Building Parallel to the Nile.
by
Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali
B.A., major in Architecture
Wellesley College
Wellesley, Massachusetts
1982.
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Master of Architecture
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
February 1990.
C Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali
1990. All rights reserved.
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce
and to distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in
whole or in part.
Signature of the Author
_
Perihan S. Boutros-Ghali
Department of Architecture
January 19 1990
Certified by
Renee Y. Chow
Lecturer,
Department of Architecture
Thesis Supervisor
AN
Accepted by
William L. Porter
kiASSACHUSETS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
MR 0 2 1990
Chairman,
Departmental Committee
on Graduate Students
1
UBRARIEG
Rotch
Building Parallel to the Nile
Perihan Boutros-Ghali
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on January 19 1990,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master
of Architecture.
Abstract
This thesis will be an exploration of the issues of building
in the Egyptian landscape. Human inhabitation of the Egyptian
landscape has for many thousands of years been centred within
the zone of the Nile River valley. In the past, this ribbon of arable
land was able to support the food requirements of the population
and produce a surplus of agricultural products for export.
Today, Egypt's population of 54 million exists on 30,000
2
km. of habitable area concentrated in the Nile River valley out
of a total area of approximately one million sq. km. The
population is growing rapidly, and in fact, in areas of urban
growth, illegal building is occuring on scarce arable land. In the
1970's, in an effort to divert such growth, strategies for
newtowns situated in the interior of the desert were planned, and
several were executed.
However, I propose to put forward an attitude of growth
that would run North-South, to build on the desert edge, above
and parallel to the Nile valley where existing arable land meets
desert and to extend arable zones into the desert.
In the course of this project, I will examine
a) -as preface
-the Nile valley in context to the historic development
of an irrigation society: trace the domestication of the
Nile.
b) -as observation of the desert
- formal and spatial inhabitations in the regional
landscape and from other similar landscapes
c) - as projection of the possible-an agricultural research
centre which by its raison d'etre will maintain a
distinction of what landscape is built and what remains
free for new cultivation. The building will include work
spaces, labs, sleeping and living facilities for both
permanent and short term staff.
Thesis Supervisor:
Renee Y. Chow
Lecturer
Department of Architecture
Acknowledgements
To my thesis advisor, Renee Chow,
Thank-you for your astute criticisms and constant cheerful
encouragement. It was a pleasure working with you.
To Maurice Smith,
Merci beaucoup, monsieur le professeur.
To Reinhard Goethert,
Many thanks for helping me find my way in the Egyptian
construction industry!
I would also like to thank Brent Hinrichs
who provided invaluable support through his optimism,
encouragement and patience at a time when one's world becomes
so focused. Thank-you for all you give.
A ma mere et mon pere,
Table of Contents
Abstract..............................................................................
2
Acknowledgements.........................................................
4
Historical preface...............................................................
7
Building parallel to the Nile..........................................
17
Topography.....................................................................
23
Building organisation @ site size................
29
Building systems-primary support...........................
39
Building systems-closure..............................................
61
References.......................................................................
71
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Historical preface
Egypt's length from North to South is about 1,073 km.
with its width being slightly greater. The country is bordered on
the north by the Mediterranean, on the west by Libya, on the
south by the Sudan and on the east by the Gulf of Aqaba and the
Red Sea. Of the land's surface area, 96% consists of desert, with
the remaining habitable area stretching north-south, in a
narrow strip of land corresponding to the Nile valley. The
longitudinal section of the Nile is such that at the First Cataract
above Aswan, the Nile is 91m. above sea level and the river
continues to slope for another 1,200 km. till it reaches the
Mediterranean; the river drops one metre in every 13,200
metres.
Lake Plateau
Region
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km
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Egyptian Region
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Fig. 4
26
Km.
Along the southern 300 km. of the river's course in Egypt,
mt
the valley edges are of Nubian sandstone except for igneous rock
200 LItJ
south of
Mt.
seven kilometres south of Aswan. At Esna, 160 km. north of
200
1G 20
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at two locations: the Kalabsha Gorge and at the First Cataract,
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Flood Plain
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At Al Tuwd sir, East of DI shnd
Km
to the river delta at the Mediterranean.
