Content Area Reading
Instruction~
Issues and Implications for
the Elementary Classroom
An Honors Thesis (ID 499)
b·.'
I
,Jodi f':. Sti 11 er
Thesis Director
Ball State UniverSity
MU.r:c::te,
rnC'1i-=~!; . .::.
it is a learned skill or set
product~
it involves
things~
n- LI
~:;kills.
As both process and
ideas, and the
function we
ment~l
call human learning.
Reading involves specific things such as
phrases, and sentEnces;
letters~
words~
these language characteristics are
learned by most children in spoken communication long before
they see them represented on a printed page.
Reading also involves ideas based on prior experiences and
stored in the memory.
Situations depicted in words on a page
stimulate memory of these experienc2s and bring meaning tG
Thus~
prior sensory experiences provide the
~asi5
for
comprehending what is said.
Above all, reading is a process and product of human
As
such~
Foundations for the teaching of re&diGg to
children must be built upon modern learning theory,
~nowledge
Qnd principles of child
differences~
dev~lcpment
and
i~cluding
i~dividual
buttressed by relevant linguistic principles and a
1
describing the complex proc2ss we know as reading.
purpose of this
thesi~
The brc<3.d
is to examine thE reading process as it
is being taught by teachers and experienced by children
elementary classroom.
discu~s
in the
More specifically, this thesis will
the reading process
2S
i t is practiced and learned
outside the structured reading instructional program.
~undamentally~
give
~eading
this thesis is a call for elementary teachers to
in the content areas the attention it deserves.
M':I.ny people think of readini.;J as
0.
taught in groups, using a basal reader.
"subject"~
usu.:!lly
But what happens when
Greg can't do his social studies questions because he has such
difficulty reading his social studies book?
Are teachers
spending as much time helping Greg read that sccial studies
book as they do with his basal reader?
Sadly~
the
anSW2~
is
no.
Thus~
a grave injustice is being done to elementary
students in that learning to read and reading to learn are
being unnecessarily separated.
with reading
Elementary children need help
outside of tho reading instructional
~eriod
they're not getting it. Content areas, such as social
and
3t~jiE~,
health, science, and math, each with its own textbook, are
sGbjects in which
varying amounts of reading
' ....
:::.
.
~re
n2c2~s~ry.
~ay
they recieve them with the basal SElections
to be
able to understand and learn from their content textbook
selections.
impli~ations
The issues of content area reading and the
for the elementary teacher
be discussed and
~ill
evaluated in this thesis study.
TO begin a look at content area reading,
first the nature
c.f re€:lding <3.nd reCi.diJ"ig instruction must. be eHamined to
understand the basic goa15 and concepts, which underlie reading
performance at all levels.
The Nature nf Reading
Reading is the key to all 12arning and understanding.
so f<3.r
i:~S
to
·-::.~v
-
-',f
tha.t is i::, the
There is very little one can do in this world
witho~t
able to read. Y2t, elementary children are relatively
being
unaw~r8
Gf the significance of the journef on which they ar2 about to
To most
of
~rint
adults~
reading is no more than picking up a piece
and being able to understand
~hat
is written there.
T-I.:. '-
is as natural as walking or breathing, and they are unaware of
all the complexities which cause what is
take
the
~lace.
p~O~2SS
ha~pening
to actually
To teachers and ethers in the fi21d of educJtion,
o{ decoding
symbols and
~r~tten
..,..
...;.
~ri~gi~g
me&~i~g
to
.-
thOSE
symbols~
based on the
own background of
reader'~
Reading is not simple, nor is it a single skill.
not learn to read in one, two, or three
years~
I't ::. s
just as they do
not learn to master any other complex activity in a brief
pet-ioo of time.
They learn some reading skills and develop
some attitudes toward reading as they complete one stage of
de~elopment
and move into another.
But it takes them a long
time to gain overall proficiency in reading.
So what exactly
reading?
i~
The nature of the reading
process has been and will continue to be of great concern to
schol ars and researchers in readi ng, as well as prospecti ',,'e and
experienced teachers.
To some this may seem to be a tedious
I
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views
I~
~eadinggreatly
shapes the way one teaches reading.
part5 reading is a social process.
willingness on the part of readers and authors to
And while the
act~
proc2s~
the process of learning to read
iGtera~tion
with
te~chers
~~
and peers. The
comm~ni~ate
of reading is a
soci~l
even more so, involving
relatio~ship
b2tween
teacher and student is a very complex one. However,
shG~S
.
again and again that the t2acher is the most impcrt2nt
variable in how WEll a child learns to read.
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arranged to begin with the simpler subskills and work toward
However, reading as a proc2ss allows one to ask, and
answer, many important questions which cannot be addressed
simply by viewing reading as skills learning.
humans learn tu speak
Almost all
without direct instruction.
learn to produce and process spoken language
50
Chi 1 oj'"' en
naturally that
it is curious how most educators assume they cannot learn to
read in the same natural way.o
For all children, reading acquisition is closely tied to
la~guage
F~ceptiye
acquisition.
