The Academic Origins of 167 U.S. Women Geneticists
An Honors Thesis (ID 499)
by
Nancy A. Kennedy
Dr. Thomas R. Mertens
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
May, 1982
August, 1983
---_._-----_
..
;~Co\i
-Il\cst,:~
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
LITERATURE REVIEW
2
MATERIALS MiD METHODS
5
DATA AND DISCUSSION
6
Baccalaureate Origins
6
Doctoral Origins
14
Time Required for Graduate Work
18
Decades in Which Degrees \Here Earned
21
Geographic Origins
24
Ages of Geneticists
31
Areas of Research
31
Place of Employment
34
Age Married
36
Number of Children
38
SUMHARY AND CONCLUSIONS
40
LITZRATURE CITED
44
---------------------------,------
LIST OF TABLES
-PAGE
TABLE 1:
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE
DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AMERICA
TABLE
~~:
THE TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS GRANTING
BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
12
TABLE 3:
THE TEN LEADING INSTITUTIONS AWARDING
BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
COMPARED WITH THE TOP TEN INSTITUTIONS
AWARDING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO MALE
AND F~~ALE MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AMERICA IN A 1968 STUDY
13
TABLE 4:
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING DOCTORAL DEGREES
TO WOMEN HEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY
OF AMERICA
15
TABLE 5:
THE TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS GRANTING
DOCTORAL DEGREES TO WOMEN MJi1.1BERS
OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AHERICA
17
TABLE 6:
THE LEADING INSTITUTIONS AWARDING
DOCTORAL DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS OF
THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA (GSA)
COMPARED TO THE LEADING INSTITUTIONS
IN A 1968 STUDY OF MALE AND FEMALE
MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF
AMERICA ill~D THE TOP TEN INSTITUTIONS
BASED ON GRADUATE ENROLU1ENT IN
SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING, AS IDENTIFIED
IN AN NSF STUDY
19
TABLE 7:
AGES AT WHICH DOCTORATES WERE GRANTED
TO 166 WOMEN MEMBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AMERICA
20
TABLE 8:
TIHE SPAN BETWEEN COMPLETION OF
BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL DEGREES
BY WOMEN Mil1BERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY
OF AHERICA
22
----------------------------
8
~
TABLE 9:
DECADES IN WHICH DEGREES WERE EARNED
BY WOMEN MEHBERS OF THE GENETICS
SOCIETY OF ANERICA
23
TABLE
10:
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE
UNITED STATES: COMPARISON BETi.'mEN
NUMBER OF WOK;~N MiliBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AK~RICA BORN AND ENPJJOYED
IN EACH REGION
25
TABLE
11:
COMPARISON BETWEEN PERCENT OF FEMALE
HEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF
M1ERICA (GSA) OF 1981 AND PERCENT
OF HEf.1BERS OF GENETICS SOCI1!..--rY OF
AHERICA OF 1968 BORN IN EACH REGION
29
TABLE 1,2:
COMPARISON BETWEEN PERCENT OF FEMALE
MEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCL~TY OF AHERICA
(GSA) OF 1981 AND PERCENT OF SCIENTISTS
AND ENGINEERS OF A 1974 NSF STUDY EMPLOYED IN EACH REGION
30
TABLE 15:
DISTRIBUTION BY DECADES OF PRESENT
AGES OF WOMEN MEHBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF ANERICA
32
TABLE 1 'f:
AREAS OF RESEARCH OF WONEN MEHBERS
OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AHERICA
33
TABLE
PRESENT PLACE OF EHPLOYMENT OF WOMEN
MEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF M1ERICA
35
TABLE 16:
AGES AT WHICH WOMEN MEMBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF ANERICA WERE MARRIED
37
TABLE 1?:
NUMBER OF CHILDREN BJRN TO MARRIED OR
ONCE MARRIED l'fOMEN MEMBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AHERICA
39
1 ~5:
INTRODUCTION
This study of the female members of the Genetics
Society of America (GSA) was conducted to reveal the female
geneticists' academic and geographical backgrounds, which
institutions graduate the greatest number of female geneticists, and the types of institutions in which female geneticists find employment.
Following the procedure used by Howard and Mertens
in their 1968 study, "Academic Origins of Members of the
Genetics Society of America" (1), only the female members of
the GSA who are listed in the fourteenth edition (1979)
of American Men and Women of Science (2) were included in
this study.
The reasons for including only those listed in
American Men and Women of Science were twofold:
1) Using
this procedure may be expected to result in the inclusion
of active researchers and contributors to the discipline
of genetics; and 2) this method eliminated the need for
sending questionnaires to the individuals who are the subjects of this investigation, since all pertinent data were
directly obtained from American
~ ~
Women £i
~S~c~i~e~n~c~e.
2
LITERATURE REVIEW
In recent years, there has been a growing interest
in the participation of women in the labor force.
Numerous
studies have been conducted on this subject, examining the
backgrounds of women scientists and the regions of the United
states in which they find employment.
