1 () 71
•
in tro
~1~~0~+~ry
f\ '1 n (;.If
B"'\r
lv: <~ )"; p
Srhorl
n q v:
~
1.D. 4qC1
II
B 01
1
j
:3 + c> t e U n 1'/ e Y' ,'i +:'
1 t', J nrJ i an:c~
'.'11 "ter, 1971
l'"lJnC
('
I-
~f~
'i r
'
. ~ (/"
I ".' ~ Sf' Tot 'n
h
..
r;: 1"fu i
'eJ
n lr
Ur. A1
lei?
Wi
irnl)+
r'
.
I
IhP
VI[
it'
Dr,-
.
T•
A Brief History of COmr'JtFTs • •
3
•
q
IJ.
Defjnjtion of Terms
Tvt~~;s
of' Cornrute r
11
SVFte1'YJP,
---'-'--L\~l-T-:':'-in-(r:~r~ c'tlc('--
}<jr"'Y'1
9
•
-
'[
1
Tut:)ri_81 SystefYl
')i '11 oeTue ':3y~dem
1 ')
(>tlC1J18tOY'
C:;\IS-tOfY)
M~n8pement
Syst p
1
1h
Fcyct::,l
S tu:~ i es wi th
'3
'-~
1'Y]
Co~nr\)t(~~";~
1 n the
Elernert8ry School
At Stantorti
S
15
:) ?,
:) q
70
IV.
lLIc
')'Ll
16
'~
'I
l
Co~t
'3 CJ
h1
I
L _ __
'IT
Vll
1,
L()
x
To many, the use of' computers in erluc8ti nn
relatively new and/or
c0ntrov~rsial
idea.
erluc::>.tors of' tr,e past have proc]
sor;:~
8"
~s
8
1-{owever. 81 th01J£T,h
med
1hc) need
s for thel r
S. L. Pressey of Ohio State University stated:
uSP.
The averafe te8cher is woeful y
-l;he rout'ir,e of rlrill
hy
hurrlene~
1nforrr.~~t"cn-r"xir:.'T.
and
it
would seem hi CT hly desirable to ]i1'+ rrcm Ito['
sh,ol:lders :=ts frJc\-) ?2 Dos:'lble of +v.::: burrien aYLri
makp her frf' er f 0,' tlt 0 se ; n sri ra ti ora 1 and th o1)9"h tstirnulatinp ac~;vities wrioh are, nresumably, tho
re~Ll function of' tlte teacfler.
(Y):lH)
:;8yln·-;r this, 1-"ressey introduced his ;'leu:
W01)}d
P
or 8 m2_chinE' -th8t
'''te'Jch informati'Jnal a.nrl rlri!' Y",:ct,erlal
more
r;f'!'~cipnt'y,
(3 0 :1 H )
new i d '?; a, n e ~ the r i:-; t h '?
U f~
e
0
.p
d ('. V
It is not 2ctuaJly known when man
his
pOG~p!"2ions.
he had.
;
e e;~
te~an
t
0
c (l U n tor c.'1 1 C1 J l " t: p
•
to record or calcuJpte
" pe b ll1 e •
when
th€
(40:19(')
II
d~scusBing
comrutat i on8J
parts of
~ids.
(I~,o
"d i p: it..
VI C :d
j S
1)
S€
ct
numer~]s,
: 19(3)
The abacus, man's first device to express snecific
quantities,
w~s
jnvp~ted
'rhe abacL;s, wr.ich "m2_y be
device. in terms of
about 2,000
tlrtP
j~vestment
ar:o.
effir~ient
rr:osi:
i~
year~
('):L~l)
COIT1]2ut'ltion
pquipment ard ease of
m8rllJf8ciure compared to the extent of corr:nutir.''- Cliri obt::-dned,
( Lt 0
r~a.st.
: 1 9 ij )
(40:10)
The first
~b2CUS
was probably nothing more than Lines
on the grounri wi th store s u sed to ind j ca tr:'
Gradual1:/,
;:'00
ifications were
ClfT10'ln
d~awn
ts.
madf~.
Beads, sljriing on wires, substitute for the
Five beads below a wooden b2r are unjts;
e·c ~1 "II,-,r] 2.hove is worth 1'i ve • Numbe ['8 are
renre~~E?r'ted by pllshing beads ar:a'nst the bar.
TlJe
wires or columns. starting at the riPJlt, repr(':~p.nt
p}:.'00 vplue: units, tens, hunr,reds, etc., just as
anY' c].?c;mal arithm~tic columns do.
('3L~:11)
n0b~]~R.
Few jmproverr:ent8 were marie in
until the seventeenth century.
b1aJse
~accal
calculntir~
m8chines
1n 16?4, qt the age of lQ,
of Rouen. France, invented a c8icu18tinp
ma('hire.
(3~:j)
w~s
The calculator, whirh
of a S'ine88x, V:(lS a f!e8x-driven m: ('hine
operated by
mov~nf!
ttl~l_t
~hout
t~e
("~.liJ I~j
Slze
be
a series of wheels.
(LH):11)
Addition and subtraction could be performed on this
mach~ne.
The calculator proved very useful for the purpose for whjch
it was designed--to help Pascal's father, a tax collector.
figure his accounts.
(5:121)
In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, started to
;mprove
~ascal's
calcuJating machine.
He developed a
that w8uld multiply (by rep8ated addition) and divide.
machine was built in 169 4 •
mar~~np
Th;s
( 34 : J)
No further improvements or advancements were made uytil
~he
be~inning
N!.