The concept of reading as primarily a
language process and only incidentally as skills
learning makes it possible to discover how word identification
skills are applied and integrated during the activity of
rEading print.
The skills dimension of reading does not provide much
insight into how readers go about applying their word
identification and comprehension skills
dUI~inq
rED.ding.
process di mensi on offers i nsi ght i lite W!-,·:Oit h"".ppens
GLU~
Th.:::;·
i ng
sentence-by-sentence construction of a printed message.
insight reveals how readers may
~pply,
supp!2melit~
their skills knowledge through the development of
~or
predicting, confirming, and integTating words,
Thus, the reader
kno~12dg~
but also efficient
need~
re2d~~;
not
~nly
strategies
_. 1
~·..L
~
.~
or integrate
5trat~gi2s
~0rd
skills
grcu~s,
,-
Regardless which view of reading onQ prefers, all
that the outcome of reading is me&ning.
anr-i=:P
OJ'
--
And all views clearly
indicate that readers must actively employ a variety of
knowledgE sources to acquire meaning through reading.
All views of the nature of
re~ding
o
recognize that a
distinction must be made between the concepts of reading as
learni~g
and learning through reading.
Children do not le&rn
all thEY need to know about the reading process in a
However, through repeated opportunities
printed language, they learn to intDgrate
t~
~onth
interact
knowl8dge~
or
.
~
·-I-h
,:,\11 ..... 1
J
skills~
and strategies in order to make senSE of prInt.
The overriding principle to be acknowledged is
that~
although m03t learners profit from decontextualized
i~teractions
practice~,
with print to some extent
(skill learning and
reading growth is largely a matter of interacting
with complete texts which are highly redundant and cohesive.
Decontextualized instruction must always be followed by
contextualized instruction or by opportunities for the child to
independently apply what was learned in the decontextualized
3etti~g
by actually reading.?
Finally, all views of reading agree that language learning
is closely tied to reading.
Reading takes place in
cert~in
contexts or situations.
It must have the 5am2 explicit or
implicit meaning-ordered
f~nctions
knowing a good dea: about the
that language has.
~ature
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For example, reading is generally leveled, being
divided into graded units.
It is usually taught in groups of
It has a set organization and plan to
ten children or les5.
All of thE'se
and is accompanied by very specific materials.
things make up the current mode of reading instruction in
elementary schools today.
Everything a child reads, whether it is written for
not, is written at a certain level.
obj~ctive
or
Readability is tho
measure of the difficulty of a piece of writt2G
It is usually based
ma.ter i a.l •
o~
the number of
word and the number of sontences in
calculated by the use of a
th~
rQad~bility
paSS2]e,
syll~b12s
~nd
per
is
formula.
levels are usually reported in terms of gride level.
~~ill
be
disc~ssed
understand
50m~
hGW
the readibility concepts can help us
of the difficulty encountered
~;hEn
children
There are two basic uses for readability formulas in tho
c:l €:tssrc·c:rn
~repa~ing
- one is to 2stimatc the reading difficulty
.-, ..C
'.-." J
or altering reading levels of materials for hcr
~tt.l.c!ents:: 1 0
The primary reading material usod for reading in3truction
...
II / .....~
:-~
-,
lea~t
four Gut of {ive
teach~rs
in the elementary grades use
bGsal readers ..•• as their primary medium of reading
-
~eading
I~e,:"d::!i
Along with the series of leveled
and skill program.
ng books is a compl ete ski 11 program If-!orked i ntc.
t~-,e
readers and the teachers manual.
There are advantages and disadvantages to using
series in the classroom.
Basal
re~der
bas~l
The advantages are fair;y clear:
programs have a logical organization.
broken down into manageable units.
They're
The sequence of the skill
developmsnt program is written down in an organized fashion.
(It is interesting to note that not one of sixteen publishers
agrees with another on the proper sequence of a program.
12
Th2Y also provide a wealth of supplementary materials.
are beautifully illustrated.
And the story selections are frcm
the best in children's literature.
All of this leads to a
great deal of security for the teachers and 3chool systems wh8
The disadvantages, unfortunately, are not so
least
not to those who make decisions concerning
Kenneth Goodman reports that the
knowledge in roading instruction is not
development of basal programs.
rEquire
morE time
~or
'-Ie
3D./S>;
b2~t
clcar~
~eading
rC~2arch
infl~en=ing
the
"The current. bas2.1s
reading instruction while they provide
Goodman also lists what he considers the problems with
11
• 1
.~
.i.
1,
-
Basals discourage risk taking by requiring
right 2nswers on trivial details.
"':!
._"
.