Howard and Mertens'
1968 study (1), included information regarding both male
and female members of the GSA, and comparisons of the two
groups.
The geneticists' academic and geographical back-
grounds, institutions granting the greatest numbers of degrees
to geneticists, and types of institutions in which geneticists found employment were studied.
This 1968 study is the
basis for the present investigation and will be referred to
frequently.
In 1975, the National Science Foundation (3) ranked
the 100 leading doctorate granting institutions based on the
total graduate enrollment.
In science and engineering, the
leading doctorate granting institution was the University of
California (3).
A comparison of a particular group of scien-
tists, such as female geneticists, to the NSF study of all
scientists might be expected to show some similar results.
For example, one might predict that some of the top ten
doctorate-granting institutions would be the same in both
studies.
3
Another nation-wide study done by the National Science
Foundation in 1974 listed the number of employed scientists
and engineers by state and region.
The study concluded that
the Middle Atlantic region employed the most scientists and
engineers (4).
It should be interesting to see if a similar
sample of scientists (female geneticists) were employed in the
same regions at similar percentages as in the NSF study.
The last NSF survey reviewed noted that the median
age of the women biological scientists surveyed was 35 years
in 1974.
It will be interesting to determine the median age
of the 167 women geneticists in the present study.
Vetter's 1979 study, "Working Women Scientists and
Engineers" (6), noted that among the 600 women graduates in
chemistry and engineering who were surveyed, only 36 percent
had children.
She went on to say that there were few programs
geared to women reentering science and technology who wish
to take career breaks during their children's early years.
Vetter notes that this is one career barrier that women
scientists and engineers have encountered.
A 1981 article by Vetter (7) concluded that women are
moving rapidly to obtain the education required for professional careers in science or engineering.
The federal govern-
ment is a major employer of scientists and engineers.
It
might be interesting to see if the federal government also
employs a significant number of a smaller sample of scientists
such as female geneticists.
An article that appeared in Bioscience (8) during
1980 revealed that life sciences lag behind other disciplines
4
in the equitable hiring and promotion of women Ph.D.'s in
industry.
In industry, women whose education and work exper-
ience is identical to that of men earn less and have less
expectation of advancement.
The author concluded that more
studies need to be conducted to understand why so few women
seem to be attracted to industry.
Two reasons were suggested:
(1) Women scientists may be less attracted to year-round
employment due to family responsibilities; and (2) the work
location or individual mobility may playa larger role in
industry than in academic employment.
It will be interesting
to see if the female geneticists of the present study are less
attracted to industry than other areas of employment.
If so,
one of the two reasons suggested above may serve as an explanation.
5
MATERIALS AND METHODS
From the 1981 membership list of the Genetics Society
of America (GSA), which included a total of 2905 members, all
possible female names, which totaled 909, were researched
£! Science (2).
For the 167 female names found in American ~ ~ Women £!
in the 1979 edition of American
~ ~
Women
Science, the following information was obtained and recorded
on 5" by 7" cards:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
name
current address
date and place of birth
age
marital status
number of children
field of specialization
degrees earned
institutions where degrees were earned
years in which degrees were earned
age when degrees were earned
post-doctoral experience
current institution of employment
organism used in research
The female geneticists' ages were determined from their birth
dates.
The ages were calculated as of February, 1982.
The 1976-1977 edition of Education Directory (9) was
used to determine whether the institutions which granted
the degrees were state, independent non-profit, or denominational.
From these raw data, tables were tallied and analyzed
to obtain generalizations about the 167 female geneticists.
6
DATA AND DISCUSSION
Baccalaureate Origins
The baccalaureate origins of the 167 women geneticists
were more varied than the doctoral origins (Table 1).
Almost
twice as many baccalaureate institutions were listed as were
doctoral institutions.
One hundred twelve different under-
graduate institutions awarded 161 baccalaureates earned by
the geneticists.
One geneticist earned two baccalaureate
degrees and seven geneticists listed no baccalaureate degree
earned.
Thus, the total number of baccalaureate degrees
earned was 161.
Eighty-six institutions awarded only one
baccalaureate, while 16 institutions each awarded two such
degrees.
The remaining ten institutions granted the balance
of 43 baccalaureate degrees.
Table 2 reveals that both independent non-profit
(private) institutions and state institutions were productive
of women geneticists at the baccalaureate level.
Independent
non-profit institutions granted more baccalaureate degrees
to women geneticists than did the state institutions, 37.9
percent compared to 34.2 percent.
Together they granted
116 baccalaureates, 72.1 percent of the total, while denominational and local institutions awarded 23.6 percent of the
total, or 38 baccalaureates.
Seven degrees granted were by
foreign universities not listed in the Education Directory (9).
7
Of the top ten baccalaureate granting institutions,
there was a three-way tie for first place.
The University
of California, Cornell University, and Hunter College each
granted seven baccalaureate degrees.
The second position
was occupied by Wellesley College which granted four baccalaureate degrees.
Harvard University, Mount Holyoke College,
Smith College, Swarthmore College, the University of Texas,
and Wilson College each granted three baccalaureate degrees.
