Kublai Khan
The Civilized Barbarian
An Honors Thesis (ID 499)
by
Paul Brian Holleman
Dr. Daniel Goffman
Pr
~i
~~Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
2ss, 1988
/'
Contents
1. Introdl1ction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 . About Spelling and Language.
4
3. The Pre-Yuan Mongol Society.
5
4. Mothers and Mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Pre-Yulln China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6. Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Bi bliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
ii
Introduction
in Mongolia
In 1260,
and China, a rather obscure Mongol by
the name of Shih-Tsu, came to
Mongols,
and
the
Emperor
power as
of
the supreme
China.
This man, Kublai Khan,
consolidated Mongol power in China, created
empires
in
history,
and
in
some
khan of the
one of
the greatest
ways seemed to be civilized
though he was from a society that has been called
barbaric.
His
life and actions have been chronicled by many historians, and his
empire immortalized by Samuel Taylor
why,
did
civilized?
this
take
place.
Coleridge.
But
how, and
Was this nomadic barbarian really
Or was he just a clever, Machiavellian, politician?
He was indeed a
Christian mother,
civilized man,
and a
educated at
a young
Buddhist/Confucianist mentor.
aspects of his society also played
a role
in his
the leadership of China and his civilized nature.
3
age by his
Cultural
ascendancy to
About Spelling and Language
Spellings
years.
such
of
Mongolian
proper
names have varied over the
Some of the first accounts of the Mongols
as
Qubilai,
Jhengiz,
(Xanadu or Shang-Tu).
spellings l,
most
of
I
which
Cambuluc
have
tried
list spellings
(Khanbalik),
and Cianadu
to
most modern
use
the
reflect the proper pronunciations of
those names.
4
The Pre-Yuan Mongol Society
Kublai Khan broke the norms of Mongol behavior
to power
in 1260.
He
seemed to have a streak of civility that
But, to explain his
his predecessors lacked.
it is
when he came
apparent civility,
necessary to look at his background as a Mongol and how it
merged with Chinese society.
Prior to 1260, Mongol
were primarily
was
and
antelope and
domesticate
animals.
relationship.
farmers for food,
horses,
The hunters
hart herds, while the farmers planted
vegetables and raised sheep and horses.
symbiotic
The Mongols
nomadic.
hunters and gatherers of the inner Asian steppes,
although some did farm
followed the
society
However,
The
nomadic
and
other
the two
had a
hunters depended on the
domestic
items,
and the
farmers relied on the hunters for commodities and protection.
The Mongols were only one of many groups that existed on the
steppes, however.
along the
tribes.
The nomads of
Frontier Zone,
these tribes
the borders
Hunting and trading were
These tribes
became dependent
included
the
Mongols,
the
of China
and the Western
more profitable
on each
maintained open, friendly ties.
hunted and traded
other for trade and thus
These
Naimans,
than farming.
people
the
of
the steppes
Paliyans,
and
the
Uighars.
Most of these tribes
their
patrilineal lines
back to common ancestors whom they worshipped.
Leadership of the
tribes and clans was based
could
trace
upon
the
5
hierarchy
of
the family.
The oldest
father in
the patrilineal
clan, somewhat like the
however, the
The
wife.
Roman pater
succession went
Mongols
evident and
were
longer than
Upon his death,
familias.
to the
youngest son of his eldest
But
polygamous.
widely practiced
The youngest son was
line was the ruler of the
polygamy
was more
after the raids of Ghengiz began.!
chosen because
he would
be able
to reign
the oldest. There also would not be as much fighting
between the son and his uncles because they too would be too old.
It was important to avoid conflict over rulership if they were to
have a stable system.
This
family organization
and inheritance
practice became very important in the rise of the Mongol military
state: Ghengiz'
'government' and successors were
family
as
member
heir
would
ensure
all family.
A
continual superiority in
conquest, and would carryon the goals of the kaghan.
The
common
'levirate' ,
a
marriage
dowry
practice
system.
for
the
Mongols
the
The bride's family would give a
small amount of money and the bride's possessions
family.
was
to the groom's
Once the two were married, the bride was considered part
of the groom's family.