They isolate reajing
from its use and from other language precesses.
minimize time spent on reading while monopolizing school time
for skill exercises.
literature is marred by
Even
the use of real children's
rel~ting
i t to skill development,
Unfortunately, thEse basal reading programs, with all
their problems,
~re
usually
the only textbooks in the
classroom written on the children's level.
textbooks are written with specialized
dra~ings
The content area
vocabulary~
intricate
and diagrams, and complex concepts with less available
hElp for the children than the basal program •
.,
~,
-
Reading In the
Conte~t
Areas
Content area reading instruction came about in r2cognitioD
of the fact that readers require various strategies when they
study particular subjects and read many kinds of materials for
different purposes.
Content area r2ading instruction is
The majority of rasearch
designed to deliver those strategies.
in content area reading instruction is geared to assi3ting
students at the secondary level.
However, many strategies are
proposed for the elementary student and, often, strategies for
01 del'" chi 1 drE'n can be? "toned down It for
youngel~
stude;y[ s,
In order t.o understa,nd content ar<?a !"eadi ng i
one needs tc. I_tnderstand the I arger
emerged.
In the early
1900's~
emphasis on mental discipline.
conte;.~t
frDffi
n~;t!'-ucti
~..;hi
on
0;
ch i t
education placed a great
Children did not read for
comprehension, they simply read to decode.
" •• .,early U,S.
reading instruction consist;:?d mainly of
elocution and memorization.
Students at all grade levels were
drilled so that they could declaim a
te~t
with correct
articulation, inflection, accent, emphasis, and ge5ture.
1t
15
At the turn of the century, mental discipline declined as
the primary focus of American schools.
education in general
specifically~
, and content area reading instruction
emerged largely as the result of three forCES:
humanists, dev21opmentalists, and scientific determinists.
Among
~entral
ot~er
things, humanist educators argued that the
functions of the schoQls were to
13
d~v21op
students·
-
abilities to learn information meaningfully and to think
bi:?liefs:
c~n
The history of humanist concerns
to thi:? Greeks but names known in
Am~rican
tra~2d
be
back
educational history
diJ not begin to appear until the late 1800'5.
3pecifically~
was a compelling force as he nudged American
2ducation toward the goal of
chi~dri:?n
m~aningful
reading.
at the center of the curriculum.1e
Another humanist concern was that of helping students to
and make inferences on their own.
thin~
periodically throughout
This concern surfaced
the history of education but reached a
high point during the 18th century French Enlight2nment, and
again in John Dewey's 1910 text How We Think.
Developmentalism becam2 an influential force in education
at the turn of the century.
Pychologists such
2S
S. Stanley
Hall and Arnold Gesell were in the forefront of this field as
they 5tudied patterns of growth among children. Shi:d study
added to the growth of content area r2adlng instructiJn mostly
by pointing out that children at various stages of development
print:
L'/
lea~ning,
the
dp~elopmental
influence focused instructional
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Teaching reading in the content areas is a highly
sp~cialized
subject.
Numerous books and articlss have been
published in this field.
It is
intere~ting
to note that,
although many elementary teachers do not regularly assist
studants in rsading content textbooks and most secondary
reading~
teachers do not consider themselves teachers of
there
are scores of college-level textbooks written to teach the
teachar how to teach reading.
In a research article by Readance and Moore(1984),
overall conclusions were drawn concerning the suitability and
practicality of these textbooks.
hi
s~:ori
cal I i
tel~atu.re
underl '1'i lli;:) contemporary (.owi t i ngs i3.bou.t
content area reading instruction.
Indeed, the results of this
mainly attend to only two pre-1950 publications.
Othm- eCl.rl y
references were noted by contemporary educators and
researchers~
i rTegul
ai~.
but that notice is extremely meager and
" 1 ....
These two authors sugest that progress cannot be made
perspectives are 2ssential tools which enable educators
rasearchers to
2xten~
and refine old ideas and create new
l-ii stcwy hel ps, us ·::0 '-nove ina 1 i ne<3.r or :=;pi rCl.l
th~~;~
-
in
a~d
on~5.
f,,-ishi on
i~2i.thei'"
by nat
notino
cir-cles~ 1'20
This would lead one to the ccnclusion
1
t-
.t.'...]
th~t
tea~her
within
educators are not maintaining a continuity of ideas
th~
These textbooks aim to provide a knowledge
fi21d.
of the reading process, an understanding of how specific
teaching strategies can enhance students'
comprehension~
and a
rationale for accepting responsibility for developing students'
reading abilities.
Ratekin$ et aI, believes that complicated reading
instructional methods are possibly invalid for the current
instructional time.
Their study, conducted in 1983$ concludes
that some secondary teachers, although instructed as to what is
"best" for comprehension and
Lmderstanding~
are not using the
methods made available to them.
