The Rise and Fall of
Jeffersonian Republicanism (1790-1820)
An Honors Thesis (ID 499)
by
Jennifer L. Freeman
Thesis Director
D~=
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
May, 1990
Graduation Date
May, 1990
...-
-
.
1q,:,,/,
, f1Jr
-'
When
Thomas
Jefferson
joined
President
Washington's administration as Secretary
March, 1790, he
brought
with
party label or affiliation.
position as
a
Revolution
his
term
political
result
of
him
State
in
that office no
recommended to the
participation
in
the
and by his diplomatic skill as evidenced by
as
minister
to
France, but
he
had
no
constituency outside his native Virginia; he
had not even been in the country
been
to
He was
his
of
George
elected.
As
a
when
presidential
Washington
had
advisor, Jefferson
worked closely with Secretary of the Treasury Alexander
Hamilton, who
had
conspired
Madison, in
compatriot, James
ratification
recent
with
of
the
Constitution.
Jefferson's
promoting
the
other
the
than
alignments as Federalists and Anti-Federalists,
proponents
for
and
against
the
Constitution's
acceptance respectively, members of Congress as well as
the
President
identification
pointed
and
with
out, the
his
principal
political
division
parties.
between
Anti-Federalists had been "terminated
and
effectual
executive
or
by
the
no
Madison
Federalists
was
no
legislative
mechanism
in
and
regular
either
the
branches of government, nor
was there any reference to parties in the
itself.
As
had
establishment of the federal government
There
in 1788."1
advisors
Constitution
2
,-
Little
Jefferson
more
took
than
the
a
decade
oath
of
later, when
office
as
Thomas
the
third
president of the United states on March 4, 1801, he did
so
as the head of the political party.
He commanded a
national constituency, and his election had
possible
by
which in
four
mobilizing
the
work
years
popular
been
made
of an institutionalized party,
of
organizing, campaigning, and
support
had ousted John Adams and
the Federalists from power
and
instituted
the
party-partisan
in
the
republic's
history.
turnover
young
first
The new president, insisting that "we are all
federalists,"2 initially spoke in terms of
parties, but
his
immediate
reconciling
action was to construct a
party government.
Thomas
Jefferson's
in
appointees
his
new
administration, headed by James Madison as Secretary of
State, had all been integral characters in the building
of
the
Republican
coalition.
The
Congress that was
ushered in with Jefferson was a different kind of
than
that
which
had
Washington's tenure.
affiliations
met
at
the
commencement
pOliticians were
where
they
claiming
previously
had
governmental metamorphosis had occurred in
preceding
Thomas
Jefferson's
presidential position.
History of American
single
body
advancement
party
not;
the
of
a
decade
into
the
Author Arthur M. Schlesinger in
political
Parties, agreed, "In
a
decade, then, the nonparty conditions which had
3
existed when Washington took office had
by
a
been
replaced
two-party system, sufficiently mature by 1801 to
produce an orderly transfer of political power
national
in
the
government from one party to another."3 These
conditions
which created a nation willing
Jefferson
and
his
Republicans
are
to
of
embrace
tantamount
significance in the examination of this party's rise to
power at the end
of
the
eighteenth
century
to
the
beginning of the next.
During
the
period from its rise in the 1790's to
its breakup in the 1820's, the Jeffersonian
party
made
development
Republican
contributions of major significance to the
of
the
American
demonstrated
that
a
successfully
organized
political
political
in
system.
It
could
be
party
opposition
to
an
administration in power in the national government, win
control
over
that
government, and
changes through party mechanisms.
In
inspire
orderly
challenging
the
Federalist opposition, Jeffersonians were innovative in
building
party
machinery, organizing
political
campaigns, employing party press, and devising campaign
techniques to stimulate voter interest in elections and
support of Republican candidates at the polls.
It was never the
instrumental
system;
in
Federalist
in
fact
intention
of
Jefferson
to
be
the construction of an American party
he
attempted
to
reconcile
opposition to his administration.
the
Although
4
that goal was never
achieved
demonstrating
the techniques of successful party
both
mobilization
to
management
of
during
his
tenure,
in
obtain
power
the
responsible
party
government, the
Jeffersonian
Republicans laid the
and
foundations
for
workable
party
government in the United States.
In
order
to grasp the magnitude of Jefferson and
his followers' effects on the future of party
in
America, it
politics
is necessary to examine the conditions
which created an environment conducive to such
the
administration
of
Jefferson, and
change,
its subsequent
decline.
One
of
the
development
is
paradoxes
that
of
the genesis of political parties
took place in an atmosphere of distrust of
institutions.
Contemporaries
equated
divisiveness, disruption, and
government. 4
The
parties and thus
existence.
In
the argument
control
"the
that
made
no
had
the
violence
drawn
the
part
of
had
parties
with
against
not anticipated
provisions
Constitution
for
would, in
of faction."5
their
which
fact,
But others with
the
Founding
upon found little favorable to say
about political parties."6
on
very
Federalist Papers Madison stressed
the Anglo-American tradition from
Fathers
these
conspiracy
Constitution
had
the
political
American
most
These
anti-party
feelings
political thinkers reflected a
concern that parties would become
the
instruments
of
5
considered
they
consensus
national
the
preventing
interests, thus
special
good
for
necessary
government.
James
Madison
wrote
presence of "factions"
dangers
to
the
a
Federalist about the
in society and
their
potential
smooth and efficient progress of both
society and government.
held
as
He and the
other
Federalists
this negative view of factions or parties, making
their opinions quite clear in Federalist #10:
faction,
understand
I
a
number
of
"By
a
citizens whether
amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who
are united and activated
by
some
common
impulse
of
passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other
citizens, or
to
the permanent and aggregate interests
of the community."?
the
Yet he admitted that parties
inevitable result of the natural human tendency to
differ, and that
sacrifice
any
liberty, an
attempt
to
unacceptable
change
mischiefs
of
The
would
"curing
American
principle
of
This solution
was
Constitution, according
representation
embodied
present
to Madison.
in
republican form of government, the various levels of
established
the
faction" must be "sought in the means of
controlling its effects."8
the
this
course of events.