Mt.
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however, by the time the river reaches Beni-Suef, the flood plain
0
.75km. The course of the Nile always leans to the right but is
Mt.
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development of a culture.
8
At Luxor
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8
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south of Qs
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5KM
the river and the desert ridges, and it is within this boundary
that one sees the crucial nature of this ecology and the
Flood Plain
r
200
Cairo. In another illustration of Egypt's geomorphology, distinct
indicate the bias of the Nile's flow. The flood plain exists between
Km.
16
south of Qina
Mt.
most visible in the cross-sections of the river plain from Assiut to
fault lines that correspond to the direction of the Nile might
12
8
4
7KM
extends 17,200 m. The average width of the flood plain is
approximately 10 km. while the width of the river course is
200
200
increases northwards because of its increased load of sediment.
At Aswan, the width of the flood plain does not exceed 2,800 m.,
400
400
Like all rivers spilling into the sea, the Nile's width
20
Km.
Before the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1902, and
(editerranean Sea
Dod Sea
the later development of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960's, the
Nile River valley was inundated once a year by floodwaters from
011
the upper reaches of the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The
Abu
Al Dkl l
approaching flood would announce itself; in July the water would
Al Khnrea
turn green due to the vegetable matter collected on the White
Fa"
Nile. Two weeks later, the water would turn red from mineral
-Nb.a
silts carried by the Blue Nile. The water level would keep rising
Fig. 6
until the beginning of September when arable land would be
innundated to about six feet in depth. By the end of October, the
river would subside to within its banks.
-
-Fig.
5
Sheeld
- -
Before the construction of the Aswan Dam of 1902,
alluvial deposits were plentiful; in the Old Kingdom, (3400 B.C.
approx.), the valley floor existed at 20 feet below the present
bed.
Synonymous to this ecology was a consistent and
sophisticated agricultural development of what was initially a
single crop yield per year to a multiple crop harvest. In order to
cultivate above the normal level of inundation, a supply canal
would be planned further up the river which would irrigate a
series of basins that had been constructed of earth banks placed
parallel to the river and crossed by dikes. This system of basin
Water heads for hydroelectric power generation, Old Aswan and
High Dams
175 m (variable)
Head = 67 m
High Dam
18m(xe)Head
.... ........
..
6km
.Old
sw a
aDam
=20 m
88 m
-
Fig.7
irrigation could irrigate small areas and, as effectively, areas as
large as 40,000 acres. The water would soak the fields and the
overflow would drain back into the Nile. By mid-October or the
beginning of November, the basins would be ready for
cultivation, and the growing season corresponded to the coolest
time of the year. This cyclical pattern of life and regeneration was
fundamental to Egyptian cosmology and was often depicted in
Fig. 8 A papyrus showing layout of basin
irrigation with its suppy and drainage
canals.
Pharaonic wall paintings; these were events of daily life over the
seasons. Man working the land, remained vital to the balance and
nature of this culture.
The conversion of Egypt's cultivable area to perennial
irrigation has happened over the last century, although summer
cultivation was practiced in small areas much earlier. There were
two kinds of fields that were suitable for perennial irrigation: the
elevated ridges of the river's banks and the canal banks of the
Delta, and fields accessible to subterranean water.
Fig. 9
Under perennial irrigation,with multiple crop harvests,
one could witness the start of crop production for surplus. This
was most visibly implemented by the middle of the
1 9 th
Ole
century.
Under Ottoman suzerainty, Mohammed Ali initiated large projects
that were to change Egypt completely to perennial irrigation by
the storage of the flood water. Mohammed Ali who was to
become the vizier of Egypt, envisioned building Egypt's
1.
agricultural capacity; this motivation had roots in the cultivation
9
"'98
of a summer crops for export: cotton.