If the husband died the
wife would still
be part of the husband's family, and she would not go back to her
own.
She would continue
to
guide
her
children
through their
lives.
The Mongols were not restricted from inter-tribal marriages.
In fact,
helped
it was quite
keep
the
common
tribes
for
allied
relations.
6
tribes
with
to
each
inter-marry.
It
other, and in good
There
was
bureaucracy
apparently
in
the
Mongol
and
regulated
administrative laws.
usually pertained
Khan that the
bureaucratic
real
system
the
no basic
Mongols
to
Under
manner.
administration that
were societal, and
It was not until Ghengiz
problems.
began
government, or
Likewise, there were no
people.
The laws that did exist
to family
of
Each family had it's own
society.
There was
trul er ' and hierarchy.
controlled
no
structure
the
Ghengiz,
their
system
Mongols
military hierarchy that operated
on
the
advice
This
as
the
tkuriltai'.
small
council
was
known
necessary to set up this system
stable.
Changes in
so that
trade and
in a
formed
of
a
a council.
It
Ghengiz' rule
was
would be
tribal relations due to Ghengiz'
conquests, and the need for stabilization and legitimacy
in that
system, made it necessary to rule with a governmental hierarchy.
At
the
top
of
the
supreme leader, or Khan.
appointed to
hierarchy
was Ghengiz as kaghan, the
Below him were
field generals
different locations around the Asian world.
they would regulate the provinces
that
they
conquered.
that he
There,
Below
the field generals were a host of lieutenants and tenlisted' men,
the majority of whom were expertly trained archers.
men were
1n the army.
The settled, domestic Mongols stayed near
the capital of Karakhorum with their families.
conducted
and
public affairs.
ruled
These
Most Mongol
the
massive
army, the kuriltai conducted
public affairs
included taxes,
Khan might hand down, trade and commerce.
7
While the kaghan
laws the
One interesting
the soldiers
and
high
practice of
were paid
generals
for their
He
was that none of
Even the officers
services.
Yet, they remained
compensated.
The Khan
commanders.
fiercely loyal to their
all his men and
not
were
supreme benefactor.
the military
was seen
as the
provided food, clothes, and shelter for
their families.
This
system was
based on the
tradition that the nomadic leaders handled all the affairs of the
hunting and trading parties.
who took
family
The kaghan was also a father figure
care of all the needs of his family.
was
his
allegiance to
This
troops.
tradition
would
explain
the
the khan, because to stray from the khan was to go
hungry, naked, and exposed to the elements.
was punishable
by death.
A
Marco
Khan and the cause.
supreme benefactor
when he
Retreat or cowardice
good Mongol
Polo
soldier supported the
emphasizes
explains how
every single soldier a new robe
tells us
In this case, the
at each
the
point
of the
Kublai Khan would give
monthly feast.2
Marco
that Kublai did this to demonstrate his role as supreme
commander, in the tradition of all kaghans.
The military had control over all aspects of Mongol society.
Even
in
peacetime,
Under Ghengiz, and
Mangu),
the
the
his
Mongols
were
successors
Mongols
were
(Tolui,
constantly
neighboring tribes for booty, and glory.
booty to
pay for
glory of conquest.
though
it
was
their services,
It was
also
under military orders.
glorious
and
8
waging
Guyuk, and
wars
against
For the soldiers it was
and for
a chaotic
Ogedai,
the khan
era for
it was the
the Mongols, even
triumphant.
The
Mongol
conquerors left their subjugated states in shambles. 3
Ghengiz Khan's rise to power
not
only
changed
the ruling
structure of Mongol society but also affected marriage practices.
Conquest usually led to booty, and
particular interest
was a
for the
war-bride.
women from the tribes they conquered
Some
Mongols,
mostly
field
Mongols one
item of
The Mongols began to take
and make
them their wives.
generals, collected quite a harem.
After 1210, the levirate was only found in the settled areas, and
sometimes
not
even
The surrounding tribes would have
there.
found no profit in giving their
daughters to
Mongols,
superiority would take what they
in
their
wanted anyway.4
claims at
quest
for
the Mongols.