Thus in Madison's own words, the tasks of
in
were
the
it
in a federal system, and the large society
made possible in this system all "make it less probable
6
that a majority of the whole will have a common
motive
to invade the rights of other citizens" or at least "to
discover
their
own strength and to act in unison with
each other."9
Over the decade that followed the writings of
Federalist
Papers, Madison's
views
were
The
modified
somewhat as he observed the actual workings of parties.
Writing in 1792, he still
as
a
necessary
parties
in
interest.
to the view of
cl~ng
evil, but he suggested some hope that
competition
Madison
could
was
not
work
the
in
only
skeptical about ideologic divisions in
society.
In
opinion
the
public
one
who
was
government
and
Washington's farewell address in 1796, he
warned of the "danger of parties."
an
parties
that
He said, "There
parties in free countries are useful
checks upon the Administration of Government and
to
keep
alive
the
spirit
of
Liberty.
serve
This within
certain limits is probably true, and in Governments
a
Monarchical
case, Patriotism
indulgence, if not
party.
But
in
with
those
to
may
favour, upon
of
the
Governments purely elective, it
encouraged, fire
is
be
the
popular
is
a
look
of
with
spirit
of
character, in
spirit
quenched;
it
uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting
not
be
demands a
into
flame;
lest instead of warning it should consume."10
Although
free and
Jefferson
deliberating
wrote
society
in 1798 that "in every
there
must, from
the
7
-
nature
of
thought
or
man, be
acted
opposite
in
terms
parties,,,ll
of
a
system
responsible parties in the United States.
his
own
that
he
never
of
two
He justified
participation in party activity on the ground
when
"the
substantial
and
principle
of
difference
is
as strongly pronounced as between the
republicans and monocrats of our country, I hold it
honorable
to
as
take
a
firm
and
as
decided part, and as
immoral to pursue a middle line, as between the parties
of honest men, and rogues, into which every country
divided.,,12
themselves
Thus, as
in
the
party
political
divisions
and
is
manifested
social
order
of
nineteenth century America, each party tended to regard
itself
as the manifestation of the public good and the
other party as dangerous to the liberty and security of
the nation.
No precise date can be given for the establishment
of the Republican party, for it did not spring suddenly
into being, and
involved
even
those
leaders
most
intimately
in its formation were not fully aware of what
they were creating.
The beginnings of
what
over
the
course of time became the Republican party can be found
in
the
Second
Congress
that contemporaries
in the congressional faction
referred
to
as
the
"republican
interest.,,13
-.
An
adversary
of
Jefferson, Alexander
Hamilton
wrote in May, 1792, "It was not til last session that I
8
became unequivocally convinced of the following
truth:
that Mr. Madison, cooperating with Mr. Jefferson, is at
the
head
of
a faction decidedly hostile to me and my
administration;
and
actuated
judgement, subversive
government
and
happiness
of
the
in
of
my
good
Union, peace, and
The political skirmish
against
Madison
Hamilton
was
the political styles of the adversaries.
Author Robert Kelley wrote of
Cultural
the
to
views, in
principles
country. 1114
and
his
the
dangerous
between Jefferson
evidenced
of
by
Pattern
this
in
his
book
The
in American Politics, "Jefferson was
cynical about 'great men,' whom he viewed as inveterate
rogues.
He
distrusted
capitalists
and
mind, regarding
Jefferson
frowned
the
the
government
it
as
on
the
the
complications
union
corruption. 1115
encouragement
that
of
between
that Hamilton had in
inviting
industry growth, believing
from
close
the
of city and
people, divorced
business, were
the
true
source of leadership for the country.
Jefferson's world view was rooted in the soil
a
profound localism.
From his experience in Europe as
America's minister to France, Jefferson
distaste
for
irretrievably
arrogance, and
-
cities
and
and
corrupted
ignorance
thought
by
among
had
the
formed
a
British to be
power, aristocratic
the
masses.
All
of
humanity, he believed, was by natural law divided
into
Whigs
from
and
Tories, this
division
springing
9
fundamental differences in
claimed, were
rugged
others
do
the
institutions.
arrogant
themselves
little
in
Tories, on the other
or
willing
and
same, thus
followers
people who were
self-sufficient
capable of governing
Whigs, he
personality.16
people
hand, were
to
let
need
of
either
so weak in spirit that
they needed and desired the protection of powerful
men
and governments.
Jefferson
paper money
Scotsman
an
Adam
regarded
evil.
bankers
His
Smith, who
warily
economics
in
his
and
came
Wealth
(1776) warned that businessmen must always
carefully, for
they
monopolized
privileges from the government
Far
better, Smith
thought
from
the
of Nations
be
watched
and wheedled special
at
every
system
of
"natural liberty" by which no favors would be given
to
anyone.17
that
So
society
Federalists
thought, would
opportunity.
persuaded, Jefferson
was
not
good leadership to
the
was
its
harmonious, as
upper class providing
obedient
divided
a
warned Americans
naturally
insisted, with
Rather, society
be
and
against
humble
itself
unending conflict between the classes, induced
greed
of
the wealthy.
masses.
by
by
an
the
Hamilton's banking schemes, he
believed, would only serve to corrupt
the
people
and
sap the moral foundations of honest republicanism.
Too
many members of Congress, he claimed, manipulated their
positions
in
order
to
"get
rid
of the limitations
10
imposed by the constitution on the general government."