Many major canals and barrages were built: the
Mohammed Ali Delta barrages, the Mahmudia Canal, the
Ibrahimia Canal and others. The capacity for seasonal water
retention was most fully realised, with British persistence, in the
construction of the first Aswan Dam of 1902 which would retain
the tail end of the flood. Until the 1950's, there was the
construction of several other barrages at Esna, Naga Hammadi
and Edfina. . The final massive construction that was intended to
contribute so greatly to the Egyptian economy was the building of
the Aswan High Dam in the 1960's.
Fig. 10
Canal and dam distribution prior to the
construction of the Aswan High Dam
One can recognise the steps that led to the complete
domestication of the Nile, and see how important agrarian land
has been to the development of this culture. Due to the geological
conditions , the cultivable land and the zone of inhabitation have
been the same. Not until this century, with a demographic
expansion, has this co-existence come into conflict. In the past
thirty years, urban settlement has augmented tremendously due
to rural migration to urban areas, and as a consequence, agrarian
land has been lost to building in and beyond the expanding
centres. Although illegal, there has been no way by which
construction could be stopped. The seriousness of such losses has
been compounded by the fact that due to the complete human
control of the River, the regeneration of arable land by alluvial
silts has diminished.
In the 1970's, in an effort to divert growth from the
existing urban centres, the government planned and executed
several newtowns situated in the interior of the desert, off the
road to Alexandria, others en route to Suez. These new
developments were not agrarian in objective, but were based on
expanded light industrial development.
The Egyptian population continues to grow and to
urbanise areas of arable land. In an attempt to address the
disparity between food production and food needs, there have
been some desert irrigation and land reclamation projects.
In my own project, I propose to build an agrarian
research centre on the desert edge, above the Nile valley, and to
extend arable land into the desert. This new built exchange at the
size of the landscape is not a negation or a complete replacement
of large tracts of desert ecology, but rather, an attempt to build
sympathetically and to propose an exchange between the desert
and arable land.
Fig. 11
Groundwater depths in Western Desert
Building parallel to the Nile
The project will primarily address formal responses to
the constraints of building in a climate of extremes, specifically
that of the desert. In desert settlement, the harsh elements are
that of high solar radiation, winds, dust and sandstorms, all of
which affect the choice of building materials, multiple building
organisations as well as the acquisition and handling of water.
Precipitation is minimal and the procurement of water in
the desert can either be found at an oasis depression, or if
settlements occur elsewhere, wells are dug at points where
groundwater is available.
The cloud cover is minimal in the summer and remains
insignificant in the winter. The absence of clouds means high
temperatures by day, but extreme cooling by night as heat
radiation is reversed.
Winds off the desert are dry, and can displace sand or
dust. Sandstorms in Egypt, the "Khamasins", generally occur in the
Spring and blow from the southwest. Otherwise, the breezes
prevail from the northwest, although from recent observation
also from the northeast.
The need for protection in inhabiting an arid or desert
climate alerts one to formal issues of inside and outside and, of
continuity and separation which have to be carefully considered
at different scale.
In conjunction, building in this landscape initiates the
examination of these principle issues: firstly, the relationship
between the existing desert edge to the building proposed, and
secondly, the transformation of the desert for arable purposes.
Programme for the research centre
This is a place where agricultural research will be
carried out. This research will take place both in the
field, on site and in the laboratories. The research will
be ongoing, however, the duration of any person's stay
might be variable from full- time staff to short term
visits. This will require kinds of spaces, both for living
and working, individual and collective in size, internal
and external.
List of uses
*
offices-individuals
* laboratories-collective
a) greenhouses (controlled observation)
* library-collective & individual
*
meeting places
a) conference rooms/ seminars
b) potential for film/slide display
*
storage facilities
a) lab supplies
b) food storage
*
"central" kitchen
* dining area
* collective living spaces-internal & external
* accomodation for permanent and temporary staff
*
parking
I have segmented this project into four sections:
Topography
- field organisation
- the edge
- water systems
Building organisation (a)
site size
- the site
- the desert
- Inhabitation of the edge
Building systems-primary support
- the frame and bearing- wall containment
- the access system within
- "islands"
Building system-closure and weatherscreen
- light
- continuity and separation
- light and dark
The emphasis of each section will explore different
issues, but the format will respectively
consist of, observational studies, references related to
the pertinent issues, the design studies, a model and
an explanatory text.