Jacollard decided to nove] op a system to control weavinp-
of the nineteenth century.
natterns on a loom
q
(40:198)
At this time, Joserh
Holes were punched in cards
series of c8::-ds was user] to conirol the m8..chine.
~nd
Ch",Y'lcs Babbage, an English mathem:1tic;an, riesj,o-r:erl
i-~e
"C:l -r"ference engine" in 1822 that cO!1tainerl "!Y'ost or
e1ements of the modern general purpose COIT'Puter."
From his work on the difference engine,
bqbb8~8
~l
b8.s i c
(LJO:198)
qat the irlra
for the following machine.
~owered
by steam, jt would work from a pJannerl
of operating instructions stored on punched
c~rds.
It would include, as our modern comruters 10,
el "TH~mory or store, an arithmetic unit, a section t'nr
en-:,ry or data or instructions, and 2Y' QutY'll t ~C'C U on
for prirting results. It would also prrform ~ecision­
m? ld niT f1Jncti ons.
( 34 : 4- 5)
p~ocr8.rn
Even
to ["1Ve
hir1
t~ough
Babbage persuaded the British Fovernrrent
some money for his eXDerimeni-s (about Sil,OOO,noo
hy todqy's standards), he was unable to rlnvp]or
(L~O:199)
t~is
~8.c~ine.
Unfortunately, it was so Jong beforr> morf' work.: w?s
----~.--
Tni'OY'ffi':}.ti on f'. -rom the
sortod
'lnrl
C
States cenSUR was
1 '=ts~:; ~ fi ect bV a cororu ter d eve loped ny Dr. Herrr'lYJ
HoJJerith.
rlowr, a
so~
of
sTrjn~-loa~erl
a hoJe,
pins was pressed qpainst 8 carrl.
the mercury
1)ln elropren
2nd rn.3rle 'lX', elect",icaJ clY'cuit.
'I' his electri
c~.l
turn, causerl a ro;ntor to move one pcsltinn or a
d rCiJ.i +~iql-8~rl
1
f1
-.--
..
6
..
"
: n tr: i r:. v.'ay
~
l-loJlerlth'"~
+'le
( 3h : S)
( J4 : 4 )
It was not until 1937 that the next wajor
w~s
made.
arlv~ncement
At this ti':Tle, Eoward H. Ai.ken of !-lar'v'lrd
UY'lversity
and dest<: calculators controlled by a play,oo,-r-r' ano-iype ro11
of nerforated paper."
r:'achi nes became
~eln
~jm
i
(5:121)
Internati~'nal
J3llSlneS~
nteresteri in Aiken IS corTuter 'Jr'cl orf('reri to
d8velor the
Au~omatic
Sequence Cnntrnl]pr, or
Mark I.
(r'he lVlaI''\.: I could perform 2J-'i i El'; tad] i +i oY]s
slJbtractiors :i 1" tr,ree tenths of a se~onrl ~nrl
cou10 ml:ltipl:" tv'(' :':~j-di.[:I:it numbers if' 2 t 'C,1 1 t six
seconds • • . • OY'ce the lViark I was star+:pr! or t-he
fi rst irstr'Jc-+: i ::m ina proP-'raY'), no f'urThcor hl)mar:
cl.ir0"?+:ion V':'1,S neerjc.'n until a new protJ1r,:m \l/2.S TU+;
in the machine.
(34:6)
8Y'1(1
The 1'·';aI'k I, w<tich was 1mi lt in 1944, was nlacc'-; on
the Smithsonian Institute in
The
~jrst
(ii
splay at
1964.
alJ-eJectronic digital
co~~)ter,
~h8
ENIAC
7
(40:19 Q )
fViavnchly rlevEJ.OT)eC the ENIA.C at. lvoorr: Schoo}
'T'hey e1 i mic!O}teri
1"lo"ir£'
C 01) :: t p
T1;~~r~f;,
r
Vi'r,
~~l)Cr'
eel f;, t
Instea~.
~hey
c~rcuits
~nd
r;
as
rep res p n t
ad~pted
"on" qri
"of~"
Since
s+~d.es
ri ~ r: ~ t ~-:: C', n (1
n 1) mt: e y' f)
rulses tn
Dll]sr:;s
•
rl~~-rlnD
fl~n
Rwitche2, w~~h
repres'?ri.lrw numbpV'p.
e~er+r')ric
y
'y cop-t-rollnr'j
Rlertron~r
US0ri electronic
~T)~ of~ J~k0
vacuum tuhcs on
mC'char,ica~'~
for
tr.e nppr:
eler'tr'(;;Jl
Elect:r-iclJ
Of'
cr,1)ld
t~e
move
+hou~:;anns o~ tim.e~~ ~'?~'+er +h~lr' Glecirorv',ecn8T i cal r!nv~r,,"f:, the conc,'l't. 'ner'irrl "~rHi\C
a rea L Dr02kt h rr'1)p-h l r 'Ule '1 ,"vP r)T'IrJc'r:i:'
more ef'f''; r~ er,t C8. 1 Cl)J atorf'.
('JJ~: C'.)
Waf'
1
Dr. John ven Neumann is
wi "'Clncen:er t
j rl
cr~rti ~~d
w~th
o~'
the next
en.