Comparing the data in the current study with the top
ten baccalaureate institutions in the 1968 study of male
and female members of the Genetics Society of America (1)
reveals that there are four institutions that appear in both
studies.
As seen in Table 3, the first two institutions in
both studies were Cornell University and the University of
California.
Harvard University and the University of Texas
were also represented among the top ten in both studies.
Three of the colleges listed in Table 3 are women's colleges.
They are Wellesley College, Mount Holyoke College and Smith
College.
In the present study, eight of the top ten insti-
tutions granting baccalaureate degrees were independent nonprofit (private) and two were state-supported.
study, the trend was in the opposite direction.
In the 1968
Seven of the
top ten institutions were state and three were private.
The
difference is probably due to the inclusion of males in the
1968 study.
In that study, it was shown that a higher per-
centage of females than males attended private institutions:
40.0 percent compared to 22.6 percent (1).
8
TABLE 1
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
California, University of
Cornell University
Hunter College
Wellesley College
Harvard University
Mount Holyoke College
Smith College
Swarthmore College
Texas, University of
Wilson College
Barnard College
Brooklyn College
Chicago, University of
Colorado, University of
Columbia University
Goucher College
Illinois, University of
Iowa State University
Maine, University of
Miami University
Michigan, University of
Pomona College
Queens College in New York
Saint Cloud State College
Seton Hill College
Vassar College
Alabama, University of
Albion College
Arizona State University
Augustana College
Bates College
Blackburn College
Number of
Degrees
7
7
7
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
9
TABLE 1 (cont.)
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
Boston University
Brandeis University
Bryn-Mawr College
California State College
Capitol University
Carleton College
Central State University
Clark University
Colby College
Colorado State University
Connecticut College
Detroit, University of
Duke University
East Central University
Emmanuel College
Georgia, University of
Grinnell College
*Hiroshima University
Hood College
Huntington College
Incarnate Word College
Indiana University
Iowa, University of
Kalamazoo College
Lindenwood College
Louisiana State University
Mansfield State College
Marquette University
Marygrove College
Maryland, University of
Maryville College
Number of
Degrees
1
1
1
1
10
TABLE 1 (cont.)
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Massachusetts, University of
Mercyhurst College
Michigan State University
Middlebury College
Missouri, University of
Mount Saint Joseph, College of
Mount Union College
Muhlenberg College
New York University
North Carolina State University
Northeast Louisiana University
Notre Dame College
*Nottingham University
Oberlin College
Ohio Northern University
Ohio State University
Ohio University
*Ontario Agricultural College
Oregon State University
*Oxford University
Pennslyvania state University
Philadelphia College of Pharmacy
Quincy College
Rhode Island, University of
Richmond, University of
Rochester, University of
Russell Sage College
Saint Benedict, College of
San Francisco State College
Shorter College
Number of
Degrees
1
1
11
TABLE 1 (cont.)
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS
OF GENZTICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
Simmons College
Southern Illinois University
Southwestern at Memphis
Southwestern Texas State College
Southwestern University in Texas
Stanford University
*Toronto, University of
Upsala College
Utah, University of
Vermont, University of
Washington, University of
Western Kentucky State University
Western Maryland College
*Western Ontario, University of
~Thea ton College
William and Mary, College of
Wisconsin, University of
*Zurich, University of
*indicates foreign universities
Number of
Degrees
1
1
1
1
1
12
TABLE 2
THE TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS GRANTING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES TO
WOMEN MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Type of Institution
Independent Non-profit
State
Denominational
Local
Not Given
Total
Number of
Degrees Granted
61
55
27
11
--1.
161
Percentage
37.9%
34.2
16.8
6.8
4.3
100.0%
13
TABLE 3
THE TEN LEADING INSTITUTIONS AWARDING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES
TO WOMEN MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA COMPARED
WITH THE TOP TEN INSTITUTIONS AWARDING BACCALAUREATE DEGREES
TO MALE M~D FEMALE MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
IN A 1968 STUDY
Female Members of the
Genetics Society of
America (1981)
Male and Female Members
of the Genetics Society
of America (1968)
California, University of
Cornell University
Hunter College
Wellesley College
Harvard University
Mount Holyoke College
Smith College
Swarthmore College
Texas, University of
Wilson College
Cornell University
California, University of
Illinois, University of
Iowa State University
Minnesota, University of
Nebraska, University of
Wisconsin, University of
Harvard University
Texas, University of
Chicago, University of
14
Doctoral Origins
In the present study, 166 of the 167 women geneticists
had completed doctoral degrees.
The number of institutions
granting doctorates to the 166 female geneticists was considerably smaller than the number of institutions awarding
the baccalaureates, 64 doctorate-granting institutions compared to 112 baccalaureate-granting institutions.
The 64
institutions which awarded the doctorates are listed in
Table 4.
The top thirteen institutions together granted
92 or 55.4 percent of the doctorates.
Independent non-profit institutions awarded 46.4 percent of the female geneticists' doctoral degrees.