". u
••
;~athel~
tha.n LIse a vari ety of i n5t;~Lli:ti onal
resources, teachers used a single textbook
assignment for all students.
~ith
the single
Adjunct aids were rare.
In
constrast, textbook authors recommend using a variety of
instructional resources.
Clearly, recommendations made by
textbook authors about teaching reading in content areas were
rarely implemented in the classrooms we observed.
becoming increasingly convinced that as teacher educators we
must account for the realities of individual classrooms and
design professional development programs with those realitios
in mind'''21
It is fairly clear that the
designed to help
te~chers
text~ooks
and articles
in the classroom are
But they are specific guidelines and
17
~orthy
o~
Most cf the resources av&ilable today on research and
strategies for
arGas
cc~tent
organize themselves in one of two
by su.bject area or by skill area (such as vocabulary
-.'~
'-'t
There are few authors who recommend strategies
st.Udy skills).
for one or two specific subject areas, mainly because most can
be adapted to work with all subject areas.
In the next
secticn~
specific subject area recommendations will be examined.
Following
that~
skill area strategies will be discused.
Subject Area Strategips - Mathpmatics
Just as reading is more than pronouncing symbols and
attaching meaning
e~tails
f"lumbei-S.
~nd
understanding to the
symbols~
mathematics
more than a mechanical or manipulative approach to
Mathematical competence requires an understanding of
symbols in order to master two basic prOCEsses - classification
and the study of relationships. Therefore any approach to
improving reading skills in mathematics must focus primarily on
comprehension, on understanding
abst~act
id2as in order to
improve the study of sets and functions.
Herber gives a definition of reading that is appropriate
for reading mathematics.
He st3.tes that
II
~
:z
a
:z
r-E~.d
i ng i::; a
thinking process which includes decoding symbols, interpreting
the meaning of symbols, and applying the id2as derived from the
vocab~lary
and on interpreting symbols.
St~d2nts
St~aight
lecture
at all 12vels iG mathematics face
~s
-
similar problems when reading math2matical language.
It is
is the complex vocabulary.
~lmo3t
like
learni~g
to
re~d
a foreign language.
One strategy recommended by
Smith and KepG2r
(1981:,
H~rber
(1978), related by
I t is
is the instructional framework.
dependent upon t:'e teacher's anal 'lsi s of the r-eadi ng ,.:Is·si gnment
in terms of both content and pr-ocess.
sel~ctlon
Content analysis is the
and or'ganization of information the tcach2r
convey to the students.
~ishes
to
Process analysis is th2 development
.-. ,C
',-.' :
an instructional sequence and thE inclusion
learning activities
content;r
fo~ms
th~t
appropr-iate
pr-ovide students access to the
The combination of
the instructional
G~
the content and process analyses
framework'2~
Basically, the mechanics of the instr-ucticnal framework
In the first stage of content analysis, the
teacher writes one to
fo~r
basic sentenc25 describing the
content she would like the students to know by the end of a
time period.
~~v2n
She orders these 3tatements in terms of
Jifficulty and identifie3 the specialized vocabulary neejed for
• ...1
each specific concept or- l,..ea.
Content analysis allcws the
teacher the necessary flexibility and efficiency to
pl~n
an
instructional UGit.
Once the major
,-
prioritized and the
hegi~s
to
formula~e
u~dersta~dings
e5se~tial
are identified and
vocabulary listed, the teacher
an instructional sequence for the 12530n,
19
-
Herber lists some items which he feels should be included in
this
process, such as:
decision-m~king
selectiGg motivational
activities, reviDwing background information 5 setting purposes,
giVE directions for
readiGg~
providing sufficient guidance, and
anticipating appropriate concluding activities.
an instructional outline which provides the necessary
assistance for a particular unit'
Anoth~r
24
strategy recommended for improving students's
reading ability
~ithin
the mathematics area is the structured
Two forms of the overview are
diagram or the pictorial format.
·jescr i l=.ti on
A complete and in-depth
of this strategy can be
Mathematics Classroom
~Smith,
suggested~
in Reading
1981).
The biggest problem most elementary students face
involving reading in mathematics is the ever troublesome story
pl-oblem.
By helping the students with their reasoning skills
and by keeping the vocabulary at a definable 10vel, children
can
lear~
unknown or
to to decode math problems as
ccn~using
passages.
t-hpv
-.' . I
woul d any othe;-
The key to this subject area,
and to all others, is that children receive the help they need.
Subject Area Strategies - Social Studips
Reading in the social studies classroom presents a
slightly different problem for an elementary
there is the difficulty with vocabulary
addition, pictorial and map
s~il1~
a~d
stGd2~t.
concepts.
are needed.
--
r2~der
will be exp2cted to remGmber what he has read
background information
the social studies
fo~
~\)i
idGas to be presented later.
textbook~
usually get even less help
2S
th
surprisingly enough, students
t~an
with the
mathcm~ties
textbook.