28
data, could be
This idea makps it possible for t~c ororrRrnc to
cause the mach~np to wake ~rtcrn~l rro~~f~c~t~or ~c
the rrogram whiJe the ~ach~n? ;~ rurnjnf, and this
inter~a'ly rnndif;~~]e, stcre1-rro~ram crr\ent has
beer' in m8T,V wa.vE'
i~he
most r!?vcll;t~cnarv d0.velorfDen-i~
(hO:1('.O)
,
~r the hi~t';-'oy ~f' 'rnch;res.
c1 ev{: 1 OC"lE'c1 2.t t~:e Uni ve rs i. ty l'i1a them:l t~ cal
1 abora tcry, Camr):r'1 d ere,
(40::'00)
romput~r
of the lQSO's was the UNIVAC.
( '/ : 7)
"'he
lJ~'
1
VAC
II
forecast
SDee~,
and efficiency.
the commercj.al wlrket In 1950, fe'."
['<Ol/{
T:!ost
busjne~~ses
businesses could afford
feel frat
1.'1e'(
U:H1TIOt
at'rorcl to
do wjthout them.
businesses are n()t the only
:'n8~~
to
CC:P" the n8f?d ar'c1
~any
express a belief
i~
the advantages of
enucators now
com0utp~s
in
eriuc~tion.
"instruction.
-::nstruction.
When the
s~Grtcom~n~
of
Pro~ra~~ed
Inntruc+;on
(12:6)
How
~e~inition
of Terms
he1nful.
1.
Trs-+.ructior' (CA1)--fT!he rT)riJ js
t';::Jced w; th the CO'llT'ut.er cHid worKS d i r ect1y 'A~ i.h
1. t •
'I' h e c 0 ITT u t, f?' r t e 8. C h e f;, 0 r 8..,j rr i j c, + p r G t It e,
"()lmil's 1nstTuct-'or.
(lL:3,)1)
COrrl'!]t,?r-'-8Sc:i:c~t€,rj
y,
the Be h 001, c las sroom, or home may bo? c C;:'~0 Ct<::>rj
JirRS +0 the central
Tn its
processor.
si~DJest
The
centra~
Cl
te 1 e p\, or''?
rn~ruter
may be
form, a comruter-ronrected
tynewrjte r eqn rrovjrle drill
M8ter~als
+0
~+udents
in s1)h,io r:t a r e8::; f'uch a;:- :lr i +h'T1etir ''Inri ~rellircr.
'I'hl? rraterials can be If)'Tjcc.>]ly seq'-le'~(~0rl 8.Y]d
nresentei to R student on th0 basip ~f his past
nerformarlce jY] 8. manner t.h8.t inSl)Y'(?:3 rontinolls
feedback.
I nit s m0 s -t son his tic" ted r cp" rr, m,1 t F, yo i
C8n
he nr-'es0rteri i'1 ?'''C:;Y'ic'h,
8. ]
fY'nrJr;s (p.cr.,
prln+:erl-, 8110io, V i 2U2. 1 , 'Tr8 r t,ic).
4 v'l:rir"'h, nf
r e ;; 1.' 0 '1 S p mod p S 8. rea va i 1 a h 1 e (e. V'.,
r i t': en,
(1'):1 11)
tyt'l?d, r0;:'T0 Y ':(o' ,ele::+lor"
?lidio, lip·ht,. Df'Yl).
Cd'
'I,
2.
CorrDutpr-m3nR~erl
Instruc+ior (r~r)--The computer
he1ps the teacrer. It COT".E'S Jrto tr.e
trstructional proFram be~inrl th p te~~her R Y1 d
servef~ as an aj ri.
Tn cor'Tut(:r-rr:'lY1cO'(,rJ.
10
instructiOf'
th~
comD1]i>,Y'
s,f's';L)
-:-lot:'s not 1 n~~truct the runi 1
~'S
assiste~ ~nstruct~on. :(';h:l~2)
C~I
rn
the ruo;1 rioes rot
'~(-l""
te'lJ:herj
i,T
ir, ca IT1 nllipY'-
co~p
l,n
~ontact
w\~~
the
computer.
student's performance.
W~en
ta]k;n~
about the
onc often hears about
co~nuter
The
3.
Y
~;ystem.
w=th its
n~ofr2~n
'
~rrl
prorrramminF
(40:194)
and rli fficllJt to prOc1lJee,
18
Softw8.re--Tlte collectior of m::on-wd tten sc11)tinr.f3
ar'o specific ir:ctr'Jr.tion~: needed t.o slave problems
wi-t:)-, a corrrl1Jter.
(also) AU ricclJments needed to
~uidp the operation of a C'o~rvtp~, e.~., lT8nua]s,
:nroP'rarns, :f10wch8rts, etc.
<:~!f:,'!'9)
have the j r
5.
; tern i s
Hardw8re-- i ['lJe rner:'la,lc~J f m"o'Yn(>t i ';, elpetric,
8.nO electronic aevl ees f'''orr w;,; e'l 2 Co;y:nUT('r
:i;:; COYlst:"1)C f.ej; or the con:rut0
it~:,c:'1 r 28
contra~ted
4.
f'] r:~ t
own campJ tp'~s.
rl'irr.p-sh.arinp;--(1t) ••• con!:ervF"
1ft!?
lJ~Cr'S
time
2nd enables many people ~o ~ are th~ ~roeessln~
nower of a sirilTlp C(H"' I TP r a,o'1 w~:rk out
r1
~r'riivirlual
problems rluri~lO' tl-)e scme +,-iT'le span.
A numter of sch ooJ ;, and/or bu sine::::: 38 ~
,,)---.8
re 'ri me on
F,ol C h 1 0 cc" t i (')
"1 th a COIT'rnter.