Table 5
reveals that the independent non-profit and state institutions
together granted 150 doctorates or 90.4 percent of the total,
while denominational institutions awarded three doctorates,
which constituted 1.8 percent of the total.
Thirteen doc-
torates were granted by foreign institutions not listed in
the Education Directory (9).
Tied for the number one position for awarding doctoral
degrees were Columbia University and Yale University.
awarded 12 doctorates.
Second in rank was Cornell University
which granted 11 doctorates.
third position.
Each
There was a five-way tie for the
The University of Chicago, Indiana University,
Stanford University, the University of Texas, and the University of Wisconsin each awarded seven doctorates.
Fourth
in line was the University of California granting six doctorates.
There was a four-way tie for the fifth position.
Ohio State University, the University of Pennsylvania, the
University of Rochester, and the University of Washington
15
TABLE 4
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING DOCTORAL DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS OF
GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
Columbia University
Yale University
Cornell University
Chicago, University of
Indiana University
Stanford University
Texas, University of
Wisconsin, University of
California, University of
Ohio State University
Pennsylvania, University of
Rochester, University of
Washington, University of
Brown University
Illinois, University of
Iowa, University of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Michigan, University of
Virginia, University of
Arizona State University
Fordham University
Iowa state University
Johns Hopkins University
New York University
Northwestern University
Pittsburgh, University of
Rockefeller Institute
Rutgers University
State University of New York
Tennessee, University of
*Buenos Aires, University of
California Institute of Technology
Case Western Reserve University
Number of
Degrees
12
12
11
7
7
7
7
7
6
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
16
TABLE
4 (cont.)
INSTITUTIONS GRANTING DOCTORAL DEGREES TO WOMEN MEMBERS OF
GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Name of Institution
Number of
Degrees
*Cologne, University of
Colorado State University
Connecticut, University of
*Edinburgh, University of
Emory University
Florida State University
*Freiburg, University of
Georgetown University
*Hiroshima University
Illinois State University
*Kyoto University
*Leningrad, University of
*London, University of
Massachusetts, University of
McGill University
Michigan State University
Milan, University of
Minnesota, University of
New Hampshire, University of
Notre Dame University
Oklahoma state University
Pennsylvania State University
Radcliffe College
Syracuse University and State University
*Tubingen, University of
Toledo, University of
*Toronto, University of
Utah, University of
Washington state University
Wayne State University
*Zurich, University of
*indicates foreign universities
1
1
1
1
1
17
TABLE 5
THE TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS GRANTING DOCTORAL DEGREES TO WOMEN
MD1BERS OF THE GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Type of Institution
Independent Non-profit
State
Denominational
Not Given
Total
Number of
Degrees Granted
77
73
3
.J.2
166
Percentage
46.4%
44.0
1.8
7.8
100.0%
18
each awarded four doctorates.
The majority, seven, of these
13 universities are state institutions.
independent non-profit institutions.
The other six are
This is just the oppo-
site of what was found when reviewing the top ten baccalaureate
granting institutions in this study.
Eight of the top ten
institutions granting baccalaureate degrees were independent
non-profit (private) and two were state-supported.
Only
three institutions appear in both the top ten baccalaureate
granting institutions and the top doctoral granting institutions.
They are the University of California, Cornell
University, and the University of Texas.
Comparing the most
productive doctoral institutions in this study with the top
doctoral institutions in the 1968 study (1) and the National
Science Foundation study (3) reveals that two institutions
are cited in all three studies (Table 6).
They are the
University of California and the University of Wisconsin.
Time Required for Graduate Work
As illustrated in Table 7, 108 of the women geneticists, 65.1 percent of the total, were between 25 and 29
years of age when the doctorate was granted.
Since the
usual age for completion of a baccalaureate degree is 21 or
22 years, the usual length of time for completion of a doctorate degree must have been between four and seven years
to make the age at completion of a doctorate between 25 and
29 years.
This is shown to be the case.
A small percentage,
only 3.6 percent, received their doctoral degree after age
39.
In comparison, the 1968 study of the male and female
TABLE 6
THE LEADING INSTITUTIONS AWARDING DOCTORAL DEGREES TO VlOMEN MEMBERS OF THE GENETICS
SOCIETY OF ABERICA (GSA) COMPARED TO THE LEADING INSTITUTIONS IN A 1968 STUDY OF
HAL~ AND FEI:IALE H~1l3EH.s OF 'l'HE GENE'l'ICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA AND '.rHE 'l'OP 'l'EN INS'TITUTIONS BASED ON GRADUATE ENROLLMENT IN SCIENCES AND ENGINEERING, AS IDENTIFIED IN
AN NSF STUDY
Female Members of the
GSA (1981)
Hale and Female Hembers
of the GSA (1968)
Columbia University
California, University
Yale University
Cornell University
Chicago, University
Indiana University
Columbia University
Wisconsin, University
Harvard University
Texas, University
Stanford University
Texas, University
Wisconsin, University
California, University
Iowa State University
Cornell University
Yale University
Minnesota, University
Ohio State University
Pennsylvania, University
Rochester, University
Washington, University
Chicago, University
NSF Top Ten Institutions
Based on Graduate Enrollment in Science and
Engineering
California, University
(Berkeley)
Wisconsin, University
Minnesota, University
Illinois, University
Southern California,
University
Rutger University
Ohio State University
Hichigan, University
California, University
(Los Angeles)
New York University
\.Q
20
TABLE 7
AGES AT WHICH DOCTORATES WERE GRANTED TO 166 WOMEN MEMBERS
OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Ages
20
25
30
35
40
45
-
Number Receiving Degree
24
29
34
39
44
49
Age Not Given
Total*
5
108
33
13
4
2
1
-166
*One geneticist did not earn a doctoral degree, thereby
producing a total of 166
21
members of the Genetics Society of America revealed a similar result.