Most t;:?achers i ntE'rpret the soci al studi e::: book to be "G.'8.·::;i 2r
bec:aLI.se
the;~e
There
are 1 ess
11
prot 1 e,TIS
II •
several ways that a teacher ean aid
ar~
reading a social stUdies text.
the specialized vocabulary.
11
First~
There are
students in
of course, is to develop
ma~y
creative vocabulary
strategies available to an el2mentary teacher, such as
List-Group-Label, Possible Sentences, or Contextual
redefinition'2o
Another is to teach students how to organize
and interpret ideas.
The highly factual nature of much social
studies material makes it imperative that the reader organize
~hat
has been read in a meaningful manner.
This can b2
facilitated in many ways, the most obvious of which is
Interpreting material involves makiGg inferences,
noting cause and effect, and evaluating ideas.
A third possible way that a teacher might help her
students to better comprehend the material being read is to
t2~ch
locating and utilizing r2ference
material~.
studies units must necessarily make use of a wid2 variety
~f
reference material.
only on their
av~ilability
but also on the ability of
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enjoyment,
b~t
could meon
~ti~ulatirg~
~oi-l
t2ach~rs
d of p02try ~
d~ring
magazine
must help them to bo successful.
creative writing assignments (not just
or- si mpl·/ all o~;i ng them to n?ad :. n2hlpapertheir fr-ee time.
One time consuming but
program is the
DI~
pr-o~r-am
of
hig~ly
successful supplementar-y
individuali~ed
reading.
Wt-,at U;is
involves is a one-on-one instruction:ll setting where the
teacher- allows the
o~ce
a
stu~ent
~e2k,
st~dent
to
ch~ose
a book to read.
At 1 ea.st
more eften if possible. the teacher and the
meet to discuss the book.
This aspect
kee~s
the
teacher fairly busy trying to have a wor-:<ing knowledge of the
boo!::s bei ng
I~ead,
but the
~\lGr-k
is wor-th the benef j. t s ;..;hi ch car,
be reaped.
Authors Holmes and Ammon
st~-ategy
(1983)
actually outlin2 a
for teaching content with trado books, simil:.r to the
individualized reading pr-ogram.
pGtential for deve:oping the thinking skills of students.
particular, they offcr th2 opportunity for- comparing
and
contrasting !nformation, and judging authenticity of the
writing as well as the credibility of th2
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Mat~ematic5~
social studies, and literature ar2 only three
areas of the varied content areas presented to elementary
children and the strategies mentioned are but a sampling of
what is available to the teacher.
Within every subject area there are three areas which need
to be enhanced to increase th2 child's chanc2s of
and enjoying the assignliH:mts given him.
voc·.s.bdl
c\i~y,
u~derstanding
These are thE
a~eas
of
comprehensi on,; and study sId 11 s.
be taken at some strategies which
c~n
aid
in thEse specific
areas within any subject.
~kill
Strat~gips
Vorabulary
"A vocCl.bu.l <=l.ry is <=l. CO;O-PU5 of m<=l.ny thous·3.nds -::'If
t!-,ei;~
associ .:ated meani ngs.
":30
~\jords
The development of o;""1e'
,Ol.nd
S
vocabulary is absolutely essential if adequate reading growth
is to take place in such important areas as silent re2ding
comprehension and oral and writt2n communication skills.
Vocabulary enlargement is a lifetime process, and every teacher
in each content area has
~
significant responsiblity for
helping students r2alize maximum growth in each of the
different types of vocabulary.
There are five general tYP23 of vocabulary:
speaking, reading, writing, and potential'31
listeni!"1g,
This paper is
specifically concerned with increasing comprehension within th2
area of a child's reading and writing
voc~bc:ary~
although it
.c.;
.. ,~
t
.:. Y c;;
-
r
25
VG~~bulary
three
in content area
generally fall into
technical vocabulary, specialized
c~t2gDries:
vocabulary~
selecti~ns
and general vocabulary.
The technical vocabulary
consists of those words that belong specifically
t~
and often have been coined for specific fields.
For e;(ample,
"tyrannc,saurus" and "brantos2.Llt-U.S"
for a selection on dinosaurs.
would be
one area
technic~l
These words must be
~ords
t~ught
if
most students are going to be able to read them.
The specialized words are terms that change meanings for
different fields.
For example, a student may have no
difficL\lty with the word "f':l.ult" in a tennis
12ssor,~
b2come baffled if he tried to apply that meaning to a
but wC;!. .\ld
g2~logy
Finally, the general vocabulary includes all
the other sophisticated, complex terms that are
used'3~
Several strategies are suggested by the recent literature.
One is the relatively common idea of using context clues.
The
COGtext of an unknown word is the material surrounding it.