The war-bride system helped to
a tribal level.
The
legitimize their
Once Ghengiz had conquered the Naiman
tribe in 1206 and taken daughters of the Naiman ruler,
the ruler
pledged allegiance to the Khan and promised support.s
As time
went on, inheritance seemed to rest not just on the
youngest son of the eldest wife anymore.
and
more
concerned
needed a
competent
organize
the
Mongol
with
man
competence
who
could
Empire.
retained much power after
and
However,
her husband's
developed
father), and
between
Ogedai.
Ghengiz's
but he abdicated feeling that
Perhaps
he
was
Ogedai
overwhelmed
9
stabilize and
Also, the next
Between 1206 and 1241, a
sons:
Tolui
(Kublai's
went to Tolui originally,
was
by
They
the eldest wife still
death.
two
The Kaghanship
became more
stabilization.
consolidate,
ruler was still selected from her sons.
rift
The khans
better
the
for
the job.
obligations
and
Guyuk, one of
conquests. 6
responsibilities created by Ghengiz'
Ogedai's sons, succeeded Ogedai with no contest from the House of
Tolui.
But,
after
original claim
Guyuk's
should be
death,
Tolui's
had no
in 1259.
claim that
no
have control.
great influence.
Not
Kuriltai.
had
become
close to
had
been
was
also
and the
Her voice was heard,
Kublai's ascendancy.
standard,
so Arik-Buke
The original rights had been
Tolui's eldest
wife, she
in
control,
Sorghaqtani had
only was she the mother of Mangu, and the
by Ghengiz
Because of
a
The
Even though Tolui had not reigned long
husband of Tolui, but she
piece, captured
longer
Sorghaqtani was
and the House of Ogadei
Naimans.
Sorghaqtani
over Kublai.
with Tolui, and since
seemed to
supported Kublai, rather then
she taught him her beliefs during his childhood. 7
youngest son practice was
could not
The House
But, the critical point came when
Sorghaqtani
her youngest son Arik-Buke.
Kublai as
of leadership.
real objections to Mangu since they had taught
him most of his skills anyway.
Mangu died
felt their
Mangu Khan, youngest son of
honored.
Tolui and Sorghaqtani, took the reins
of Ogedai
family
and
the
principal
symbol of
she
was
Naiman pawn
loyalty from the
able
to
sway the
this control, she was very influential in
Sorghaqtani also was influential in another
way, by teaching him the ways of her religion.
10
Mothers and Mentors
Kublai's
Sorghaqtani,
mother,
Naiman ruler.
The
close
a sect
of Asian
relationship they built while he was
him
maturing enabled her to teach
Nestorian
beliefs.
Perhaps
in him the qualities of Nestorianism that would make him
a great leader.
helped
been the daughter of a
The Naiman tribe, was Nestorian,
Christianity.
she saw
had
It
enlighten
is
her
believed
son
many
historians
that she
on Christianity, which is evident in
Kublai's actions after his
These teachings
by
ascent
include religious
to
the
kaghanship
in 1260.
tolerance and social charity,
which Kublai demonstrated during his reign.
The Kestorian church originated
offshoot
deeply
of
the
rooted
Byzantine
in
brought these
Western
ideals taught
out
of
East
Ghengiz'
time,
the
church,
which itself was
Christian
ideals.
The Nestorians
by Jesus Christ, and notions of the
Nestorians
For
relations.
two religions,
and two
The
other
side
were
supernatural ideals.
exist,
for
the
the
Buddhists
with
They had to be tolerant
Muslims
were
a
11
Nestorians were
cultures.
were the Muslims who thought of the Nestorians
the
though some
For Kublai Khan, the Nestorian church was a
positive influence in foreign
trapped between
the Mongols
were the key to keeping the
Muslims from completely taking over the Middle East,
converted to Islam. s
as an
Orthodox
trinity, to the Orient through the Middle East.
of
Syria
On one side
as infidels.
their
of the
much larger group.9
On
seemingly
Muslims to
But, the
Nestorians were also
tolerant
by
nature,
since
they
were an
offshoot of the Byzantine form of Christianity that promoted open
relations with other religions.