Only 3.1 percent of the geneticists in that
study earned a doctoral degree after age 39 (1).
The data in Table 8 reveal that 107, or 64.0 percent,
of the female geneticists completed their doctoral degrees
four to seven years after their baccalaureates.
More doc-
torates were earned in the fifth year after the baccalaureate
than any other year.
Three completed the doctorate three
years after the baccalaureate while one did not complete the
doctorate until twenty-five years after the baccalaureate.
Seven of the female geneticists only earned one degree and
therefore could not be included in the data.
The average
time span between completion of the baccalaureate and doctorate vms 7.6 years.
Howard and Mertens, in their 1968
study, revealed slightly different results as they recorded
the average time span between completion of the two degrees
to be just under nine years (1).
Of the 167 geneticists in the study, 161 earned Ph.D.
degrees, one earned an M.D. and another earned an Sc.D.
Two
geneticists earned degrees that were similar to a Ph.D.,
but from foreign universities.
Only one geneticist in the
study did not earn a doctorate.
Decades in Which Degrees Were Earned
In their 1968 study, Howard and Mertens reported that
each decade since the turn of the century has seen an increase
in the number of doctorates earned in genetics (1).
The
data in Table 9 show similar results excluding the decade
22
TABLE 8
TIME SPAN BETVlEEN©I1PLETION OF BACCALAUREATE AND DOCTORAL
DEGR2ES BY wot-mN HEHBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AHERICA
Ho. Years
Behveen
Degrees
Number
Completing
1
2
0
0
3
4
5
6
3
21
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
36
20
30
9
7
8
2
5
3
No. Years
Betv!een
Degrees
Number
Completing
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
4
3
3
1
0
2
0
1
0
0
Total
160
23
TABLE 9
DECADES IN \,1 HI CH DEGREES WERE EARNED BY \'lOHEN MEMBERS OF THE
GilJETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Decades
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
-
1909
1919
1929
1939
1949
1959
1969
1979
Total
Number of
Baccalaureates
Number of
Doctorates
0
6
15
36
32
66
0
0
3
8
16
38
53
---2
...l±§.
161
166
24
of 1970-1979.
The 1970-79 decade may be expected to show
an increase in the future as more young geneticists, having
earned their doctorates in that period, become members of the
Genetics Society of America.
Geographic Origins
To reveal which areas of the United States were the
most productive of female geneticists, the 167 individuals
being studied were divided according to the nine regions
of the United States in which they were born (Table 10).
These nine regions were also used in the 1968 study by Howard
and Mertens (1).
The total number of female geneticists
employed is slightly more than the total number produced
because four individuals were employed in more than place.
Tvro of the geneticists 'Nere listed as retired.
Division by regions revealed the Middle Atlantic
states and East North Central states to have been the most
productive of geneticists.
Together the two regions produced
47.9 percent of the female geneticists.
New York, which is
a Middle Atlantic state, produced the greatest number of
female geneticists--38 or 22.8 percent of the total.
The
Mountain states produced the smallest number of the geneticists:
only three or 1.8 percent of the total.
Foreign countries have been important producers of
U.S. women geneticists, having produced 23 or 13.8 percent
of the total.
However, the 1968 study (1) revealed that
only 5.4 percent of the GSA members were born in foreign
countries (Table 11).
25
TABLE 10
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: COHPARISON BETYJ~EN NUHBER OF WOHEN HEHBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
BORN AN]) NJiPLOYEJ) IN EACH REGION
Regions
New England
Haine
Vermont
New Hampshire
Hassachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Total
Hiddle Atlantic
New York
NevI Jersey
Pennsylvania
Total
:2::ast North Central
Ohio
Indiana
Illinois
l1ichigan
Wisconsin
Total
South Atlantic
Delaware
Naryland
Washington, D.C.
Virginia
rJest Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
Florida
Total
Number Born
in Region
Number Employed
in Region
3
2
o
o
5
o
2
2
..,g
....Q
12
20
38
27
3
7
.ll
52
II
9
48
8
2
5
9
6
..j
8
8
..j
28
25
o
2
7
o
o
2
2
2
o
1
8
1
1
2
2
o
-232
10
26
TABLE 10 (cont.)