Jefferson
thus
emerged
as
the
champion
of
strict
construction of the Constitution; and it was, as he saw
it, "the
republican
party, who wished to preserve the
government in its present form."18
The
growing
antagonism
between
Jefferson
and
Hamilton was fueled by each politician's differences in
governmental strategy and perpetuated by the climate of
the
times.
The
newspapers
enjoyed
publishing their
differences, often adding to the battle.
of 1792 the quarrels
were
the
center
between
of
such
Hamilton
By the summer
and
Jefferson
newspaper controversy that
President Washington appealed confidentially to each of
them
to
instead
reconcile
differences, urging, "that
of wounding suspicions, and irritable charges,
there may be liberal
and
their
temporising
allowances, mutual
forbearances,
yieldings on all sides."19
In reply,
Jefferson admitted that he disapproved privately of the
Secretary of Treasury, but he avowed he never
attempted
to
persuade
members
defeat Hamilton's plans.
was
publicly
of the legislature to
Hamilton
contended
that
he
the injured party, and knew he had been the target
of Jefferson's sabotage.
Washington's plea for harmony did little to lessen
the conflict between Jefferson and Hamilton, which went
-
far deeper than their
basic
issues
personal
relationship.
On
the
of their day - the nature of the federal
11
union, the
economic
interpretation
of
Constitution, the
the
policies of the government, and the direction
of foreign policy - their differences were fundamental.
Because the contrasts were so sharp and the
of
each
man
so
great, it
formation of two
projection
national
is
tempting
political
to
parties
see the
as
the
of this antagonism and to view the partisan
conflict of the 1790's in terms of a
Jefferson
prominence
conflict
and Hamilton principles.
between
To do so, however,
is to distort the record of party formation and obscure
the
institutional
development
of
political
parties
capable of formulating programs, nominating candidates,
organizing
process
election
produce
campaigns, and
orderly
change
cleavage
within
through the party
in
the
nation's
political system.
While
cannot
be
Congress
the
divorced
from
Washington's cabinet
political
developments
and elsewhere in the nation, the formation of
Republican and Federalist party groupings in
rather
in
Congress,
than the split in the cabinet, provided for the
basis for the institutional growth of
parties.20
As
two opposing congressional parties increasingly came to
dominate
the
proceedings
more and more were forced to
very
-
act
party or
their
of
voting, they
another.
legislative
As
of the legislature, members
take
sides, and
by
the
became identified with one
members
of
Congress
defended
records and sought reelection, they
12
took to the electorate the issues and the disputes that
had divided Congress; they tended
in
their
campaigns
for reelection to impart to the voters something of the
partisanship
that
was
developing in Congress.
the party divisions in Congress filtered
down
Thus,
to
the
voters through the election process; voters chose their
sides
along
Edgar
E. Robinson
political
those which had divided Congress.
of
The
Evolution
Parties, remarked, "In
of
this
Author
American
process
the
congressional factions acquired the mass followings
the
country
necessary
in
to transform them from capital
factions into national political parties."21
This process occurred over a period of tempestuous
historical events; all of which influenced the erection
of
partisan
politics.
Foreign
crises
greatly
determined the path that the alignments would take.
The
presidential
election
of 1792 stimulated an
interstate cooperation among leaders
Republican
interest
that
was
a
for
a
second
the
major
formation of the Republican party.
run
of
emerging
step
in the
Washington chose to
term, removing
that
office
from
partisan contention; however, the vice presidency was a
target
for
either
party.
Although
Adams
reelection as vice president, his Republican
garnered
unanimous
Virginia, North
sUbstantial
electoral
Carolina, and
evidence
that
the
votes
in
Georgia.
Republican
won
the
opponents
New
York,
This
was
cause was
13
organizing in 1792.
Though the party had no deep roots
within the political
community, the
beginnings
of
a
national Republican party structure could be seen.
As
long
Jefferson
as
he
provided
Republican
remained
guidance
interest
Secretary
and
in Congress.
of
advice
However, at the end
from
the
occupations of politics," resigned as Secretary
of State and
leadership
retired
which
Madison now was
During
the
to
of 1793, Jefferson, longing for some respite
"hated
State,
the
to
Jefferson
left
next
Monticello.
for
three
had
Madison
years
The
shared
alone
Republican
with
to
James
manage.
while Jefferson was in
retirement, Madison remained as the
Republican
leader
in Congress and built up there the nucleus of the party
that
Jefferson
was
to
command
when
he returned to
Philadelphia in 1797 as vice president.
Contemporaries
referred to "Madison's party," and, when Jefferson
was
nominated for the presidency in 1796, he was recognized
as the candidate of Madison's party.22
Under
Madison's
leadership, the Republican party
in Congress moved from a role characterized largely
opposition
Hamiltonian
alternatives
change
was
introduced
a policy of
to
administration
inspired, to
and
one
of
measures, mostly
offering
policy
proposing Republican programs.
signaled
in
by
January, 1794
when
This
Madison
a series of resolutions designed to produce
commercial
discrimination
against
Great
14
-
Although these resolutions were abandoned,
Britain. 23
their introduction suggested
summon
popular
that had a
support
significant
negotiation
role
and
the
in
part
Jay
in
in
bringing
Treaty, in
generating
popular
turn, played
support
solidifying
the
for
National
active
against
in
helping
to
spirit
as
rally
The
throughout
John
public
struggle
the country; in
Congress it promoted an increase in voting along
Republican
attention to party strategy
significant
leaders
and
to
by
unusual
led
innovations in party procedures.
of
party
to
The most
the
party
Republicans in the House of Representatives
to determine party policy in regard to the treaty.