Buddhism had gradually worked its way
and was
becoming a
knowledge t
prominent religion in China during the 1100s
who
Buddha
eight paths.
The
right
preached
neutrality
eight paths
truth,
and
Buddhism
Confucianism.
because
of
their
neutrality.
similar
in life by way of the
included right-mindedness, right
right care and concern.
also preached unity, a key factor
of
Asian scene
This religion consisted of the teachings of the
and early 1200s.
man-god
into the
in the
Buddhism
simultaneous emergence
and Confucianism were able to link
interests
in
unity,
harmony,
and
Buddhism was also able to accept Christianity since
it was as much a philosophy as a
religion.
This philosophy was
able to assimilate other gods and religious ideas.
As a young man, Kublai was guided by a Buddhist/Confucianist
mentor, Yao Chi, who taught
patience,
and
him
tolerance.
the
importance
of neutrality,
It is evident from Kublai's actions
during his reign that he did hold to these philosophies.
often asked
for aid
advice, and
used
balanced
the
Kublai was
the four
two
Kublai
from Muslims when he didn't trust Christian
Christian
and
help
played
the
against
the
Muslims.
neutral mediator.
lo
He
In fact,
"at all times performing a skillful juggling act with
principle religions"
and Judaism.
II
of Buddhism, Christianity, Islam,
The fact that Kublai was trained in
Confucianist neutrality
by Yao
Buddhist and
Chi, helps to explain why Kublai
12
took such an interest in the welfare of
foreigners in his realm.
China accepted Kublai.
not have
his people
and accepted
It also helps explain why the people of
Most Mongols professed Buddhism,
but did
the extensive training that Kublai Khan did, since they
were more concerned with conquest and waging wars.12
The Nestorians and the
seemed to
Muslims
so
increasing,
they
to envelop
Buddhists also
during
this
time period
The Nestorians found the intimidation of the
ally.13
Buddhists, able
Buddhists
turned
to
the
Buddhists.
other religions, accepted them.
considered
the
Muslims
enemies
for
The
The
two major
reasons: the Muslims were slowly seeping into the Chinese culture
trying
to
convert
Buddhists infidels
everyone;
and
and treated
the
Muslims
them as such.
Also, the Tibetan
priests were beginning
to
being accepted
Mongols in conjunction with Nestorianism.
by the
promote
considered the
Neo-Confucianism,
which was
It seemed natural that the two should work together.
Kublai
Khan
Christianity and
religions
combined
complemented
each
were fed
acts,
and
social
created
tax
Nestorian
poor of
welfare
agricultural
laws
The two
awareness
in
tolerance and patience in
China were
programs
reforms
economically, and helped them forget the
He
of
provided for.
from Kublai's own personal granaries. 14
Kublai set up many social
land
other:
in Buddhism;
Under Kublai Khan, the
Sometimes they
knowledge
Buddhism to strengthen his leadership.
Nestorianism, neutralism
both.
his
that
helped
13
the
such
as government
that helped the peasants
tyranny of
people
the Sung. IS
by restricting
He also tried to unite all sects in
taxation in desperate times.
China, both
religious and
political, into a balanced whole that
could function effectively, and
struggled to
create a
sense of
harmony for the people of China who so desperately needed it.
Some might question whether Kublai's actions were truly acts
of kindness and love for
tactics.
Kublai was
his
subjects
a Mongol
or
simply Machiavellian
raised in the nomadic tradition,
knowing full well that the Mongol goals were
conquest,
not
Kublai did
politics.
not
religion.
simply
He
spent
It must be understood, however, that
attend
his
a
whole
seminar
on
childhood
rigorously learning the beliefs and teachings
his
mentor,
who
were
superiority through
the
and
politics of
early manhood
of his
mother and
both strongly dedicated to their faiths.
Nestorianism and Buddhism/Confucianism were
not merely policies,
but were complete religions within themselves, both complementing
each other in Kublai's education and helping him
did
not
have
to
be
a
Through these teachings he
realize that he
barbarian to be a great Mongol leader.
could
create
effective
help revive a stricken society and culture: China.