( ~<h : 1 6 )
(3iJ.:16)
Y.
if"
Uri J J -2Y'd -IT8ctice
'\.t the
slmp]est
i!1tpr~,,'t.~0--:
s ~r s t e Tn ~ t h a +. pre ~~ 1'" r', t a fix e ~ , 1 i n e a
!("/'''~
)~
'J,r'OUlo;0
~) e q 11
en r: e n r
be. correc'-tr:d in;l
t if"p decisions 8re
'f"1rieh,r of
11:::1'1e roY" J'Y'orlifyinp: tre flow ()fin::;t",]"lion2'! m"',ierj::;d
88::1 flJy'(,j~OY; of thl? studert'c; rE':sror:sp his'0 'Y.
YiY"or1eTr.s.
f
C;+1ld0n'l errors m8Y
ways, hll,T rn re8 1 -
Y
Sucrt ~~'.rstcr.s 0~.\'(\ teer. t.eY·rr'e~
sy~+e~; .•.• (L:225)
tt(~.
ri 1 I . . . ~~r.d
-~r.C·lc-+ -;
re"
i,l>Jhen
d i f'fi c1;1 iy •
J?
After each rroblem was rriven, the
j
did
~o~
total
per
respo~~
in
~robl
rH'rJY's,
t~js
O;o"S
tync th8 won! "Flnj she r ]
t)-,o
the chi 1rl
f
lencr+h of +ime,
mi sseri
he wovld arlvancc to
ce~t,
would have
~hilrl
'T'he
."
(th<:1 r
t~e
r'Jmhers),
nex i
level.
cOPTuter
W,~l;
and
] f
totaJ
'''0
h'
,~c
oreel
Ii thpn'i ve her
fol1i'w~n.(T:
entire clasG, and the distributior Oi
on the 1 essoY':.
t~p
total
eJ~~rei
tjme
'rhe te3('her coulei ther' siudy the res'11 t and
work on specia] difficulties with inrilviduaJ students.
(Arldit~onal
Tutori'l]
inform8+~on
w;ll be dj.scussed in the se2tlon on
Sv~,t8m
-.-.-~----. ~------
to a::lswer.
Tutorial
t~.r:~2
·~:lecl_s1on
pro~r8ms
rr1,~k~np'
~~1Y''4
have the canability
iy;str'u<;t:;on,'~1"l
~or
reaJ-
-brr-t";1chinq
contjrcrQnt- on '" 'cin'~le r'C;:I'or:sc, c r 0,1 St~\"1e Gll h ;'ot of
th? ~:: ',1) ,I en t' s re Sr,[1 SC his to l'y •
'::311 I:; '-: r'rO\"T~lrnc: ;ell ow
~?+urlcr:.t8 ~.,n ['ollOVJ SP-p8r[~_1-,t? ;".~c1 (~,;"\l';"'-'~~0 c8th3
tt-~r'--'U"r-l
+)~e
CiJr'cj.(,1J1 UJYi
-b?t::crj
~)Yll
~'1r.:
y~
J}':'1r l"jru18r
pe!'forrrc-:mcp recor'rls.
rrl:e nrn"cnhj lity :is rl~r"h in ::1
tu-l:o'''i2 i nro,1"c;rn ilj,,,t '10 two stwie"'ts w~ll e"couptpr
exactly tho same sequence
rto'N'c'ver,
:~tuc:ent
~3:
Y'espon;~es
bp C~lO;;en
or
lesson m2terlo!.
8r e "T':>;1-7:1y r(o;:::t r
',
cted
nee they :I'!l,; t-,
i'rnITi 8 prescri hed se t of
reSDonses, or rnnstructed in such a rn~nncr th2t a
reJ8tive1y :'irnr!e t(::f3t 2naJ,Y:;1s wi 11 (Jr; ,~;Jf'f-;rient
for their evaluation.
(4:~~5)
t red j a 1 0
(TU e
Ai the othpr extreme !)f OlJr scale (startiyw w1+h
t::e d~~. -I 1-a.nd-Irrac t ,ice, t~!e t;ut r)ri':11, ... ) chs.r,8cter i zi rlp·
s+;udent -system iy'teractic)Y1s '1re "dia10 cr u"," T'Y'0p-rams.
Such proEraMs are under investi~Rtio~ at sevpral
'lnivev>sities gn~l inrll1str181 ronc 0 rns, hl)+ t,o ",d-e
pro PTe s s h C1 S b-:. en<=> X + rem e l y: j mi_ t e rJ • 'I' h,-, Jt: O;:1} 0 -t,
the dialogue approacr i~ to orovide the rjchett
Doss5bJe stude~i-sYRtem intp~8~i~o~ where the
sbJdert is free to CCY1stYllr.t n"tur81-~an7uave
responses, ask qucstion~ ~n an unrestricted ~r~c,
2nd in ~eneral exerciEc almo3t ~omDleto 0~rtrcl ov~r
the S0";)enr.e o+' lE'arnin'(T pvents.
(1!:??5)
Calculator System
----------"""----_.
computations.
1 1,
for s1)t:h t"',sks
~("'I'
,
-~ ,-}
"
Of'
United States
C0urst:~.
Gove~~me~t.
Over 10n research-related projects de81i~f
wi +h I'?dllcat i nna 1 uses of ('o~>,utpY's h'i're beer funded
ll:l!)eY' the Co('pcrative Researo h, Act, grnen-le rl by
~itle rv of the Elementary and Secondary Fduration
Act, and Title V1I of the National Defense
Edncati 01' Act.