This context may be a phrase, a sentence, a paragraph, or an
Context clues are
word~~
phrases, or more
which help the reader identify - give him/her clues to the
meaning of - the unfamiliar word'
33
Teachers can help students to use context effectively and
sfficiently by providing practice in identifying and using
context clu2s in reading.
-
identifying
~nd
using
One
c~ntext
w~y
clues is to provide modi+i2d
I
~ersions
to help students pra=tic2 in
of the cloze procedure.
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There ara four steps to generating a graphic
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concept identification -
all new
is when th2 teacher
and conc2pts which wil! be
term~
reading assignment.
Concept
selecti~n
Step
orga~lZEr.
ide~tifi2S
in the
introduce~
is the next step.
In
.~
1 ,_
is necessary to cut the initial lists until it consists of only
the concepts which are most essential to the reading selection.
The organizer is supposed to supplement the reading
assignment
l
not replace it. Once th2 list has been
sub-cl~~sify
the remaininG terms in an informal
r~duc2dl
outli~e.
The third step is the construction of a diagram.
terms
arG
ou.tlir,e.
~rranged
in a tree structGre which refle=ts the
This is the key to the graphic organizer but the tree
may not quite as organized as it could be.
con~2y
The
the concepts you wish to teach?
Does it
a~curately
If not, the diagram
shculd be re-organized and re-defin2d until it js.
advantages of the
graphi~
organizer is that it :,elps teachers
to organize and clarify their own purposes.
comp I e;.;i t y of
t~,e
Also the
d i agi·-am shoul d ce eval dated.
Students cc;.n be
overwhelmed if the visual display is too complex.
The
f~nal
step is the presentation of the
it is physically presEnted is unimportant;
transparencies~
-
dittoes 5 a poster,
The time required for the
vary dcp2ndin; upon the complexity of the
exte~t
How
or the chalkboard may be used as the tea=her's
resources dictat2.
I
organi~8r=
tc which the
co~cepts
o~ganizer
in qU2sticn are
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building a program to increase comprehension 5
"1.
Sf nce corr,p;rehensi on is a hoI i sti c concept
it
5
should net be thought of as a single skill ability.
Instruction in the various comprehension skills
developed through the use of direct lessons
must
which emphasize
3.
a major skill.
If comprehension is to be developed
must
students
4.
alway~be
effc~tively,
givun a purpose for reading.
All material used for comprehension exercises
should be
at the instructional reading level of the
One strategy used in improving comprehension among
elementary students is a study guide.
Study guides are used to
".;;)u.i de" the students' rea.di ng so that they read purposel ';l =
Vocabulary and new concepts should be presented beforehand so
that they do not interfere with the students' using the guide
e·Uectively.
Discussion should occur following the completion
or a study guide.
The teacher may lead the discussion or
3
in
the upper grades, students may hold a group discussion.
Discussion should focus on higher levels of comprehension not
covered by the guide'37
It is important that study guides be discussed in order to
clear up any questions students could not answer, and to
p~ovide
a follow-up for their hard work.
lot cf its Effectiveness.
T ...... ,..:.:....
.!. ::.'
If students perceive
also recommended that
~
variety of questions be included in any particular study guide.
If the majority of ,questions require literal, factual answers,
then the child will no longer be reading for understanding but
reading to "find the answers."
Finally, study guide questions and test questions over the
material studied should emphasize the same type of thinking.
!f
the student guide and subsequent discussion and activities
emphasize only literal comprehension, it is inappropriate for
level questions on an examination.
Conversely, if all levels
of comprehension are stressEd in class, it seems unfair to
administer a strictly multiple-choice test of literal
comprehension, unless students are told in advance.
test should have approximately the same proportion of questions
at each level as the instruction over the material.
There are many different kinds of study guides, each best
suited for a specific purpose.
There are concept guides, which
are especially useful in studying literature,
~lthough
t_
lip\/
•. I
CCE,ll d be used wi.th .J.ny GL!b ject matter wher 2 the i nter;t is tc.
present concepts, ideas, and
gene~alizations.
guides work best with subjects which lend themselves to
step-by-step reading of material, such as mathematics or
scienC2.
8i mi l.:.".\r' to ,;:", prob I em--sol vi ng gui de is a pat tern g;"\1 de'
where the student is guided step by step through a recipe,
sciance experiment,
and each step
~nd
2mphas~2ed
30
forth.
Key words are highlight=d
so that students carefully
31
follG~
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be taught to help students regulate their comprehension
i r,dependent l y whi 12 they ·:,r-e readi ng .3.nd studyi r,g" "::zCI'
The strategy
WdS
designed to help students monitor their
compr-ehension while reading content area materials.
this~
students usc a code to record their r-esponsEs to assigned
The specifics of the COdE are determined
iTI<:I.teri al.
teacher based on the responses he or she
~aGts
b~
the
to elicit from
students, the characteristics of the assigned material, and the
teacher's curriculum objectives.