The
Republican caucus that met in April, 1796 over the
Jay
Treat
was
the
documented. 25
Republicans
already
-
give
tactics, and
important of these was the introduction
caucus
the
connections
leaders, such
treaty.24
the
party
lines, caused
a
leaders and Republicans on the state
levels.
intensified
aroused Federalist fears
The
Beckley, were
protests
to
of the Jay Treaty with Great Britain.
national
local
effort
the
Republican party and
between
and
Republican
about
controversy over
major
a
first
It
led
ratified
appropriate
funds
met
by
formal party caucus that can be
during
Madison
by
to
the
carry
the
attempt
by
House
to block the Jay Treaty,
Senate, by
it
refusing
into effect.
to
Arthur
Schlesinger postulated, "Although party discipline
was
15
not
so well advanced as to insure unanimous support of
the caucus decision, the
caucus
holding
of
a
formal
party
to formulate the party's legislative policy was
a significant sign
Republican
of
party
in
the
growing
maturity
congress.,,26
failed to block the treaty in the
of
the
When Republicans
House, Madison
felt
that, "the causes lay in the unsteadiness, the follies,
the perverseness, and the defections among our friends,
more
than
in the strength, or dexterity, or malice of
our opponents."
but
the
Party discipline
Republican
was
still
party in Congress under Madison's
leadership became a far more cohesive group
before;
and
lacking,
than
ever
it supplied much of the direction for the
Republican effort nationally.
When in 1796 Jefferson
Washington's
vice
ran
president
against
and
heir
John
Adams,
apparent, he
became Adams' vice president, losing to Adams by
electoral
votes, according
Constitution.
an
epochal
to
the
provisions of the
Behind the outcome of this election
mobilization
of the common people.27
general populace, awakened by
campaign, headed
the
excitement
of
in record numbers to the polls.
outpouring of voters mounted steadily
Until
three
in
the
lay
The
the
This
1790's.
about 1795, an average of twenty-five percent of
the eligible male voters had turned
out
elections, with
an upward trend. 28
The
two-party
no
indication
rivalry
voting statistics soaring.
now
of
for
national
emerging, however, sent
16
John
saw
Adams'
single term as president (1797-1801)
with
war
undeclared
battle.
political
unceasing
almost
an
France, and
undeclared
The
naval
conflict on the open seas that began in 1797, possessed
the national mind.
to
smite
full
Hamilton's Federalists
eager
the French, and demanded that Adams secure a
declaration
refused, they
war
of
made
from
life
his
Congress.
miserable
intrigues, practically expelling him
As
were
Jefferson
observed
in
with
from
1793, the
When
war
he
their
the
party.
in
Europe
between France and England "kindled and brought forward
the two parties with an ardour which our own
interests
merely, could never excite."
The
Jeffersonians
French, not
only
republican
toward
because
English.
constituency
protested
nation
labeling
to
them
war
the
a
huge
their
egalitarian
and
because of their animosity
When
Jefferson
and
his
that Adams was in fact leading
with
France, Adams
"French
seditious and treacherous.
demanded
of
revolution, but
the
the
were traditionally warm to the
party"
and
In April
1798
replied
by
calling them
the
French
bribe of American negotiators in the
XYZ affair.
"The magic spell France had case over
Republicans
was
suddenly
broken
the
by President Adam's
coup in submitting to Congress in April 1798 the report
-
of our commissioners to France on the
affair,"
concurred
Wilfred
sensational
E. Binkley, author
XYZ
of
17
American Political Parties. 29
These envoys had
sought
to compose the difference between the united states and
France
and
to restore the diplomatic relations broken
by France when the nation learned of Jay's Treaty.
Stimulating a hesitancy to reveal the contents
the
commissioner's
of
report, the
wily
Federalists had
lured the Republican Congressmen
into
a
introduction
of
the report.
that
the
French
opening
arose
and
became anti-French. 30
Federalists
spread
Directory
to
indignation
the
a resolution demanding publication of
As the news
preliminary
trap
making
throughout
the
land
had required a bribe as a
negotiations, a
American
roar
almost
unanimously
found
The end of that year
marked
of
the
gains in the congressional
and state elections.
Internally, America had been churning with
that
continued
to
further
distInct political camps.
issues
divide
the
nation
Following
the
XYZ
into
affair,
the Federalists seized the opportunity to capitalize on
the anti-Republican sentiment.
statues
that
betrayed
consciousness
but
illegitimacy
of
Sedition Acts
were
editors
not only
their
political
designed
their
ruling-class
conviction
parties.
to
The
suppress
of
the
Alien
and
Republican
and pamphleteers of French, British, and Irish
nativity them.31
even
They proceeded to enact
"foreign
The
liars,"
Federalists
the
Federalists
called
were a nativist party, and
18
immigrants naturally gravitated to
underdog
the
party
and opposition to the government.
of
the
Republican
politicians were already learning to court their favor,
a practice of which
incapable.
They
the
Federalists
decided
were
inherently
instead, "to strike the evil
at its roots and destroy the foreign vote."32
Under the Alien provision, the period of residence
required for naturalization was increased from five
fourteen
years, during
empowered
to
"dangerous
States."
deport
to
the
Having
electorate, the
which period the President was
any
alien
fines
utterances
congress.
he
judged
of
peace
and
safety
provided
for
subduing
fatuous
Federalists
native Republicans and, in the
for
to
the
turned
Sedition
be
the United
foreign
to
the
Act, provided
and imprisonment as penalties for seditious
and
writings
against
Such
latitude
did
the
this
president
against
Republicans
or
afford the courts
that partisan Federalist judges applied it with
severity
to
savage
for relatively innocent
remarks.
How were
against
the
such
judicial
delegated
Republicans
to
defend
themselves
an arbitrary exercise of legislative and
power?
