.2 percent) and women
(40 percent) in the study.
worked
for
hospitals
private laboratories
Finally, more of the male geneticists
and medical
(7.1 percent).
centers
(10.4
percent)
than
The opposite is true for
women, 8.6 percent of whom worked for private laboratories and 5.7
percent of whom were employed by medical facilities.
The role of educator led both the men's and women's lists of
the leading professions identified by geneticists in the current
study
(Table 41),
geneticist.
with the second most common being that of a
Third and fourth leading professional designations
were reversed for males and females; 13.8 percent of the 268 males
were listed as physicians, and 6.7 percent as researchers, while
17.1 and 14.3 percent of women were listed as researchers and
physicians ,
respectively.
Completing
the
leading
seven
professional designations for both sexes were biologist and
administrator, with pediatrician completing the list for males and