Fig. 12
22
Topography
Field organisation
When looking at a map of the Egyptian Nile valley, it is
obvious that the formal organisation of the country runs parallel
to the Nile. As one travels south from Cairo towards Aiyyat, the
closest town to the chosen site, one sees the bands of access
systems that are, in fact, constant for the entire length of the
country. At the western most edge of the valley, villages or towns
are situated and eastwardly paralleled by: the railway system,
the major irrigation supply canals, the major north-south road to
Aswan, more fields and lastly, the Nile. The dimensions of the
cross-section vary at different latitudes, but this description
remains constant.
Fig. 13
NEW VALLEY REHAI LITAT 10N PROJECT
=--YTkt~j
IFPiAIT5IOlI 0RAINAGE LAYOUT FCR A WELL AREA
10 F1E:-:0S1 10 5 10 10 FEDDAIJS- 50 -100 FEDOA%S
td.
fiewCl
.I~1
I I I
)
(~)
to1
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Fig.
LI
'N
The transformation of the desert into
agricultural land is large scale. The
module that would receive water
distribution has been laid out from the
edge and extends into the desert upto the
75m contour. Water drainage follows the
natural slope of the land, towards the
valley and north. The layout towards
Fayoum drains in the opposite direction
due to the depression in the land.
24
14f
WITH
The Edge
NEW VALLEY
EGYPT-
OCATiON
REHABILITATION
MAP
At the valley's edges, the green meets the desert in
reciprocal formation only at the wadis, the desert watercourses,
which extend laterally back into the desert. For the most part,
the marking of the presence or not of water is quite blatant. The
earth is either lush and vibrantly green or parched and dusty.
-
The project will aim at making this linear boundary less harsh
and dividing.
Water Systems
To extend agriculture into the desert is quite feasible, if
appropriated as a national policy. This idea originated in a plan
called the New Valley Plan which proposed to create a new
agricultural zone by connecting all the oases in the Western
Desert by the extraction of groundwater available from the
Nubian Acquifer. Extensive research was undertaken by the
United Nations Development Programme to assess the extent of
such resources.
--
- -t- - --A -S
Fig
15
~
- c
6
-
-
PROJECT
The decision to transform the desert at this site location
would be as a lateral extension to Fayoum, an oasis depression,
and thus, be later joined to the larger network. The module used
for desert transformation and well distribution, is taken from
proposed projects by the UNDP. Wells would be organised in a
north-south orientation with the lateral displacement of water
accomodated by secondary supply canals running perpendicular
to the valley edge. The behaviour of this infrastructure water
supply will be adopted at the building site size to maintain the
formal organisation of the larger field. The presence of water
throughout the site will make the microclimate of the buildings
less arid through evaporative cooling. In addition, this water
supply will support the greenhouses on site.
26
- --
a^---
-
EEk-
--
0-
Fig. 16
Beni Hassan
Visible is the darker, linear zone of the
agriculture adjacent to the desert.
27
Building organisation at site size
The site
Coming from the north-south road at the valley bottom
and moving laterally inland across the canals and railway line,
one comes to a village. The tarmac ends short of the entrance of
the village, and a dirt track continues through the village rising
gently into the desert. As one progresses west, the access crosses
the village's burial ground which, at that point, marks the
perimeter of the desert.
As one continues to rise and following the track in a
southerly direction, it distances itself from the edge. The view
back into the valley is at times obscured by small mounds but at
other intervals, through an opening, the elevation can be
perceived by the flatness and extent of the valley below.
29
30
-
--
-
--
-
'Eli-I---'
-Iui----j
'I."'