14
policies to
Pre-Yuan China
For thousands
history.
of years
China had existed within a cyclical
Each cycle contained three
consisted
dynasty;
of
reform
and
progress
the
second
established
The first period
with
coming
that
and the third period
administration;
rebellion, and need for change.
abolish the
old.
But
dynasty
to
another,
stayed
the
same;
an
particular
the
government
empire
aspect of
agencies
life.
whole
series of
and
to
who got
represent
and
No
for each.
one
man,
and
a
that
controlled every
remained the
There
were
control
of
of
the
same.
a group
emperor
or the
For there to be a
class.
This class
so there were rebellions but
agencies
farms
set
who
from this
people,
class was
government offices through a
matter
the
administration developed a
everything from
from one
The Chinese had created
The Mandarin
into their
this class
never revolutions.
inspection
process,
by
offices
revolution, it would have to come
tended
cycle in decay,
The emperor of the new dynasty was put into his
examinations.
dynasty was,
existing
and administration always
controlled
position by the Mandarin class.
of aristocrats
dynasty and
already
ended the
hierarchic, bureaucratic administration.
a vast network of
of a new
Then a new dynasty would rise to
through
the
the
the
within
conditions
stabilized
periods.
for
everything from
to ceremony operations.
codified
laws
The
that covered
brawls to murder, and stipulated the punishments
I6
15
it was
When the Mongols began their raids,
that ruled
the Sung were losing power, and
However,
in China.
the period of decay had already begun.
keep the
the Sung Empire
The Sung
were failing to
economy (namely trade) stable, and the Mandarins happy.
The peasants and the Mandarins were anxious for a new dynasty.
The Sung
network of
had reduced
had
for
and
provided
pocketing
for
his
embroiled in wars with Mongols
Thus
the day.
to mere
Their
tyranny.
agencies were corrupt, often taking more tax than the
emperor called
emperor
their power
the areas.
and
These
The Sung
difference.
governors.
the provincial
the provinces themselves to
the
But the emperor was
Muslims,
losing
control by
governors had to take control of
maintain income
and the
economy of
governors, however, found that now they could
do anything they wanted
without reprimand,
and often
did.
The
emperor himself seemed to have no compassion for the peasants and
their hardships.
was fighting
But the emperor
a continuing
really had
no choice,
battle against the Mongol barbarians,
and it took a lot of money to keep the fight up.
pay for
the war
was to
Sung were rapidly losing
for he
tax the
The only way to
Chinese peasants heavily.
popularity with
the people
The
because of
the taxes, and the harsh treatment the people were receiving from
provincial governors, and members of the army.
was lost,
little
The idea of unity
since each provincial governor basically ruled his own
country.
Confucianists alike,
Unity,
held
sacred
was practically
the emperor lost control of
the
16
by
Buddhists
non-existent.
people's
hearts
and
Without it,
and
minds in
those provinces, and the legitimacy to govern effectively.
For Kublai
administration.
like the
one in
Khan, it was easy to assimilate into the Chinese
The Mongols
China.
were without
They needed
consolidate their power to rule
raided, and
to govern
the
a bureaucratic system
a government to help them
conquered
tribes
their devastated provinces.
17
they had
Around the
northern borders where the Mongols had raided, the Sung governors
were
often
killed
influences, and
up
make
an
it
The Mongols,
peasants.
set
in
new
attempt
easier
leadership
these
reorganize or
provinces
was
gain
the
loyalty
of the
however, did not always stick around to
systems,
interested in booty and glory.
way to
to
to rid the area of any Sung
because
they
were
mainly
Therefore, those provinces had no
rehabilitate.
completely
The trade
destroyed,
and commerce of
stolen away by the
The Mongols had control of many provinces, but didn't
have the
motivation to
system to do so.
best way
within.
correct problems, nor the administrative
Kublai
saw the
to consolidate
Chinese administration
as the
this new property, and the Mongol power
With the help of the Mandarin class, who were anxious to
see China's
trade and
political system revive, both sides would
benefit.