(H' these, at),ut two r!0zen current
projects rl'?lp+e to cornf")tp::-_~tSSi ,'ted inf:-;tY'uct i "n
f'oV' use i n schoo~! sand col1e'res.
(1('): ?Lj)
At Stanford
One 0 r the fi rst Groll ps tn beCTi n a prO,':'Tam of comp]) tel'
Social Sciences at Stan+'ord
Un~versjty
~Y'
Jan'l:OJry of 19AJ.
'fhe C3rne[fie Corl'or8.tion of New y() . . . j.r sllr:rlieri the fll::rls for
(31:1)
W8.S
C onstrlJ
cted •
(~31:1)
~lnrl
the
16
frh~.,
str1)('tj 0:1 ~''ystp.rn i '; the Tnstitutp
'I zerj
('orrr') tor a Y1'l Sl x stlJrier1i:
St8t rlns pi:'>C'wi w;-!-\;11'1 100 f'rot 0:' 1"18 c('rr'Pllte>:'.
Eacl:
stur1ent booth corta; we'd two vi SVJl-ci ;Sr\J~iy rlevlces.
erhe first w'''s 8. r'lY:'io;l'-acc('s~' ortio'18.1-rjisr!8Y ,'"('vice
deve]oT'0'1 for the 18bor'''l.tc'''''y by L\~'l CO'Y'por8.t~or' +hat
nre~;<'?ntej TJ11 ~:r()fllmed c3 ()lJY"C e' material 0>; a 10-inch uy
l1-inch Qro'J:1d- Jsss screen.
it W8~ nos~~hlo to encode
tfte equ i val'?nt Of' a 51?-p80'e book (8.k.:jr:ch by .11-inci!
s+a>;riClrd },'"ge) or; mi.cronlm p.nd any oa,r:re or one-eirhtYl
of 8. pa~e could be 'jiST'i8yeri ranri:Jmly with~n 1 seconri.
'f'\", est u rj en + r 0 S r 0:: rj e ri t <) the (~i pj ay b'. \1 S i Y'rr a ], 1 [" h+
pen c) " t'1 e t' ''l cpo f' the ,::; c r e e 1" i·f. ;' e 1 P •
A s t '1 P n p n w~-'. s
taucberl +0 the screen, the coorrlinates of th~t position
V!pre sen t to tn e 00"1rU t:er f'O!' C omn;C]Y'" SO" wi th 'lY'Y
nY'edesignat:ed :'lre8.S of the screen.
'['he ~lCC1Jr?r::y of t'rJe
!i.crht 1:'0') T'cY'mitt:ej irl""I'!+jficgtio'J o+'q ?~-iY'ch Sf'Juare on
the ~::;C':re8n.
This (3:::"'1 ('8, 'Nfl' ch W3:~ The r:rederessor of
the Ihfy1-1500 system men+~ o''le'! hpj oVJ. hq!3 ()pe..'>!, rh<=>,serl
out ~;nd is ro lonrer in ty,p Institu+e.
The secz-mri disp-i 3.y jPv}ee, whior: i:; sti1l in upp.
W2S rleve 10T'erj r,C'r the lns'li tl;te 1":'1 th(.> I-hi Jeo r;oy'norat i or.
I t i s a c~lthode-ray tube. ccmmoni;1 ca] leo 2 "s(~ope."
It
can rjisnlay noints of Ji~ht in ~n 8~0a 10 inches hi~h
hy 10 inc:r(~s w~cle 'v'!;+1rj l,O?Li- r::o,,,ih1p l'ositions on l'oth
e0:1S
;~te:i
i
ini tj'-ll
0: ::::
n
me'~ j 'Jm-~c~
<0
the ~orizontal anri vertical ~xn~.
In arldit}on to
inrii.vjduc.LJ points, 1?0 r,:"e3Y'!'?Ur(Tp'~ C rl:'1ract(TS "'18'.1 be
jjspJ8yec1 in fivp rjQ'f'0?rent ~~z(>c,.
li~ is (1:180 possible
to display vectors by s~mply irtenti~yjng the end
~s attached to the
sed to ,-'en(1 1 y, form'" ti 0:-1 fY'om t~:p
sTurlent to ~h0 nOwDuter.
Ang ur) i a s y s t e :-r' (~0 f', i srr p ri, b :,r we ;~ i i ncr" () 11 r;~'
COY'Doration (~8n p!clV T'rerecor'fipri "',P?;:'l,;:e~~ to the u,,'?r
tnY'~)u~hif"1~jlviriu:l.]
sne::tt.rers j r f',?('>\r "t,yjpnt booth.
'l'nE::' meSS:3.sres are recOY"rtn-:i on rr,".",,,,'pii(' i.~n'f' n iY1ch~)~~
wi.de; two teH:!? tr:l.nSDoY'ts Tl'1'-'Y Dr' a~::'; '!DJ'.r1 to e'l,~\r-,
o~ the Six stations.
EACh ~ransrort ~:l.S R
C8D2,citv of 8JJ,)~)t 1~) T;'!oY')l)tes. \\"'1C(' r:aD t'0 'Ased ilJ
r.orrbin c1 i1 on (e.l!. I fro:n cne me"s,)')'p 1'.7 [f'jnl.:t('s
'n len,crth to : ,O?() mes;'asre~) cf 1 ;,ponry] P,'iC h ).
'i'he
noints.