Since
power
to
Congress
enact
the
had
not
even
Sedition Act, and the
first amendment even forbade "abridging the freedom
speech, or
denounced
of
it
the
as
press,"
been
Republicans
unconstitutional.
of
promptly
But, with
the
19
landmark
decision
Marbury v. Madison (1803) which had
established the Court's prerogative of declaring a
law
unconstitutional through judicial review not yet having
reach
the
political arena, and with the courts packed
with
Federalist
themselves
judges, the
groping
for
Republicans
retaliation.
found
They decided on
the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions.
Author John Hoadley wrote in his book
American
be
of
political Parties 1789-1803, "The Republicans
needed a device for appealing to public
to
Origins
supplied
by party platforms.
opinion, later
They resorted to
the not altogether new practice of resolutions by state
legislatures, and
against
the
statutes."33
of
South
It '\las planned to
pass
the XYZoutrage
too
strength
much
declared the Alien and Sedition
proposed
these
statues
as
protesting
and
Sedition)
the
legislature
had
given
there. The
the
Kentucky
Both sets of resolutions
Acts
unconstitutional
a method of challenging the execution of
deemed
resolutions
states
set
similar resolutions, but the
legislature instead was used.
Federal
have
following
Federalists
and
a
(Alien
obnoxious
Carolina
elections
passed
virginia
designed
invalid.
concerned
by
the
the
The
theory
behind
sovereignty
of the
Constitution
over
the
mandates of the federal government when they superseded
-
the
authority
failed
to
delegated it.
strike
the
Alien
Although the Republicans
and
Sedition
Acts
20
-
premise
unconstitutional, the
Kentucky Resolutions
years.
As
author
Republican
Party:
Kentucky
held
of
their
the
Virginia
importance
for
and
may
William Myers wrote in his book The
A
History, "The
Virginia
and
Resolutions became the political bible of the
Jeffersonians
undisputed
by
1800, and
articles
of
for
faith
a
generation
of
the
the
overwhelming
majority of Americans. "34
Washington's announcement in 1796
that
he
would
not seek reelection created the first opportunity for a
competition
clear-cut
for
that
contest
party
supporters
of
of
Jefferson.
Thomas
behind
Jefferson's
the
the
Federalist
Each
the
candidate
Federalists
Hamilton
was
were
a
party
not
fully
schemed
to
make
vice presidential partner, Thomas Pickney,
demonstrated
party
between
Adams, and
presidential
activities.
This election became a
John Adams and the Republican champions
candidate, although
united
office.
victor. 35
increased
The
election
partisanship
in
and
formal party organization
1796
campaign
It also brought improvement in
organization
of
Republican
campaign operations, although
was
found
only
in
a
few
states.
Jefferson
took
no
part in the campaign of 1796.
Not long before, he had affirmed that
-
from
office
had
without exception,"
meant
and
his
"retirement
from all office, high or low,
that
question
"las
"forever
21
It is apparent from Jefferson's actions and
closed."
from his private correspondence that he did not see]c to
be the Republican candidate in 1796. After his name was
proffered for the office, he was reluctant to be called
back into the political arena.
to
be
post.
disturbed, he
Such
was
supporters, who
If his
preferred
certainly
were
retirement
was
the vice presidential
not
the
aim
of
his
so intent on elevating Jefferson
to the presidency, that they gave little
attention
to
the second office.
of
election
The
1796
clearly
tightening of party lines; it
growing
strength
was
a
displayed
measure
of
the
the
and activity of their party that the
Republicans nearly succeeded in defeating the incumbent
vice president, John Adams, and
Virginian
president.
counted, Adams
had
When
the
seventy-one
sixty-eight;
Jefferson's
making
the
reluctant
electoral
electoral
under
the
provisions, Jefferson, the candidate
vote
was
votes
to
constitutional
with
the
second
highest number of votes, became vice president.
His
election to the second office soon opened not
only a new chapter in Jefferson's political career, but
also ushered in a new phase in
Republican
party.
Despite
the
the
formation
of
the
suspicions
of
his
critics, Jefferson had withdrawn from
active
politics
during his three years of retirement at Monticello from
1794-1797.
It
had
been
Madison
who
was the active
22
motivator
of
Jefferson
Republican
interest.
However, when
returned to Philadelphia in 1797 to take the
oath of his new office, he returned not only to
public
service but to politics.
With
a
Federalist
Federalist
in
administration
majority
the
of
badly
control
of
excluding
the
office, the
national
government. 36
Federalist
party was in
government, systematically
national
Republicans
from
its
offices.
during Adams' presidency the Republican party
opposition
and a
John Adams marked the first clearly
divided, the
the
Congress
presidential
partisan administration of the
Although
in
party
in
possible as long as
a
the
sense
that
had
non-partisan
Thus,
was
never
Washington
the
been
had
held the helm of government.
As
the
party
out
of power, the Republicans had
opportunity to focus efforts on
intricacies
their
of
energies
Republicans
techniques
processes,
political
Jersey, and
formalized
on
took
for
chose.
building
the
fine-tuning
like
Virginia.
method of choosing
legislature
lead
in
states
developing
and
the
structures
there
was
official
in
key
York, New
no
uniform
electors, each
manner
electors
Devoting
election
Pennsylvania, New
since
the
machinery, the
politics
these
involving
politics.
party
presidential
determined
In some
party
partisan
states
issues
state
of election as it
were
named
by
the
23
legislature;
in
others they were elected by district,
in others, on a general ticket.
