New Countries: Successes and Failures
Jesús Fernández-Villaverde
University of Pennsylvania
April 14, 2011
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End of European Imperialism
The end of WWII is also the end of European imperialism:
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Formal empires.
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Informal areas of in‡uence.
British empire will be the paradigmatic case. Relatively pain free.
More painful examples: France (Algeria, Vietnam) and Portugal.
In some sense, fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 is the end of the last
colonial empire.
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The Sun Sets Down on the British Empire I
Colonies of European settlement (Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
South Africa) become progressively independent (Responsible
government)Dominions)Commonwealth realms).
Ireland becomes independent in 1922 (republic in 1948).
Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule
outside the UK collapses from 700 million to 5 million (out of which 3
were in Hong Kong).
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The Sun Sets Down on the British Empire II
British empire reaches the end of the line at the British Raj:
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British rule has been under increasing pressure from nationalists (Indian
National Congress, All India Muslim League).
Already in 1935: Government of India Act, proposed Federation of
India. Elections of 1937.
Deal during WWII. Problems with Indian National Army.
Increasing con‡ict between communities (particularly in Punjab and
Bengal).
Finally, the Labour government decides that they cannot keep India
and agrees to its independence and partition Radcli¤e Line):
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August 14, 1947, Dominion of Pakistan (republic in 1956, Bangladesh
independent in 1971).
August 15, 1947, Union of India (republic in 1950).
1948: Dominion of Ceylon (republic of Sri Lanka in 1962) and Union of
Burma.
Perhaps as many as 1 million deaths, 10 million people reallocated,
four wars (1947, 1965, 1971 and 1999).
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The Sun Sets Down on the British Empire III
Most of “supporting” colonies of the Raj lose sense (Cyprus, Oman,
Aden, Suez Canal) and Africa, by itself, more of a burden than
anything else.
Also in 1948, the British rather hastily leave the mandate in Palestine.
Malayan emergency (1948-1960).
Nationalization of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
Suez crisis in 1956.
Hong Kong in 1997.
Nowadays, only 14 small territories.
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Reasons for Decolonization
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Increase in nationalism agitation.
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Increase …nancial problems in the U.K.
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Loss of interest among elites in the U.K.
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Pressure of the U.S.
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What Do New Countries Do? India
Leaders of Congress party deeply in‡uenced by British Fabian
socialism.
Set up …ve-year plans.
Strong intervention, redistribution, investment in education.
License raj.
Hindu rate of growth at 2.5%.
Positive aspects: democracy, absence of famines.
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What Do New Countries Do? Singapore
After several ine¤ective previous limited elections, general election in
1959 is won by the People’s Action Party and Lee Kuan Yew becomes
the …rst Prime Minister of Singapore.
Enters into an ill-fated federation with Malaysia. Independence in
1965.
Most observers think Singapore is not a viable state (too small, racial
tensions...).
Government takes a vigorous approach to development:
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Sets up industrial parks with tax holidays for FDI.
Promotes the harbour.
Oil re…neries.
Housing and retirement funds (Central Provident Fund).
Constant upgrade towards higher added value products (tourism,
gambling, medicine hub biotech).
E¢ cient legal system, low corruption, great civil service.
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Comparison
First, comparison is a bit unfair: a subcontinent with an island.
Singapore has been several orders of magnitude more successful than
India in economic terms.
But it has come at a cost in terms of freedoms.
Democracy Index compiled by the Economist Intelligence Unit:
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India: 7.28, ‡awed democracy (U.S.: 8.18, full democracy, Norway:
9.80).
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Singapore: 5.89, hybrid regime.
Even more in contrast with China’s experience
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A People’s Republic
October 1, 1949, Mao proclaims the People’s Republic of China.
E¤ective end of the civil war and unrest that had plagued China for
decades.
Copy model of High Stalinism.
It will lead to a …ght with the Soviet Union (close to open war in
1969).
The Great Leap Forward: 17-30 million deaths.
The Cultural Revolution: Lín Biāo, Four Olds (Old Customs, Old
Culture, Old Habits, and Old Ideas).
Gang of four defeated, Deng Xiaoping takes power.
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A Changing World:
Arrival of China to world stage.
In some sense, only returning to its natural place.
Three eras:
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First contact: 1972-1979.
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Reform in the countryside: 1979-1990.
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City-biased growth: 1990-2009.
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Deng Xiaoping, 1979
“Modernization does represent a great new revolution. The aim of our
revolution is to liberate and expand the productive forces. Without
expanding the productive forces, making our country prosperous and
powerful, and improving the living standards of the people, our revolution
is just empty talk. We oppose the old society and the old system because
they oppressed the people and fettered the productive forces. We are clear
about this problem now. The Gang of Four said it was better to be poor
under socialism than to be rich under capitalism. This is absurd.”
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Intellectual Foundations: The Years of the High Theory of
Development
Unequal exchange (Raúl Prebisch).
Big Push (Paul Rosenstein-Rodan).
Forward and backward linkages (Albert Hirschman).
Skepticism (Peter Bauer).
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Julius Nyerere
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Africa
Level of income per capita in 1960 and 2000 roughly the same.
Last 10 years much better.
Reasons:
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Legacy of colonialism.
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Arti…cial states.
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Wrong policies: Ujamaa.
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