Religion in China was changing.
rise.
was
on the
The teachings of Confucius were becoming popular with the
people, since it taught unity,
people
Confucianism
were
anxious
to
and
have.
harmony,
which
The Tibetan priests found that
Confucianism and Buddhism could be used together.
17
the Chinese
They both held
common goals
of neutrality, unity, and harmony.
seemed to lie within
the Buddhists
interpretation and
The differences
While
specific goals.
the Confucianists emphasized
stressed neutrality,
The Confucianists, however, were
unity, especially among family.
more practical, concerned with every day life.
These Tibetan
Priests, and others who followed them, became
the Neo-Confucianists, using the
somewhat like
Kublai's mentor
beliefs of
both the religions,
They combined Confucian
Yao Chi.
practicality with Buddhist religious fervor.
Kublai's knowledge of
this
area,
and
the
fact
that the
Mongols accepted this religious attitude, helped him to relate to
the people of China who were accepting the
As for
new religion quickly.
the administration, Kublai merely renamed several of
the agencies of the government, and expanded their
Sung agency
to the
for sciences
decline,
Medicine, and
was
made
History.2o
tasks.
19
The
which was practically non-existent due
into
three
Most of
keep the Khan informed and educated.
agencies
these agencies
of Astronomy,
were used to
The Mongols found what they
needed in China, and the Chinese found what they needed in Kublai
Khan.
18
Kublai Khan's Yuan Dynasty
Kublai Khan had been given the governorship of
brother
Mangu
opportunity.
education,
Khan
in
the
Perhaps, Mangu
Kublai
could
1250's,
Sung
While
Empire,
in
China,
administration
Mongol power.
a
be
effective
began
constituted
The Mongols
system
establishment.
So when Kublai came
and
utilized
the
realize
never
administrative
of
other
than
offices
with his
He built a
operations to destroy
perfect
had
China.
the
had put him there to execute.
to
the
seized
fact that
in
base of
Mangu
task
Kublai
Kublai
recognized the
beautiful palace in Shang-Tu as a
the
and
China by his
that
had
simple
to power,
and
Chinese
tool for consolidating
really
the
the
any
kind of
kaghan-kuriltai
he took advantage
agencies
of
the
administration in an effort to consolidate the Mongol
Chinese
effort and
establish a base of operations for Mongol conquest.
Kublai changed
the name of the agencies and eliminated some
of the less important purposes
agencies
were
also
that
proclaimed
the
agencies
had.
These
Mongolian, though they retained
most of the functions that they previously had. 21
They
included
offices
for
reducing
tenant
farming,
redistributing government
land to peasant farmers, and educating
peasants and nomads alike
about agriculture.
retained most
of the
agencies since
Kublai felt
he did
that the
Chinese administrators
not know
best way
how the
to utilize
19
22
In
fact Kublai
in charge of those
system worked exactly.
the tool was to have
someone
in
charge
administrators were
who
the only
since
effectively,
knew
the
identity away
them.
under
is not
use
The Mandarin
it.
could utilize the system
had
Mongols
experience
no
with
a
The Khan proclaimed them Mongolian
Sung,
and replace
This
be loyal.
to
ones who
bureaucratic administration.
citizens, no longer
how
in
an
effort
to
take their
it with a new one to which they would
to say
that Kublai
necessarily trusted
Often he would send inspectors out to conquered provinces
still being governed by
Chinese, to
check up
and make
If they were not, then
sure his policies were being carried out.
his Mongol inspectors would
on them
personally carry
out the
wishes of
the Khan.
The
Chinese,
Kublai Khan.
people, and
however,
The Sung Empire
the Mandarin
gratefully
had
lost
welcomed
face
and
with
accepted
the Chinese
class, and the people were ready for a
new leader who would not overtax, and overburden them to continue
a war
they did not want.
Kublai Khan was willing to provide the
Chinese with the economic reform and leadership they needed.
During his reign Kublai enacted a
with the
peasants' income.
If
tax program
that changed
a year was particularly bad for
crops, taxes would be lowered, and sometimes not collected at all
from those
affected.
23
Social welfare programs were created to
benefit the old, the handicapped, and the needy.
household
items,
and
tools
were
peasants.