-
The site is located at one of those openings and one's
sense of arrival is acknowledged by the height and view; the
terrain is at an elevation of 11 metres from the valley. One's
sense of place is also generated by the site's configuration: the
valley edge has been transformed by the chance rains. The
remnants of a wadi, a desert water course, has deposited and
shaped the landforms to create a partial containment on the
ground below the desert edge. This naturally claimed territory
exists in contrast to the predominantly relentless valley edge. It
seemed reasonable to extend upon this sheltering form as a site
for a new inhabitation of the desert edge above.
me
F
p
V;
Fig. 18
A garden crater near Timbuktu, Mali
Fig. 17
Palm gardens in the "Souf", a group of
oases in the Sahara, Algeria
4
Fig. 19
A small fort, Ninghsia
The desert
The expanse of the desert can be relentless; it is
important to note that in the Western Desert, the horizontal
reference dominates the vertical.
There have been various formal responses to settlement
in the desert, and can be categorised as such: the oasis settlement,
the fortress settlement and the edge settlement. Although the
Fig. 20
nomadic settlement is important as a type of inhabitation
characteristic of the desert, the formal response is that of
temporality and will therefore not be considered.
The first mentioned, uses the natural depression of an
oasis as territorial enclosure in the larger expanse of the desert.
The fortress settlement, claims territory on an elevation or builds
a similiar formal behaviour by being impenetrable and
introverted in orientation. Both typologies behave as islands. An
edge settlement as the oasis inhabitation, uses the natural
topography as protection, however, is organised in linear rather
than central formation.
Sian city wall, Ming and Ch'ing dynasties
Historically, these formal responses have been consistent
to a need for shelter from harsh environmental conditions. The
western industrial influence, in the recent past, has compensated
for these harsh conditions only through technical means, or at the
site size has initiated graphically derived urban contexts rather
than climate specific urban constructions.
~.
--
_
Fig. 21
Petra, Jordan
Fig. 22
Temple of Queen Hatshepsut,
Deir-el-Bahari, Egypt
Inhabitation of the edge
Movement through the site maintains continuity with the
major access systems, i.e. parallel to the contours. The placement
of the terraces in the direction of the movement rather than
against it, reinforces this continuity.
By the lateral displacement of the terraces on either side
of the edge, and the parallel passings of the individual platforms
levels, the edge is transformed from a line into a zone of
exchange, creating territories that are mutually defining and not
solely adjacent. This formal behaviour differs from the mentioned
edge settlement typology, in that the edge settlement generally
reinforces the edge by being firmly registered from it.
Fig. 24
A 4 storey school in Lichuan County,
Shaanxi Province.
Fig. 23
On the shore of Lake Maharlu, near
Shiraz, Iran
Figures 23-25 illustrate the formal
behaviour of an edge settlement in that a
line controls the extension.
Fig. 25
aM-
Fig. 26
Oriental houses in Baghdad, Iraq.
<7
-
-
-10
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TJ,
Fig. 27 House in Oberrieden, Switzerland,
'
Frank Frayenbuehl, architect
Plan
The use of containments in this house
shows how the spaces are assembled: The
placement of one containment to another
creates a third space which is given its
other perimeter with closure. In my
project, the containments are assembled
in a similar way with the addition of the
frame system occupying the spaces
defined by the containments.
Building systems-primary supports
The frame and the bearing-wall containment
The decision to use these two systems was based on
climatic considerations. The bearing-wall system used in
conjunction with the frame, each structurally autonomous,
provides the same typology as the porticoed courtyard. The
containment by the nature of its thick walls provides thermal
protection and the frame provides another 'wall' of screening to
the internal spaces.
The frame permits one to build an access dimension and
a large-span zone for the most collective uses, and the
Fig. 29
A haveli in Jaisalmer, India
containment provides for more enclosed, therefore, more private
spaces.
Fig. 28
Jaipur, India
A high density of building seems
appropriate to building in this climate:
The built environment is predominantly
dark, where light is selectively permitted
to enter. In a more moderate climate, the
process might well be the reverse of this
situation; habitable space is defined by
light rather than dark.
Third level access
Second level access
Ground level access
ACCESS ////////
The access system within
The two systems are organised to support the direction of
the access which is established as perpendicular to the contours
in order to provide resistance to the direction of the larger site
organisation, and 'anchor' the building to the edge.