Thus, the
party
with
the majority in the state legislature was in a position
to
establish
the method of election that promised the
greatest partisan advantage. 37
Since
Adams
by
had
won
the
presidency
in
1796
a margin of three
electoral votes, Republicans were anxious to
votes
in
John
deny
the election of 1800 in states where under a
district system he might carry one or two districts
an
otherwise Republican state.
the
him
Republican
majority
in
in
Early in January, 1800
the
Virginia
General
Assembly pushed through legislation changing the method
of
choosing
presidential
electors
from
election by
district to election on a general ticket throughout the
state.
one
Thus the voter, who in the
elector
from
his
past
district, vas
had
selected
now required to
choose twenty-one electors from the state at large.
succeed in such an election Republicans were
To
compelled
to develop more systematic measures of party management
than
had
there
been
had
required
been
no
consequence, Virginia
most extensively
country
Jefferson
Republicans
That
in
in
statewide
organized
.38
established
previously
virginia
his
party
Republican
in
in a state where
elections.
created
1800, and
a
one of the
structures
party
As
in
the
machinery
utilized
by
own campaign, proved to be a stable
and persistent entity throughout the republican reign.
24
On
the
national
level, Republican
Congress through their
national
capital
structure.
informal
formed
the
associations
basic
had
many
In 1800, Republican members
was
most
party
as
dining
introduced
what
device for the maintenance of
in
congressional influence
party:
the
an opportunity to plot party
tactics.
powerful
of
in
national
By informal communications such
together, they
the
members
the
leadership
of
the congressional nominating caucus. 39
the
Such a
caucus met in May, 1800 and nominated Aaron Burr to
the
Republican
vice
presidential
candidate
be
on
ticket with Jefferson, whom consensus had already
the
made
the rEpublican candidate for president.
Jefferson's
election as vice president four years
before had put him in a position to
for
his
provide
direction
party; he had assumed leadership of the party
immediately after assuming office in 1797.
He had been
in office only a few months when he wrote to Aaron Burr
in New York seeking
Bur~'s
help on "the penetration
truth into the eastern states."
by
meeting
with
party tactics.
of
Burr responded quickly
Jefferson in Philadelphia to discuss
In
1798, reacting
to
the
flurry
of
internal security measures sponsored by the Federalists
in
the
aftermath
of
the
XYZ
crisis
with
France,
Jefferson subtlely took the reigns in the challenge
the
Alien
and
Resolutions.40
of
Sedition laws by drafting the Kentucky
With opportunities for
daily
contacts
25
with the Republican members of Congress, Vice President
Jefferson
kept abreast of Republican party leaders and
their activities.
The election of 1800 was the critical election
the
in
history of the Jeffersonian Republican party - the
triumphant climax to four years of hard work to capture
control
of
the
government.
administration
Although
Jefferson
of the "revolution of
1800";
of
the
national
would later reminisce
that
event
was
not
a
revolutionary
upheaval, but a contest between parties.
This election
offered
outlined
a
change;
Republicans
a clear program of policy alternatives to the
prevailing
Federalist
was
platform
adopted
voters
by
not
any
agenda.
used, and
party
in
no
numerous
the
term
official program was
agency, the
provide a platform of sorts.
reiterated
Although
Republicans
did
This program was publicly
addresses
and
adopted at party meetings, and it appeared
resolutions
in
various
forms in Republican newspapers, pamphlets, and campaign
handbills. 41
Jefferson summarized in 1799 the policies which he
endorsed
to
be
"unquestionably
great body of our fellow citizens."
he
was
"for
preserving
the
He
principles of a
stressed
that
to the states the powers not
yielded by them to the Union" and "not for transferring
all
the
powers
government."
of
the
states
to
the
general
He affirmed that he was "for a government
26
rigorously frugal and simple, applying all the possible
savings
of
the public revenue to the discharge of the
national debt."
He opposed a standing army in time
of
peace and would rely solely on the militia for internal
defense until an actual invasion.
He favored only such
naval force necessary to guard the coast and harbors.
The
against
Republican
the
especially
record
against
platform
of
of
Adams
the
the
Alien
1800
was
administration,
and Sedition Acts, the
expansion of the army, the establishment of
and
the
increased
taxation
military
expenditures.
Jefferson
an
atheist
the
navy,
that had accompanied the
While
and
directed
Federalists
portrayed
anarchist, Republicans labeled Adams a
called
him as a French
monarchist
and
an enemy to Republican government.
Republican
members
of Congress held a caucus May
11 and unanimously agreed to support Aaron Burr for the
vice
presidential
candidate.
This
was
the
first
successful meeting of the Republican nominating caucus,
which
came
to
be the central feature of the national
machinery of the party.42
Its beginning indicated
significant
the
Congress
role
played
which
in
Republican
supporting
the
members
national
of
party
organization.
The
election
unprecedented display
Republican
elector
itself
of
cast
party
his
was
close, with
regularity
vote
for
the
as
an
every
party's
27
nominees, Jefferson and Burr.
The Republican party was
thus put to another test as the election made
to
the House of Representatives.
two
Federalist-controlled
way
On the final ballot,
Jefferson had the votes of ten states
with
its
and
states
Burr, four,
casting blank
ballots.
On March 4, 1801, Jefferson took to oath of office
as President, and a peaceful
place
the
national
government
another.
The
transfer
of
power
took
first transfer of political power in the
from
change
of
one
political
authority
in
party
to
the executive
branch was accompanied by a similar changeover in
the
legislative branch, where Republican majorities in both
houses
of
The party
outcome
Congress
triumph
of
the
displaced
in
1800
party
Federalist majorities.
was
contest
thus
had
complete;
the
demonstrated the
maturity of the party system in American politics.
The coming to power of the Jeffersonians
in
1801
marked the beginning of the Republican era that sa1v the
presidency
pass
from
Jefferson to Madison to Monroe.
When the Virginia dynasty came to an end
in
1825, the
presidential office went to a former Federalist who had
become
a
Republican
office.