These acts of goodwill
his mother's Christian teachings.
20
often
could be
Food, clothes,
given outright to the
seen as
evidence of
Kublai
not
only
accepted
Christian
advocated Neo-Confucianism, a religion
and
harmony
that
the
problems caused
by
peasants
already
were
peasants
the
Sung;
monks who
had accepted
but also
promoted
the unity
that
were
this
searching for amidst the
was
a
religion
towards.
turning
established himself in China
teachings,
he surrounded
And
when
reign
began,
the
Kublai
himself with Tibetan
the Neo-Confucianist
Here was
beliefs.
yet another reason to follow the great Mongol leader.
his
that the
Soon after
Chinese peasants, and later the Mandarin
class, proclaimed him the Son of Heaven, a true emperor of China,
entitled to
together.
A nomadic society gone wild with conquest, in
an administrative
had
the
also
set
to
up
promoted
believed would
do
by
a
the new
so
a
by
utilizing
centuries-old
religion
benefit their
assimilated themselves into
position as
need of
body to consolidate and organize its power now
capabilities
administration
Mongols
All the pieces began to come
the Mandate of Heaven.
the
culture.
the
dynasty that
21
civilization.
Chinese
accepted
The
and
The Mongols effectively
administration
would throw
Sung) and save the peasants of China.
a bureaucratic
and
procured a
out the old (the
Conclusion
Kublai
Khan's
historians as
reign
Peter Brent,
Spuler, and W.W. Barthold.
and his
rich taste
to
mention
such
Richard Lister, James Boyle, Bertold
His
extravagant palace
and grounds,
is
But, one thing such historians
how
he became magnificent.
social welfare programs, his "civil" way
and his
by
magnificent
is illustrated by Samuel Taylor Coleridge in
the poem "Kubla Khan".
fail
rendered
is
tolerance for
and poets
They cite his
of handling
the enemy,
foreign peoples in his realm, but they do
not tell how he was motivated. 24
Kublai portrayed the traditional role of kaghan, the supreme
benefactor,
while
emperor
of
China,
Dynasty, which he proclaimed in 1279.
and
He
founder of the Yuan
provided for
all the
people of his realm in the tradition of the supreme benefactor of
the Mongols.
When the
environmental hazards,
people
encountered
he suppressed
hardships
caused by
tax collection.
When the
peasants were hungry or naked, he fed and clothed them.
carne
to
conquering
the
Sung,
When it
and driving them further south,
Kublai's troops had orders from the Khan himself not to touch any
non-combatant or
their property.
Sung capital, was taken in
farmers
were
not
1279,
harassed,
When
the
the city of Lin-An, the
peasants,
but instead left completely alone.
The Sung imperial seals and state treasure were
the four-year-old
merchants, and
successor of
confiscated, and
the Sung was brought to Shang-tu
with his mother where Kublai Khan hosted them as guests.
22
These were not merely political moves on Kublai's part.
reasons for
his generosity and civility can be attributed to his
background.
He
learned
and
Nestorian--Christian mother
embraced
Mongol
leadership
the
teachings
of his
and his Buddhist/Confucianist mentor,
and applied these beliefs to his reign.
of
The
and
used
them
He took
the traditions
in his rule.
He was not
Machiavellian, but rather a Mongol traditionalist, and civilized.
As a
Mongol traditionalist
he practiced the belief of a supreme
benefactor, and stressed the
civilized man
he respected
that
in
existed
his
idea of
Mongol superiority.
As a
all forms of philosophy and religion
realm,
and
rationally
dealt
with
all
situations that occurred.
Everything
the
Mongols
needed,
support, and stabilization, China
was
administration,
able
to
economic
provide.
Vice
versa, the things that the Chinese needed, guidance and new rule,
Kublai was able to provide.
Kublai Khan broke away from
through his
the
barbarity
of
the Mongols
education to realize that he could be both civilized
and a great leader.
tradition that
At
the
same
aided the people.
truly was a civilized barbarian.