A typewriter keyboard
scope ann
1''0'1)'
be
1)
any
r3~rlOlT:-access time to any ~tcred messa,crp '"
8.n},'rOyiwl·te!y} :'pron'l.
b'or 8 YlUP'rl(·'r' Of' +,e('h]"\~('~J.!
rea p () n s, t': i s '-' C} 11 ~ n f1'1 E' rd i"~ n~; 1 ()::.iJ' fH' i]"\ 0 r;:> r ,'=it· i 0 Y]
:, n th e1 '1.00 C~~ tc r'l.
J..j n til ,J l) l' 'e. 1 06 R, t'" peE? n i, :"1. l (' (1 '" i ' I t. p r \'J CO. S
:-3 HH-l rl es i ,cr n8d hv Di oi t8! i:'.qlli pr'1P",t CoY>r'on1t 1 on.
T t: hAG q
'~?, oon woc,rj core cl.n'J a
(iOO 1/ll(H'c1 ;~0Y").
which C 3, n b (Or 1 1"'. t ere 1'1 ;:) 1'1 V e d w;j r i Y: 1: \<: " J ? tn rvi 8 0 f'1.
ma,:Jnetic drum 0"" fi les :~tor'W1 on two J iJl';,-l '~01 (Ii 81\:8.
\n
i.,.
('l'he
two
! 1.<'!-1 '301 'ii ;;\<:s
1 [)f'\-2"31h ,:-!c
has
beoon~'
1S f'till
sk;~in
the
l~n0
rr:~iY)
1,I..](>r8
;'3 1
!
of
('0" :~)t0Y'.
,'" ocPY'?t;orl. i
rt"rl
rl:-'(c"
1CJ{'»t
Ci
('-j1:1)
j'lvl';:e two
a f'Df-'-1.0
""(':]
j"1()11 CTh
U,n~i·'}-l
1
"
~)
'
driJ]s.
cJ3s:)room si tuatj
on.
By r8~ote control, 41 fourth gr3rie chilrlren
were fTlver dai ly a r 1Trme+ic r1ril l_,lnr-i-nf"':lctice
I e s son S 0 r, 3, tel p t y rem a c h j ": C' 1, n + h~: Y' (~! '4 S ~c roo 11' a t
(; ran t S c h 0 0 1 i Y'! + h e c; 1J T' e f' '" i r (; Ur 1 () 'l S C h 0 0 1 r) 1 s t riC' t
(Anril 1(j TO ,June LJ,. 1(,):)5).
'This in:~t,,1 ;''ltio n
constituter! an ir0r~'o:'t~Ylt fir:'i; ~c+.PT' '~" movirw
'tf:~rm~nal s f'ro", '~nc S i_an ,'onl (,'?1"'1)8 to pi C-'fr r;Y"1-:1ry
".('bools, with I~';rect connec+icn t'roT" t~~-·c C(1mr'ut..er
to the terminals by telerhonp Jines.
(11:))
0urin~
thp years 1965 to luAu ,he inst5tute continued
In 1(j65, 't.he ny'orrraJ11 cyrewi,,:: include
to exnand its program.
s('~ools.
dri]l-and-nractice teletype nrogr2ms 8t three
terl1;jnals 'Nere 'loc~'lted in Ke":tt:cky in 1967.
the drill-and-practice
mathematic~
(:31:6)
pro~ram
In May, 19(q,
By the end
had
brannhe~
of 1968
out
a~ot~Gr ndvarcement
On ~ond2Y, May 18, ~nd Pri~ay. May?!, the
I-rtstitute made 'vvh~:'lt is rcri-nr~~ tr;() f ' i r f ' i u:;c of 8,
corl'1unic'''i'on satellite to :1i~;t"~hut.e CAT.
Th·?
dcr:onstrqti on w:::.s iITr'ort8:;theca1.:sP ~~. proved P',Slt
sate2Li te cl s~rU::l)tjon of CAT ti-ty·("u,~ri JOW-':(,Ft
sr'tell~ te grOllf1!l st'Jtj"Y1S lt2.1' tli(' n,'+~er'tj 31 for
rnalri.:-:: C;T 8:-: ~5:;cessible to isolcited rur8.] 8Teas
a,' 1:;:: thE? lar.ere (,;tie~:.
(31:9)
Th0 corfi
:O'1]Y''''t i
cn
t'()~
the
~,tartcrd
CA
Syste'l' as of
-
e
e
TAPES
t,10r;'lory
DISK
. ~~r.------~------'
32 K
OIT
I PDP
8K Memory
~
~
~
I
8
t ... ········f -0::':
t ........... t -Cl -:1
~-~
'~'''~--'''---'-'.,,~
. - - - -••=->-,.• -
131 K
DRUM
-.---~-~~
,
10 OIT
.
f ........ f-Db
I
Cl3 ~l
COtJTflOLLER
I
12 DISPLAY
CONSOLES
196 K 35 BIT
MEMORY
LINE
INTERFACE
UWT
V
i ........ f
\·.'(I~h.
2
San Fr{'nci~co I~
27
rt u: : i an r', 0) ,c t G
Lccol TrVS 30
m.
La Sa!!:
I
Colur:lbu" OhIo I
Clinton
Ic\;C\
I
l/. .
4K I,:~mor)'
--p-D-p-o----I'~ 1.1m. 60
~
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5001',1(,
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:::::;;----- '
\~
V!chinoton D.C.:3
l.oe.':)1 SC~lc~dQ 17
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f····· .. ····i·O
I
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DISC
'"
DISC
TAPES
~'~.
FIGURE 1.
PDP
10
AUDIO
Rcycn~\,IIX>"
63
Ravens .... ood
40 Audio
Channell
THE STANFORD CAl SYSTEM CONFIGURATION AS OF JUNE, 1969.
i-->
;:c
(')1:Q)
r
J r::
(51:?)