PRODuc'rIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: COMPARISON BETWE2N ~~UMBER OF WOHEN HENBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AHERICA
BORN AND EMPLOYED IN EACH REGION
Regions
Mountain
Hontana
Idaho
V/yoming
Nevada
Colorado
New Hexico
Arizona
Utah
Total
Rest North Central
Hinnesota
I o Via
Ilissouri
North Dakota
South Dakota
Nebraska
Kansas
Total
East South Central
Kentucky
Tennessee
Alabama
Hississippi
Total
West South Central
Arkansas
Louisiana
Oklahoma
Texas
Total
Number Born
in Region
Number Employed
in Region
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
0
1
...Q
3
1
0
2
0
-
2
5
5
0
3
1
0
0
0
0
3
...Q
13
...Q
7
4
0
1
- 71
7
2
1
10
-
0
3
3
0
--2
-1
12
11
2
2
27
TABLE 10 (cont.)
PRODUCTIVITY OF REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES: COMPARISON BETW:t;~N NUl,mER OF 'JlOHEN HEHBERS OF GENETI CS SOCIETY OF M1ERI CA
BORN A.ND EHPLOYED IN EACH REGION
Regions
Pacific
riashington
Oregon
California
Alaska
Hawaii
Total
Outside United States
Total
TOTAL
Number Born
in Region
Number Employed
in Region
2
1
5
14
o
--2
o
7
- 181
~
--2
167
169*
*The total is 169 instead of 167 because four geneticists
VJere employed by more than one place and trIO geneticists \'Jere
listed as retired.
28
Table 11 shows that there are many similarities between the data reported in the 1968 study (1) and the present
study on regional productivity.
In both studies, the two
most productive regions were the Middle Atlantic states and
the East North Central states.
These regions also employed
the largest number of geneticists in this study (Table 10).
However, the Middle Atlantic states employed four fewer women
geneticists than they produced, and the East North Central
states employed three fewer than they produced.
The South
Atlantic states and the Pacific states employed over twice
as many women geneticists as they produced.
The region that
employed the smallest number of women geneticists was the
Mountain states.
geneticists.
They employed only two of the 167 women
The state leading in employment of women gene-
ticists was Ne\'f York.
It employed 27 of the women, and it
was also the most productive state, having produced 38 women
geneticists.
Second place for top employment was held by
two states--Pennsylvania and California-- that each employed
14 women geneticists.
Table 12 reveals some similarities and differences
between the data collected in the present study of female
geneticists and data from the 1974 NSF study of scientists
and engineers (4).
In both studies, the region that showed
the top employment was the Middle Atlantic states.
However,
a major difference appears in the Mountain region where only
1.2 percent of the female geneticists are employed, but
where 5.8 percent of the scientists and engineers are employed.
29
TABLE
11
COHPARISON BETV'lEEN PERCZNT OF FEMALE HEHBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIE'Ily OF AHERICA (GSA) OF 1981 AND PERCENT OF MEl1BERS OF
GENETICS SOCIETY OF AHERICA OF 1968 BORN IN EACH REGION
Regions
NeVI England
Hiddle Atlantic
East North Central
South Atlantic
Mountain
West North Central
East South Central
West South Central
Pacific
Outside United States
Total
Female Hembers
of GSA Born in
Region ( 1981 )
7.2%
31 • 1
16.8
5.9
1.8
7.8
4.2
7.2
4.2
13.8
100.0%
Hembers of GSA
Born in Region
(1968)
7.5%
25.3
20.1
14.6
1.3
7.2
6.9
4.9
6.8
21~
100.0%
30
TABLE 12
COHPARISON BETWEEN PERCENT OF FEHALE NEt-lEERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF A11ERICA (GSA) OF 1981 AND PERCENT OF SCIENTISTS
AND EHGINEERS OF A 1974 NSF STUDY ENPLOYED IN EACH REGION
Regions
New England
Biddle Atlantic
East North Central
South Atlantic
Hountain
West North Central
East South Central
West South Central
Pacific
Total
Female Nembers of
GSA ( 1981 ) *
Scientists and
Engineers in a
1974 NSF Study
12.2)6
29.3
15.2
14.0
1.2
4.3
6.1
6.7
11 .0
100.0%
*Percentages based on 164 YIOmen employed in U.S.
6.7%
20.0
16.8
16.9
5.8
6.3
4.0
8.3
15.3
100.1%
31
Ages of Geneticists
The data in Table 13 reveal that 29.3 percent of the
sample of 167 female geneticists are currently (February,
1982) between the ages of 40 and 49; 25.7 percent ere between
the ages 30 and 39, which makes a total of 55.0 percent between 30 and 49 years of age.
The median age of the 167
women geneticists is 48 years.
This age is much older than
the median age of the women biological scientists surveyed
by the NSF in 1974 (5).
The NSF reported the median age of
the women to be 35 years.
Perhaps the fact that the women
geneticists in the present study are somewhat older than the
women biological scientists in the NSF study is related to
the method used in selecting the geneticists.
in American
~
To be included
.ill1£! Women £! Science requires some considerable
accomplishments in one's career.