"Islands"
Islands are built in two different ways. The deployment
of the containments are "islands" in their formal placement
within the larger order. The largest collective areas: the labs, the
library and common dining area are islands through the
manipulation of the access which is discontinuous at the buiding
site organisation. Both library and labs are at the second level
and cannot be reached, one from another, unless one descends or
ascends to that level.
Movement through the village is
continuous and parallel to the contours of
the land. The additive building form is
also parallel to movement and contours.
However, localised movement into the
individual coutyards is lateral to the
major organisation.
Fig. 30
Roosiall
loc
mw
6-i'
I'
I
The three largest collective spaces, the dining area, the
laboratories and the library are located respectively on the lower,
middle and upper terraces. The lower terrace includes the
inhabitation of the permanent staff, while the more temporary
inhabitants have accomodation in on the upper storeys of all the
other containments distributed on the middle and upper terraces.
The other programmatic requirements of, offices, conference
rooms and meeting places etc. are also distributed on the middle
42
and upper terraces.
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East
Valley elevation
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West
Desert elevation
Fig. 31
Caravan in Kerman Province, Iran
59
x
14 i
Fig. 33
Fig. 32
Jaipur, India
60
Building systems- closure
Light
The quality of light in such a climate as Egypt is harsh
throughout all seasons and is particularly direct and colourless in
fg
Fig. 34
the summer. In the context of the desert, the glare is greater and
all the more intolerable. Formal responses in such climatic
conditions have been primarily to minimise and to diffuse the
light, thus rendering spaces habitable.
Continuity and separation
As such, the separation between inside and outside is
rigourously maintained, and is exemplified in the use of thick
masonry walls with small apertures. At the level of the building
organisation, the minimisation of light penetration can be
achieved by sections that permit the height of the building to cast
sufficient shade other than when the sun is overhead. The
courtyard typology maximises the degree of shade possible.
However, the response to the exclusion of light might not
only be volumetric in terms of the building sections. In the case
of medieval Islamic architecture, a zone of separation is built
through multi-planar layers of screening systems at the edge of
the building: the loggia, the balcony and the musharabeyah all
contribute to an assemblage that screens the light from the
inside, but allows full control of the ventilation. It can be seen
that in this climate, the light is minimised by being condensed or
screened. The former being vertical in its distribution and the
latter being more evenly distributed on a horizontal plane. In this
project, I employ both manipulations, where the light is
Fig 37
19th century urban dwelling in Zanzibar
Fig. 36
Fig. 38
Fig. 40
Jaipur, India
Fig. 39
Entrance gate, Nuremberg, Germany 1929
Sachs Apts., Los Angeles
R.M. Schindler, architect
condensed at the containments and diffused through screening at
the large- spanned areas of the labs, library and communal
dining area.
Light and dark
As one moves from the predominantly darker areas of
the large collective spaces, to the condensed light at the
containments, there is a sense of sequence in one's movement
through the building and the site by the alternation of light and
dark. This happens to be more delineated in a climate such as
Egypt, but the principle stands valid anywhere .
Fig. 41
Jaipur, India
/
/
/
A
/
/
Sachs Apts., Los Angeles
R.M. Schindler, architect
In the Sachs apts. designed by
R.M.Schindler, the closure sits both
within the dimension of the wall aswell as
projected out from the wall.
~-7
-
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Plan of projected screen
'V.--
PC
Sachs Apts., Los Angeles
R.M. Schindler, architect
70
References
Bornstein, Naomi., Rahaminoff, Arie. 1981. Edge Conditions Climatic Considerations in the Design of Buildings
and Settlements . Energy and Buildings, #4, 1981, pp.
43-49.
Brown, Jane., Cochrane, Timothy. (eds.). 1978. Landscape
Design for the Middle East . London. RIBA.
Bull, Deborah.,Lorimer, Donald. 1979. Up the Nile . New York.
Clarkson N. Potter Inc. Publishers.
Butzer, Karl W. 1976. Early Hydraulic Civilization in Egypt:
A Study in Cultural Ecology . Chicago. Unversity of
Chicago Press.
Golany, Gideon. (ed.). 1980. Housing in Arid Lands . London.
The Architectural Press.