( 1:',1 : 2 )
(~1:10)
(51 :10)
Tn this "blocv,"
•
O.-1"'
-
e
e
TABLE 1
Stanford Programs in Computer--assisted Instruction
Pro8ram
Drill-and-practice mathematics
Grades 1-8 (block structure)
California
Iowa
Kentucky
Mississippi
Ohio
Washington
College level
Tennessee (a18ebra)
66-6'(
67-68
68-69
C;9- '(0
1,5 00
1,41+1
2,475
lr)r)
<L
640
1,632
640
1,060
Tutorial primary-grade mathematics
53
73
Tutorial readin8, Grade 1
50
88
Drill-and-practice in initial reading
Grades 1-3, Remedial 4-6
California
\J1
2,113
101
92
139
206
183
442
6112
La ngua ge Art s
30
Dr1'1l-end-practice mathematics
Grades 1-6 (strands structure)
California
Ohio
Washington, D. c.
\..u
1,713
165
39
Tutorial computer progranMin8
,-'
\J1
-----
Tutorial logic and algebra
Grades 4-8
76
195
115
1'17
49
459
Tutorial problem-solving
Grades 5, 6
First- and second-year Russian
""0
(~
18
10
30
52
77
GRADE
PROELEM
BLOCK
•
HO\:l MANY H S •••
RMRRMH
HRHMRM
2
COUNT.
10 11
13
3 + 1 •
---
•
S +
2
04
9 + 1
2
S
7 + N • 9
N •
2
9
---
1 1
• 2
2
9
•
1 0
;3
-
+ 3S • 38
3
3
-4
2
2 3
1 04
+2 1
3 6
·-2.3
6
3 YD. AND 2 FT • • --- FT.
9
36 X (28 + 3-4) • (--- X 28)
5
04
--- X 11 •
5
5
2 9
+
(---
X 304)
33
.Q
X4
5
6
---
S 1 9 5
6
6
tl3 OF' 18 •
5
TYPE THE MISSING NUMERATOR OR DENOMINATOR.
2/3 •
TYPE
6
---/9
<c
OR • OR
>
3 + 8 --- 9 + ""
6
- Fig. 1.
7
(17 X ---) + , • 28722
Samples of' problem formats for grades 1 through 6}
drill-and-practice program.
(51:11)
~)
~"'pch
n ,...
tel
r:J
p T
~~tll(~er+-
1, ' r l
Y'C:";-rHjrJ~(~rl
1 () r ,. -, ~ e ~i
p.
~
r
~
1
h (:
~-n
;'~~ct~'le~;;~
~('j
c ",vro: \V0rE r::or:,'8C~'2d +,('1 -+- ,(; Fr)} -1
St'l"'f'Ol'j t,~,' rrl(':l.r:s or tplpr'''n''C'1 iY'f?s.
st\lr1eY'~t
,~~ :""or'
IT () ~ C
eO'T:r1'
-1 -
J ~?,
'pr' ~lt-
lI.fterth(,
hy tYT'l!"1f" hi;:
8,8::-:1 r-nen stun ent Y1U:11h D r ;:C~Y"~ i!;;~ F; Y'co t Y:'ln''') , the
t- e 1 (? + :! n c c Y' -; n t (' rin 1 S I 8 S i; n 8 "1 P co y' (1 r r C' s e ,.: t (! r1 -t h
app~Crr-;8tp set of p~oh'ems.
Thp D8 n p of +he
r-a-l
if1to 'UT
r:2"'C~Cr'-t"0ri
rr \; "")
~~ <: '-1 (' 0·J.
""V'O'l'Y',,)"T'
(CO
rrorr8r
pre2e~tR+icr
was
r1e~nr~lrp~
~y
-the studert's
r"lte.
r'esY'C'n~e
'1'he
t8.lo+~,TE'
r~1r+;prJ
C:~r-,h
l"'rj'vidual nrOblsrr
+self jy! "08,:li.r n Fs to 3C',~PT't +:'1('
8nO:W0Y' i:n ihe 8T'rro'Ci,ni::l,te rl~"cc.
'i''1 n :'-+:'lr1"Y't.t,Yr erl
in th.r? 8,r:S'N~r.
Ii-' (1j [~ 8.!!~~VITer" V.l'J"~'; .'ni'~"r~p~t, rl(?
ccs~ti oy:prj
"Y1J:J
i
nrnceederl to the ~8Xt r~0! 10M.
I p h~ ~~V0
8nEwer, the +el~+ype prl~+prl NC, TRY A~Al~
t~p
wr0~V
0n~
nY'E'.::-'enterj ~-\-~e nroblf?rr :1:-8~Y'.
It' "I'" 'T''l.n" :~ seccY'ri
the teletype rr'n+Nl, NC, 1:I!-1l;' A,~~;\\C::P ':::: •••
2nd present-e,l +]-1" procleTr on"': mrY'e.
Tf'r'r.e
Et 1)C'e",t; ,00'lV n i;\,':E' v,rcY'E': 'l.f'f:Wer t'c~
t;h:0H':,; r'd +i!To,
he W'l.S ~jven the rorY'ec~ prswpr ~nrl the +2:etyr8
3~dorr,~ltl rJ' 1y prcceec:cd to t\c:e 'lext rrr)hlo:,.
rPh'
S + 1 ) rl '? r' ~ v.' 8.., a 1 -! ('; w P "
f ~ c m 1 0 < ('> h (! :'" c C C" r': +- n
crro~,
~:'0~0Y)ci,
l~
:J
q'l"/"e
1.Jrlo~
r:c;r0rV1';r-)p'
~tudent
0~s
2.rsv~;p:,
:'oJlo"',~<l.