Thus, only somewhat older
individuals whose careers have been some years in the making
are included in the present study, thereby advancing the
median age of the women geneticists to 48 years.
Areas of Research
The 167 women geneticists utilize many different
organisms and specialize in a variety of areas in their current research.
For simplicity, the research specialties
have been divided into five general areas listed in Table
14.
Many of the female geneticists were working in more than
one area, thereby causing the total to exceed the number of
geneticists in the sample.
An almost equal number of female
32
TABLE
13
DISTRI3UTION BY DECADES OF PRESENT AGES OF \'JOMEN MEHBERS OF
GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Number of
Geneticists
Ages
30
40
50
60
70
80
-
39
49
59
69
79
89
Age Not Knovm
Total
43
49
37
25
8
4
1
167
-
Percentage
25.7%
29.3
22.2
15.0
4.8
2.4
.6
100.0%
33
TABLE 14
AREAS OF RESEARCH OF WONEN M:El1BERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF
AMERICA
Area
Plant Genetics
Animal Genetics
Microbial Genetics
Human Genetics
Population Genetics
Miscellaneous
Total
Number
21
61
65
18
3
..J1l:
182
34
geneticists specialize in animal genetics and in microbial
genetics, together constituting 69.2 percent of the total.
Plant genetics research involves 11.5 percent, human genetics
involves 9.9 percent, and population genetics involves 1.6
percent of the female geneticists in this study.
The re-
maining 7.7 percent were involved in numerous types of research that could not be readily categorized and, therefore,
are listed as miscellaneous.
The 1968 study also revealed
that the greatest percentage of female geneticists (74.8
percent) concentrated in animal or microbial genetics research (1).
The addition of human genetics research as a
separate category is an expected development, since research
and knowledge in this area have increased tremendously over
the past thirteen years.
Place of Employment
As the data in Table 15 reveal, almost one-half (45.6
percent) of the female geneticists teach and conduct their research in state-supported colleges and universities.
Private
colleges and universities follow, employing 36.1 percent of
the female geneticists in this study while foreign universities employ 3.0 percent.
Private laboratories and institutes
(such as Jackson Laboratory and Carnegie Institute) employ
5.3 percent.
The government employs 4.7 percent of the female
geneticists and business and industry employ only 2.4 percent.
There are five individuals listed under the category of miscellaneous because the type of employer could not be determined.
The statistics of the two retired female geneticists were
not included in Table 15.
35
TABLE 15
PRESEWr PLACE OF EMPLOYHENT OF WOHEN MEHBERS OF GENETICS
SOCIETY OF AHERICA
Place of Employment
State Colleges and Universities
Private Colleges and Universities
Government
Business and Industry
Private Laboratories and Institutes
For'9ign Uni versi ties
Hiscellaneous
Total
Number Percentage
77
61
8
4
9
5
--2
169*
45.6%
36.1
4.7
2.4
5.3
3.0
3.0
100.0%
*The total is 169 instead of 167 because four geneticists
Vlere employed by more than one place and two geneticists
were listed as retired.
36
Of the female geneticists in this tudy, a total of
84.7 percent are employed by academic institutions and only
7.1 percent are employed by the government or business and
industry.
These results are consistent with findings in the
Howard and Mertens' 1968 study (1) and with the 1980
science (8) article.
lli.£-
The 1980 Bioscience (8) article reveals
that few women were attracted to industrial employment.
The
present study's findings were not consistent with those of
Vetter's 1981 article (7).
Vetter found that the federal
government is a major employer of female scientists and
engineers, but the present study did not reveal this about
women geneticists.
The reason may be that there are fewer
genetics positions available with government.
Age Married
Of the 167 female geneticists surveyed in this study,
91 were married and 76 were currently not married.
As the
data in Table 16 indicate, the greatest number of those married, 43, (47.8 percent), were married between the ages of
20 to 24 years.
Twenty-nine (32.2 percent) of the married
female geneticists were married between 25 and 29 years of
age; therefore, 80.0 percent were married before the age of
30.
The number married between the ages of 30 and 50 in-
cluded just 18 female geneticists, or 20.0 percent.
The
oldest age at which marriage occurred was bet'-,veen 45 and 50
years.
Six of the women geneticists were not currently
married due to a divorce or death of a spouse and one was
currently married but did not record her age at the time of
her marriage.
37
TABLE 16
AGES Nr WHICH WONEN MEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
WERE MARRIED
Ages
20
25
30
35
40
45
-
Number Married
24
29
34
39
44
50
Total
43
29
12
3
2
- 901
38
Number of Children
The data in Table 17 indicate the number of children
born to female geneticists in this study.
Of the 97 women
\'lho are currently married or who had been married at one time,
62 had children and 35 did not.
Of the 97 women geneticists
who are or were once married, the greatest percentage (46.4
percent) had one or tVlO children.
Fifteen of the 97 Vlomen,
or 15.5 percent, had three children; one woman had four children and another had six children.