Gotz, Lothar. 1982. Integration of Climate in Planning and
Building Illustrated in a Case of Extreme Climatic
Conditions . Energy and Buildings, #4, 1982, pp. 51-65.
Indigenous Settlements in Southwest Asia . Process
Architecture, #15 May 1980. Tokyo. PA Publishing Co. Inc.
Klee, Paul. 1969. The Thinking Eye . New York. Wittenborn.
Price, Willard. 1940. By Felucca down the Nile . The
National Geographic Magazine, v.LXXVII, n. 4, April 1940.
Rudofsky, Bernard. 1977. The Prodigious Builders'.
Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt. Cairo. The
American University in Cairo Press.
Sandstrom, Gosta. 1970. Man the Builder. Stockholm.
Interbook Publishing AB and McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Shearer, Walter (ed.). 1986. Natural Energy and Vernacular
Architecture. Hassan Fathy Chicago. University of
Chicago Press.
Stamp, L. Dudley (ed.). 1961. A History of Land Use in Arid
Regions . Paris. UNESCO.
Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile Valley.
Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.
Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture . New
York. Braziller Inc.
Illustrations
1
Times Books 1980. The Times Atlas of the World.
Comprehensive Edition
2
Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile
Vallev . Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.
3
Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt
Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.
4
Ibid.
5
Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile
Vailev. Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.
6
7
Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egvt
Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.
Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile
Vallev . Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.
8
Sandstrom, Gosta. 1970. Man the Builder. Stockholm.
Interbook Publishing AB and McGraw-Hill Book Company.
9
Ibid.
10 Waterbury, John. 1979. Hydropolitics of the Nile
Vallev . Syracuse. Syracuse University Press.
11 Safi al-Din, Muhammad. 1971. Landforms of Egypt
Cairo. The American University in Cairo Press.
12 1: 25,000 contour map (reduced) of town of Aiyyat and
vicinity.
13 1:100,000 contour map of Helwan, portion.
14 FAO 1977 Groundwater Pilot Scheme, New Valley, Egypt
Agricultural Development Prospects in New
Valley AG: DP/EGY/71/561 Tech. Report 4
15 Ibid.
16 c National Geographic, April 1940
17 Gerster, Georg 1986. Below from Above Abbeville Press
18 Ibid.
19
Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture New
York. Braziller Inc.
20 Ibid.
21 Norberg-Shulz, Christian 1980. Genius Loci Towards a
Phenomenology of Architecture. Rizzoli
22 Ibid.
23 Gerster, Georg 1986. Below from Above Abbeville Press
24 Wu, Nelson. 1967. Chinese and Indian Architecture New
York. Braziller Inc.
25 Mimar 3 1982
26 International Magazine of Arab Culture, 3- 1985
27 Architecture and Urbanism, September 1980
28 "Morphostructure of a Planned City, Jaipur, India"
Architecture and Urbanism, August 1978
29 Curtis, William, J. R. 1988. Balkrishna Doshi
An Architecture for India Rizzoli
30 Indigenous Settlements in Southwest Asia . Process
Architecture, #15 May 1980. Tokyo. PA Publishing Co. Inc.
31 Gerster, Georg 1986. Below from Above Abbeville Press
32
"Morphostructure of a Planned City, Jaipur, India"
Architecture and Urbanism, August 1978
33
c 1880 Sebah, P.
International Magazine of Arab Culture, 4-1985
34
Gotz, Lothar. 1982. Integration of Climate in Planning
and Building Illustrated in a Case of Extreme
Climatic Conditions . Energy and Buildings, #4, 1982, pp
51-65.
35
Oliver, Paul 1987. Dwellings Univ. of Texas Press
36 "Neo-Arabic Renaissance in Egypt, 1870- 1930"
Mimar 13 1984
37 Mimar 29 1988
38 Shearer, Walter (ed.). 1986. Natural Energy and
Vernacular Architecture . Hassan Fathv Chicago.
University of Chicago Press.
39 Sheeler, Charles, photographer
40 "Morphostructure of a Planned City, Jaipur, India"
Architecture and Urbanism, August 1978
41 Ibid.