But, although
while
Jefferson
John
Quincy
occupied
Adams
vas
the
a
Republican, the presidential election of 1824 shattered
the
Republican
caucus
which
party and the congressional nominating
had
given
direction
to
the
party's
28
national
structure
since 1800.
of uninterrupted control
uhich
the
of
Jeffersonians
anticipated
when
Federalist
party
they
had not collapsed.
the
national
enjoyed
took
had
The twenty-four years
government
could not have been
1801.
in
office
The
lost an election, but the party
A sizeable minority of
Federalists
still existed in Congress, a threat which prevented the
Republicans
from
after taking
prevent
their
a
office
party
on their recent win.
1801, Republicans
return
by
strengthening
party
machinery
challenge, by
Republican
in
Federalist
goal
building
resting
the
by
of
making
and
Federalist
expansion
federal
to
They sought
mechanisms
areas
directing
supporters, and
fought
pover.
party
in
supporting
press, by
to
Thus,
of
the
patronage to
policy
changes
in
accordance with campaign promises. 43
Once
the
in office the Republicans moved to implement
policies
Jefferson
of
simplicity
had promised.
expenditures, began
national
and the
an
and
frugality
They cut taxes and government
orderly
retirement
diplomatic
establishment.
They
reduced
the
more
Alien
steps, the
and
Sedition
Jeffersonians
of
the
residency requirement for naturalization
to five years to keep the promise that there
direction
of
debt, and reduced the size of the army, navy,
fourteen-year
no
uhich
national
Acts.
In
demonstrated
policy
could
be
would
be
talting these
that
the
effectively
altered through the working of the party system.
29
As the party
patronage
in
power, the
Republican
had
the
of the federal government at their disposal.
Jefferson moved cautiously in working out his patronage
policy; he did not make the
Federalist
wanted.
the
officeholders
clean
sweep
of
policy
appointments, his
Republicans
was
be
would
appointed
While
rewarded
the
protecting
party
the
faithful
cut.
to
Only
office
share
public
and
promote
In terms of
clear
Republicans held their proportionate
offices.
to
the party in power.44
of
the
that some of his compatriots
He did initiate a policy designed
continuity
all
of
until
public
interest, he
succeeded
in
maintaining the confidence of his party.
presidency, Republicans
Jefferson's
During
institutionalized
the
most
important
mechanism
of
national party machinery - the congressional nominating
caucus.
Although
never
without
critics, the caucus,
which had assembled secretly in 1800, was brought
the
open
and
became the accepted, successful mode of
nominating
presidential
candidates.
Until
congressional
into
and
vice
presidential
1824 the nominees of the Republican
nominating
caucus
were
victorious
means
of
candidates at the polls.
The
legislative
caucus
as
a
making
nominations was found on the state level as well as
the
national
level.
Republican nominating
On
caucus
the
was
national
never
on
level, the
expanded
to
30
involve
in
its
decision
party
leaders who were not
members of Congress; and it is not surprising
state
nominating
all, the
fall
victim
Republican
as
conventions sprang up, a movement to
abolish the national caucus gained
above
that
congressional
to
But,
nominating caucus would
intra-party
factionalism
momentum. 45
divisions.
would
1824,
By
so
prevail
that
the
in
office, Republican
caucus would be unworkable.
By Jefferson's second term
disunity
had
become
a major party problem.
Republicans were firmly in power, the
Federalist
strength
had
Once the
solidarity
that
promoted was weakened.
When
Jefferson announced his intention to retire from office
at the end of his
faced
second
term, the
Republican
party
the greatest test of its national strength since
its ascension to power.
While
cotesworth
Madison
defeated
presidency, Madison
Federalist
party.
resurgence
Plagued
and
was
From the
faced
disunity
outset
with
both
within
his
of
a
own
by Republican factionalism in Congress
throughout his two terms, he was never
the
Charles
Pinckney in the election of 1808, there was
a substantial Federalist revival.
his
Federalist
able
to
exert
executive leadership over the national legislature
that Jefferson had
exercised. As
the
divided
nation
drifted to war with Great Britain, a divided Republican
party
lost
support.
In
the presidential election of
31
1812, Madison himself was challenged
reelection, not
in
his
bid
for
by a Federalist but by a member of his
own party.46
Despite
dominant
their
losses, Republican
remained
party, persevered in the frustrating war, and
survived to
Britain.
take
The
credit
for
the
Federalists, on
peace
with
the post-war nation.
few
states, the
Great
the other hand, tainted
by the opposition to the war, found little
a
the
support
in
While Federalists survived within
Federalist
party
as
a
national
instrument did not exist after 1816. 47
The end of the War of 1812 thus
brought
a
major
change in the political situation in the united States.
Until
then, the
Federalist party had remained a force
to be reckoned with
by
the
Republicans.
After
1816
this condition no longer existed on the national level,
and
a period of one-party government began.
Monroe, who
presided
elimination
of
over
this
President
era, envisaged
the
all political parties; and many of his
contemporaries, still unable to
see
the
benefits
of
party competition, shared this vision.
The
changed
state of party competition after the
end of the War of 1812 also altered in practice, if not
in
theory, the
nominating
caucus.
character
designed
to
the
congressional
Attitudes toward it shifted as the
realities of practical
was
of
politics
concentrate
shifted.
party
The
caucus
support behind a
32
single
candidate, which
system
was
a
in
practical
a
competitive
necessity.48
provided an effective means of
two-party
The
performing
caucus
this
task;
with the disappearance of the Federalists as a national
party
after
1816
and the absence of a contest in the
electoral college, the caucus, which initially had been
only the nominating agent, came to
be
in
effect
the
electing power.