For
GH
For
.:,mpl e, th,:;? code fm- a soc i a1 studi es te::·;: tboc;J:: mi ght
<:l.
science
"D"=Di f of i cuI t,
te~:tbook,
"r "= I mpor-tant,
the code migt-!t be "C"=Cl(7?ar,
"8" =SL.:rp~- i si ng.
Student s <:I.rE
given the code before reading, monitor the responses as they
and record their responses on strips of paper they afFix
r2ad~
to thE margins of the pages they are
note specific lines, paragraphs, or
cocles.
readi~g.
~ages
with the descriptive
40
?ostreading
dis~ussion
using the students' responSES
_=
important to the development of their comprehension
be
clarifi~d
facil~t0t~
Stu~e·~~5
and teac:'
~2aning-getting
strategies that might
comprehension? such as cause and effect skills.
also enjoy expressing boredom with a
33
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students how a chapter is set up and how to use that
information in reading.
The information presented in this
initial lesson should be repeated throughout the year to
refresh the students' memories.
Many authors also suggest the constant teaching and
re-teaching of library skills as a teaching strategy.
skills are usually taught within the sequence of skills of a
b~sal
521"'ieSa
This is not a suggestion that those skills be
re-taught in the content areas.
This strategy sugests that the
teacher teach the students to use the various resources of the
1 i brary
~';.nd
then have them
l:,lg
them in reI ati onsh i p to
activities and assignments within content area in3truction.
One of the probl ems of basal seri e~, s1.:i 11 i nstr;,,\cti on is that
skills are taught out of context.
Children need to
learn~
for
example, how to find and read a world map and then use that map
to understand a particular concept or problem.
Also, library instruction should not be left to the
The teacher's
prese~ce
and participation
i~
thE
library lesson will relay to the students the notion that
using~
ser i
and learning to use, the library must be taken
DL~sl
y:l
The more practice children get in using thE
references of the library for a purpo3e, the more
conf~dent
they will be in their ability to SOlVE a problem using outside
FinallY1
recc.~m2nds
the
al~ost
avery source r2ferenced in this thesis
stra~egy
=~
SQ3R as a skill
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help theme
As this section on strategies should make
clear~
there are strategies available for every subject area and
situation.
There is no excuse for not giving students the
assistancE they need with content area textbooks.
"-' !
In the total reading program is never
compl~tely
gone.
Content reading is also present throughout the school
cycle.
Students begin reading materials in math, science,
social studies, and literature in the earliest grades.
much emphasis is
pl~ced
.
.
!'
there as it is later on in Jun10r
,'lg"h
and high school, but the base is there.
This base is built
upon in junior and senior high school by applying development01
reading to the situations in which adults usa reading
information, to learn about people, and for pleasure.
The need for an effective remedial component is present
throughout th2 school reading program.
This represents a
philosophical position that the school, and indirectly
society supporting the school, owes its yaung people
~hc
~
continuing opportunity to master this most basic of skills,
reading.
As a profession, teachers have accepted the
proposition that literacy is important, in
to toJay's society.
sup~ort
fact~
fundamental~
Therefore, the schools need to provide
for those students who do nat maintain the increasing
reading levels of their peers and are classified as needing
!~emedial
help.
Where does the elementary teacher fit in7
~omponents,
of course.
The major component is the
developmental process because in the elementary
,,-
Into all thre2
clas~room
~hildren
&re just
ski 11 ::;::
Remediation is very important in the Farly stages of
begi~ning
to learn and apply their reading
reading d2vclopment so that a child ffiight catch up
~o
'-'
..
a~d
continue
Co~clusinn
Reading in the content areas is but one part of an entire
program of reading and learning for the elementary child.
How
do the content ar'ea reading strategies fit into the total
reading program?
components:
A complete school
program has three major
the developmental reading program; the content
reading program, and the remedial reading program.
th~ee
Those
components should be present at all levels of schooling, from K
through 12, but their relative emphasis will differ as grade
levels increase.43
Developmental reading is a continuing need from
~indergarten
through senior high school.
Developmental reading
is the primary source of reading instruction.
This involves
teaching students how to read - the basic processes of reading
and their use in students' developing lifestyles.
Developmental reading in primary grades is easy to identify the process of beginning reading and the need for students to
be taught and to practice reading in order to become fluent
readers.
By intermediate grades, developmental
conce~ns
shift
to advancing students' word attack skills and their usc of
higher levels of comprehension.
This development continues
through the education process, concluding with higher-level
study skills for college-bound students.
The emphasis on
developing new reading skills gradually diminishes as
instructional 2nd independent leval readers move to higher
skill
levels.
How2~Er~
t~e
nQed for a developmental
cGmpone~t
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behaviors serve as indicators which let the teacher know
whether or not learning has taken
place~
and the d2gree and
direction of that learning.