23
time,
he
exhibited Mongol
For his time, and his race, he
Endnotes
1. J. Holmgren, "Observations on Marriage and Inheritances
Practices in Early Mongol and Yuan Society with Particular
Reference to the Levirate" Journal of Asian History 20,
number 2, (1986) pp. 132-144.
2. Richard Lister, Marco Polo's Travels in Xanadu with Kublai
KhaQ, (London: Gordon & Cremonesi, 1976) p. 70.
3. Luc Kwanten,
Imperial Nomads.
Pennsylvania Press, 1979), p.151.
(Penn:
University
of
4. There is not much evidence to explain the drastic decline in
the levirate practice, but it would seem fair speculation that
the nearby tribes would limit this practice considering the
new Mongol supremacy.
The levirate would, however, most
probably be found in the settled areas, between Mongol men
and women.
5. Ralph Fox, Ghengiz Khan,
p. 98.
(New York: Harcourt-Brace, 1936),
6. J. Holmgren, "Observations on Marriage and Inheritance
Practices," p.
148.
There is a problem with evidence
here in regards to exactly why Tolui ceded his power to
Ogadei.
It can be speculated,
however, that he was
overwhelmed by the new system and structure Ghengiz had
created.
7. There is a lack of evidence here as to why Kublai was the
only son to be exposed to this education while the others
spent more time with military affairs.
8. Aziz Atiya,
History of Eastern Christianity,
University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) p. 261.
(Notre Dame,IN:
9. Aziz Atiya, History of Eastern Christianity, p. 261.
10. Wallis Budge The Monks of Kublai Khan. (New York: AMS Press,
1973) p.
159, and Morris Rossabi, "The Muslims in the Early
Yuan Dynasty" in China Under Mongol Rule. ed. John Langlois.
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 171.
11. Lister, Marco Polo's Travels in Xanadu with Kublai Khan, p. 83.
12. There is a lack of evidence on this point.
It is not clearly
stated anywhere why Kublai was the only one to have a mentor,
or even if he was the only one to have a mentor.
24
13. D. H. Smith Chinese Religions, (New York: Holt Rhinehart and
Winston, 1968) p. 152.
Specific examples were not given.
14. J.J. Saunders The History of the Mongol Conquests,
(London: Rutledge and Keegan Paul, 1971), p. 125.
15. H.F. Shurrman, Economic Structure of the Yuan Dynasty.
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956), pp 28-56.
16. V.A. Haisanovsky, "Mongol Law and Chinese Law in the Yuan
Dynas1~y" Chinese Social and Political Science Review 20
(July~ 1936), pp. 266-89.
17. Kwanten, Imperial Nomads, p. 150.
18. Kwanten, Imperial Nomads, pp 150-153.
Kwanten says that the
spoils system demonstrated by the Mongols was inefficient.
The provinces left behind were ruined economically
and the Mongols could do nothing about it because
they didn't care enough and didn't have the system to do
anything. They needed Chinese administration to be able to
consolidate.
19. V. A. Raisanovsky, "Mongol Law and Chinese Law in the Yuan
Dynasty", pp 266-89.
Raisanovsky gives a list of Mongol
agencies as they were under the Sung and then under Kublai as
written in the Yuan Shih Annals.
20. David Farquhar, "Structure and Function in the Yuan Imperial
Government," in China Under Mongol Rule, ed. John Langlois.
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), p. 105.
Farquhar goes into great detail of how the Mongol
utilization of the Chinese administration was tightly
centralized, consisting of many agencies the Khan formed
himself to aid the people.
21.
Raisanovsky, "Mongol Law and
Dynasty", pp 266-269.
22. H.F. Schurrman,
pp 26-56.
Chinese Law
in the
Yuan
Economic Structure of the Yuan Dynasty,
23. H.F Schurrman, Economic Structure of the Yuan Dynasty, p. 21.
and V.A. Raisanovsky, "Mongol Law and Chinese Law," p. 277.
24. Thus far in the works I have studied, there seems to be no
connection made between Kublai's background and his actions
as Emperor of China.
Most works about Kublai Khan focus on
his life and military endeavors.
25
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Notre Dame, IN:
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27
and
of