The congressional nominating caucus was under more
than
verbal
assault, which
putting candidates before
led
the
to
new
voters.
methods
Some
of
faithful
Republicans attempted to cling to the caucus nominating
procedure to resurrect the party, but their support was
crumbling
under
the 1820's.
same
existence, and
necessity.
buffeted
changing political conditions of
The necessity of politics had brought
into
caucus
the
the
While
caucus
the
would be abandoned by the
political
currents
that
drell attention to this ];:ey party
mechanism of the first party system, its
evidence, not
the
cause, that
collapse
was
the Republican organization
that had carried Jefferson into the presidency in
1801
no longer survived.
In
the
election
Adams over Jackson, a
ignited.
party
to
of
1824, when
new era of partisan politics was
Although Adams, who had left
join
the
the House chose
Republicans
president and had served for eight
the
while
years
Federalist
Jefferson was
as
Monroe's
33
secretary
of
state, was
Jeffersonian era had
Republican
in
in
name
fact
a
come
party
as
a
out
of
power, the
Republican, the
to
an
end;
the
viable organization no longer
existed.
While
accepted
one
Republicans
the Federalists as a legitimate rUling party;
in
office, the
Federalists
as
a
Republicans
legitimate
never
accepted
he
Republicans
entered. the
political
ignoring
parties, but
previous
idea
of
a
he
When
period after
elimination
of
all
never reached the point of
Federalist
partisanship.
Although
two-party system was not yet accepted
when the Republican era ended, the
and
government.
one-party
1816, President Monroe sought the
nation
suggested
Instead, he sought initially
to reconcile the present factions of
the
Even
saw value in a party system, never acted upon
the premise as president.
the
the
opposition party.
Jefferson, who at times made statements that
that
never
experience
of
the
under the first party system of the Federalists
the
Republicans
demonstrating
mobilization
management
both
to
of
led
in
that
direction.
In
the techniques of successful party
obtain
power
the
responsible
party
government, the
Jeffersonian
Republicans laid the
foundations
government in the United States.
and
for
workable
party
ENDNOTES
lArthur Schlesinger, History of U.S. Political Parties,
v. 1, 1789-1860, From Factions to Parties, (New York:
Chealsea House Publishers), 1973, p. 239.
2Leon D. Epstein, Political Parties in the American
Mold, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press), 1986, p. 96.
3Arthur Schlesinger, p. 240.
4Arthur Schlesinger, p. 247.
5Wilfred Binkley, American Political Parties: Their
National History, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.), 1962,
p. 68.
6Wilfred Binkley, p. 69.
7Francis Curtis, The Republican Party 1854-1904, v. 1,
(New York: Knickerbocker Press), 1904, p. 221.
8Arthur Schlesinger, p. 343.
9Leon D. Epstein, p. 200.
10Leon D. Epstein, p. 220.
11Everett Chamberlin, The Struggle of '72. The Issues
and Candidates of the Present Political Campaign, (Chicago:
Union Publishing Co.), 1872, p. 63.
12 An drew w. Crandall, The Early History of the Republican
Party, (Boston:
The Gorham Press), 1930, p. 196.
13Francis Curtis, p. 225.
14John F. Hoadley, Origins of American political Parties.
1798-1803, (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky),
1986, p. 193.
15Robert L. Kelley, The Cultural Pattern in American
Politics - The First Century, (New York: Alfred A
Knopf, Inc.), 1979, p. 95.
16John F. Hoadley, p. 201.
17Robert L. Kelley, p. 101.
-
18Arthur Schlesinger, p. 340.
19William S. Myers, The Republican Party:
(New York: The Century Co.), 1928, p. 63.
A History,
20 William S. Myers, p. 98.
21 Edgar E. Robinson, The Evolution of American
Political Parties, (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., Inc.),
1924, p. 501.
22 Art hur Schlesinger, p. 292.
23Wilfred Binkley, p. 83.
24Francis Curtis, p. 191.
25Andrew W. Crandall, p. 106.
26Art hur Schlesinger, p. 205.
27Robert L. Kelley, p. 87.
28 Ro bert L. Kelley, p. 75.
29Wilfred Binkley, p. 85.
30William S. Myers, p. 154.
31 Arthur Schlesinger, p. 308.
32Arthur
Schlesinger, p. 356.
33 John F. Hoadley, p. 94.
34William S. Myers, p. 164.
35Edgar E. Robinson, p. 43.
36Edgar E. Robinson, p. 67.
37Arthur Schlesinger, p. 360.
38Arthur Schlesinger, p. 372.
39Leon D. Epstein, p. 133.
40Wilfred Binkley, p. 87.
41John F. Hoadley, p. 103.
42Arthur Schlesinger, p. 243.
--
43Arthur Schlesinger, p. 244.
44 Ar thur Schlesinger, p. 26145 An drew Crandall, p. 123.
46Robert L. Kelley, p. 62.
47 Art hur Schlesinger, p. 302.
48 Art hur Schlesinger, p. 309.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Binkley, Wilfred E. American Political Parties:
Natural History. New York, 1962.
Their
Chamberlin, Everett. The Struggle of '72. The Issues
and Candidates of the Present Political Campaign.
Chicago, Illinois, 1872.
Crandall, Andrew W. The Early History of the Republican
Party. Boston, Massachusetts, 1930.
Curtis, Francis. The Republican Party, 1854-1904, v.I.
New York, 1904.
Epstein, Leon D. Political Parties in the American Mold.
Madison, Wisconsin, 1986.
Hoadley, John F. Origins of American Political Parties,
1789-1803. Lexington, Kentucky, 1986.
Kelley, Robert L. The Cultural Pattern in American Politics:
The First Century. New York, 1979.
Myers, William S. The Republican Party: a History.
New York, 1928.
Robinson, Edgar E. The Evolution of American Political
Parties. New York, New York, 1924.
Schlesinger, Arthur M. History of U.S. political Parties,
v. 1, 1789-1860 From Factions to Parties. New York,
1973.