Educators need to be aware of the wide variety of
resources available to them, both for their own professional
growth and for use with students.
One of the purposes
o~
this
thesis was to point out that teachers are not tied to a
textbook, that there are options
textbooks are difficult
they need assistance.
and
~rganization,
Gn~ance
rEadi~g
avail~ble.
Content
·.3:'""22\
for elementary students and
Teachers, with a little advance plannlng
can provide this assistance
confidence and understanding.
and~
as a result,
It is the responsibility
of every elementary teacher to do his/her best to help children
tD I earn to read and read to 1 earn i il ever"y area of the
It can be done, and if only for the sake of the
students, it must be done.
.11 1
r.t.
Endnotes
1
...
Auckerm2l.n.
How Do I Teach Readi ng? , Pg = 1
2
Hall~ Ribovich, and Ramig.
Elementary Child.Pg. 6.
Reading And The
Hall, Ribovich, and Ramig.
Pg. 6
4
AI_I. I Is.
DevelopilliLRe_S\ger~ IQ... Tgd.:1Y'?
Elementary School.
Pg. 32.
c...!
Aul1 s.
Pg.
36.
6
ALllls.
Fig.
73.
7
Auckerman.
8
Cooper, Warncke, Ramstad, and Shipman.
The.
~hat and How.of Fi:e2l.ding Instl~uction.
Pg. 23.
9
Cooper, Warncke, Ramstad, and Shipman.
10
11.
Pg.
60.
Forgran and Mangrum.
Reading Skills. Pgs.
Pg./~~
Tpaching Content Area
12-13.
May.
Reading As Communication: An Interactiye
Approach.
Pg. 284.
May.
Pg. 287.
13
Goodman.
Pg. 358.
"Basal Re2l.ders:
14
Goodman.
Pg. 362.
1.5
Moore, Re2l.dance, and Fi:i ckel man.
"i~n Hi stori c2i1
Exploration of Content Area Reading
Instruction."
Pg. 421.
16
Moore, Readance, 21.nd Rickelman.
Pg.
422=
... I
1"7
Moore,
Rcad~.nce'l
21.nd Rickelman.
Pg .
42L!=
18
Mocre,
Read~.nC2'l
21.nd Ri ckel ma.n.
F'g.
4~25tt
A Call For Action".
Cl.nd 1'100r2.
"An Invest i gat i on 04=
Current Attention to the Early Literature
on Content Area S:eadi ng Instructi on".
ReEld~.nce
Pg. 299.
Pg. 303.
20
Readance and Moore.
21
Patekin, Simpson, Alvermann and Dishn2r.
Teachers Resist Content Area Reading
Instruction." Pg. 435.
22
Smith and Kepner.
Classroom. Pg. 9.
Reading In The Mathematics
Smith and Kepner.
Pg.
11.
24
8mi th and Kepner.
Pg.
11.
25
Tierney, Readance, and Dishner.
Stratpgies ~[1d Practices.
Pgs.
"Why
Reading
172 -
186.
,-
26
Jarolimek.
Education.
27
Sloan.
The Child As Critc:
Teach~
Li terature in El ementary qJlQ.__Mi!1.d.lE
School~.
Pg. 20.
28
Holmes and Ammon.
"Teaching Content With Trade
Books - A Strategy".
Pg. 170.
Social Studies in Element.ar::.y
Pgs. 331-332.
29
30
ReiJ.da.nce, Bean, and Bal dwi n.
Cont.en'L_ ArJ,;!,,;<,
f;:eading: An Integrated _.6.ru;Jroach.
F'g. 109.
31
Cushenbery.
Improving Reading In The Content
Area~.
Pg. 45.
"":!,.,
Cl ary.
"Content Area Readi ng - A HassI e!
to Do?" Pg. 17.
33
Criscoe and Gee.
Con~ent Area Reading:
Individualized Approach.
Pg. 163.
34
Criscce and Gee.
7
•..:,.C
__'f
Readance, Bean, and
36
Cushenbery. Pgs. 58-59.
-;r..,.
-
Hennings.
"-''':'''
-
!
Pgs.
T~aching
An
164-165.
Baldwi~.
Pg.
rommuni~aticn
Skill:;_intIJ?J~Qntent
Wh~!t
{';reF-iS.
Pgs.
111 .
and Reading
192--193.
1
38
Criscoe and Gee.
Pg. 207.
39
Dauer and Smith.
"A Comprehension-monitoring
Str'3tegy for Readi ng Content Area Materi a.l s.
Pg. 144.
II
-.
40
Dauer and Smith.
Pg.
41
Grano and Ashby-Davis.
42
Tierney, Readance, and Dishner.
43
Criscce and Gee.
Pg. 308.
44
Criscoe and Gee.
Pg. 307.
145.
Pg. 236.
Pg.
,-
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How Do r
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n
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'-'"
r\