The percentage of the
167 female geneticists with children (37.1 percent) is about
the same as the 36 percent found by Vetter in a 1979 study
of 600 women scientists and engineers (6).
39
TABLE 17
NUMBER OF CHILDREN BORN TO MARRIED OR ONCE MARRIED WOMEN
MEMBERS OF GENETICS SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Number of Children
Number
0
2
3
35
20
25
15
4
1
5
6
0
1
Total
-971
40
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Data concerning 167 female members of the Genetics
Society of America were collected and studied.
Only those
members listed in the fourteenth edition of American
~ ~
Women .21 Science were included in the investigation.
Information obtained from American
~ ~
Women Qf
Science about the geneticists was recorded on individual
file cards.
Such data as name, current address, date and
place of birth, age, marital status, number of children,
field of specialization, degrees earned, institution where
degrees were earned, years in which degrees were earned, age
when degrees were earned, post-doctoral experience, current
institution of employment, and organism used in research
were obtained and tabulated.
The data justify the following
conclusions:
1.
The baccalaureate origins of the female geneticists
were more varied than their doctoral origins.
The 167 women geneticists earned
bacc~aureate
degrees from 112 different institutions, but
only 64 different institutions awarded them doctorates.
2.
Independent non-profit (private) insitutions have
b@en most productive of female geneticists, having
granted about 38 percent of their baccalaureate
41
and over 46 percent of their doctoral degrees.
state institutions were also very productive
at both levels, producing 34 percent of the baccalaureate degrees and 44 percent of the doctorates.
3.
Eight of the ten leading institutions granting
baccalaureates were independent non-profit (private) institutions; however, seven of the thirteen leading doctorate granting institutions
were state supported.
By way of contrast, in
Howard and Mertens' 1968 study, seven of the ten
leading institutions granting baccalaureates to
geneticists were state-supported.
4.
The two leading institutions granting baccalaureates to the female geneticists in this study
were also the two leading institutions granting
baccalaureates to both male and female geneticists
in the 1968 study.
They were Cornell University
and the University of California.
5.
Most (108) of the women geneticists were between
25-29 years of age when the doctorate was granted.
6.
The average time span between completion of the
baccalaureate and doctorate was 7.6 years for the
166 women who earned doctorates.
7.
Almost 100 percent of the doctorates awarded the
geneticists were Ph.D.'s, rather than Sc.D.'s or
M.D.'s.
42
8.
More of the female geneticists, 41.0 percent,
earned their doctorates in the 1960's than in
any other decade.
9.
The Middle Atlantic states and East North Central
states constituted regions in the U.S. that were
most productive of the 167 women geneticists.
10.
New York produced the most female geneticists.
This one state produced 22.8 percent of the 167
geneticists.
11.
The Middle Atlantic states and the East North
Central states employ the greatest number of
female geneticists.
In other studies this has
been found to be true of scientists and engineers
in general.
12.
More of the women geneticists studied in this
investigation are in the 40-49 age group than in
any other age group.
13.
Almost 70.0 percent of the female geneticists
specialize in animal or microbial genetics research.
14.
Almost one-half of the female geneticists are employed by state-supported colleges and universities.
Almost 83.0 percent of the female geneti-
cists are employed by academic institutions, and
7.2 percent
~e
employed by the government or by
business and industry.
This is consistent with
43
other studies which have shown that women scientists are more likely to be employed by academic
institutions rather than by the government or
business or industry.
15.
Over one-half of the female geneticists were
married.
Almost half were married between the
ages of 20 to 24 years.
16.
Of the 167 female geneticists surveyed, 37.1
percent had children.
Of the 97 female gene-
ticists who are or were once married, the greatest
percentage (46.4 percent) had one or two children.
44
LITr;RATUR~
CITED
(1)
Howard, Donna J. and Thomas R. Mertens. 1968. The
Academic Origins of Geneticists in the United states.
Journal £! Heredity 59:353-357.
(2)
Jacques Cattell Press t ~d~tor. 1979. American Men and
Women 21 Science, J:<...dJ..tJ..on 14. R.R. Bowker Coni'Pa.nY:National Science Foundation. 1975. Graduate Science
Education: Student Support ~ Postdoctorals. NSF.
Washington, D.C.
Na.tional Science Foundation. 1974. Characteristics.Q.f
~ National Sample of Scientists ~ Engineers:
Part 3. NSF. Washington, D.C.
(5)
National Science Foundation. 1974. Characteristics of
the National Sample of Scientists ~ Engineers:
'P'a'rt 1. NSF. Washington, D.C.
(6)
Vetter, Betty M. 1980. Working Women Scientists and
Engineers. Science 207:28-34.
Vetter, Betty M. 1981. Degree Completion by Women and
Minorities in Sciences Increases. Science 212:35.
(8)
1980. Women Ph.D.'s in Industry Fare Poorly.
30:62.
Bioscience
(9)
Podolsky, Arthur and Carolyn R. Smith. 1977. Education
Directory: Colleges and Universities. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington,
D.C.