~h0
I-"V::(~
tock rrore th2r
h',I+~np
-tr:P
the
0;>
rrrl)-Ie!r!
31 lott n rl
rrf~~~C'n+(~ci.
t1~p
~o
ji_:st 1epcy"ir.'ed \,V')~
r1';r't,o'1 rpr!"r, ;:~:~ 11!, rr'_'y
rror.cdU1"P
te]pT'l-:-'{'
r;}-:.ct? of l\~('f rr:)'t ~(~/\'lI'~1
The 1c-v,'1 0;:' Iii ""-i'i ('lJ I·,' C,f' -1;0<" r; "~sot rJny of'
rlr"ll \'I"lP rjctoY')'1'1irpr1 by -1\-'''' :'!ll'ent"~ },0rf'oY'mar,rp
or t~p n~e+0?+ ••.•
Thp lpve of ijff'~Culty Jf earb
s u ~ c (' ;, ~ ~_ v p (~Y' 2, 1 1 ~ ': + h ('\ r; C? 11"1 C r' C Yi C ;) '0 ': b 1 (" C ~k W cl S
rietprn] n",rj ~,<y '\-'0 ST'.l:lcr 1, ' 8 Tlf'ci or"'8,':('e (w: j;>'C;
nror;eeJ"Yl'" 18.\"2 rly'l]l.
'1'h'),:', i+' thn studer,t's
TJprfOY":n1Y1C'Ll oy, "'. [h'ill W'3:-' Ao T/r' ctc\",t oy' rrY'e<:tpr',
lj4f~ :1t?xi, dr~i 1J V.}2S Ol'iEI di f 'f'1cul ,.<y 'lr~,~rel rii:-r1~PJ~.
A
!\~rT",T
~~"'
r
score 0-:' 1:;2);-~ +\r18r: 60 r,e:-" (',,?y,~ ::'T''l,C'''c;r1prl r-l1 rv~ t~O'Nr :1
1ev p lC'or the next rJr 1 11.
Te' t·~p '~cr;,'e ',vel:; riC> tWeen
60 ~nd AD nnr rpn+, t~n ~1udprt !'0m~ine~ at ~~c
8"31":"(' c'ifficllJ-+::vleve-j for tl'H' -rrvt (~Y'in.
(50:;iJ'.3-3S0)
snecific concept blocks.
t~,~
r W8 s the
lowe S l .
'[hI"
d 1 [Pi
C1.1
1
t~r
l
'I
i
r::i '.' (; , ,
')
.1.-'
'nc
8r: rl
rpv~ pwjr~L1s
e 1" V 1 ron m'" n ~; 8 t r 2 t
~H' C'
rot .. e due a t
~ 0
'1 V] (~
r a ll;.'
e con 0 mi (' 3. 1 1 Y
2.+'fluent."
w~ ~h
~R
the tutorial
'1' he
rei.
I 01]
system.
ow -i no: is.'" rJ p s c r 1 f: t i on
0
p
"
~
1)
tor i 21 J 8
~~ S
on.
The stu1ent? n'''r-j vcr' +;':r:d r programmed
instruction in a room whi.cr: contained 17 student
stations and
q
]"r(1c~or
~;t-?tl('Yl
fG"-'
11::8
by
1,"8
teachers on C!uty. 'l'he stucierlt !--;t<}t': on:~ \,ii.~r'e
separated by r(nr-foot part: "tl orl~, t'~~lt pxter,del
1'2)'" (~nough froi." tre w'JU S to provi ~)(? :1 'lc:'"Y'('p C)f
n r i va c y for the fl L:) d e 1'~ +, S •
W '1'; c,: r: L
c: "~I i 1 Ii r e n
arri'le\"! in the s·twJcrt f;i.'lt~()n "'(I;]'", t:"C\' Jooko~
f
0 :;
t'1 (; 1T n a me s cn-
t
h r;
:::: R 'T'
s C' )" P p n
s t 2. 4- ion f), }J U tor. t h C'; r h e.;l ·'-1 :~ Co t
rrocr,ram by louch"rO" ihe 11 d \'
8 t
TC"1
6n the CRT. A~t~r ~~~
2.;:: s, ;:} p.~~' 0 x i m~-~ +: e -1 ~>' ? 0 fl ~ -0 1 l
disrl~vej
t '-: I' r:!
w,)r"
~lNr0-j
C':,":'),'0Y',t
CiF
1
():f'r
1 (~SSOY1
~rr0qrerl
or
:11)"'";OTrClt,ic c,\ly
'1r~
t~e
H,e
rr12sr~:::u-r;
CRT.
'!~;
:::t"':
;.:;.1"1."1
""
+; (I c i r' ~l s ~:; i F1'l e d
t. e (: the -; r
~ .~~. 8. yo
''\
'0
;l;n'"
alJ0~+nrl
(~ :3,
t.,!O;/
tJl (~
+'~c
r,
-~,
\]
~~r
d ;.l:, t- ;.
('Ol,:~,)p-t"('11
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t"lce
t:,e:ir'
;~ I r:r,~RT")
1---
e
e
---~--~~
...
~,~
e
...--------......... - -..- - - . - - - - - - - - ..
--------'-
DRiLLS
><CXC><'x((
5
"'X-,~-('iEX:';'( x>-~ ~\
<-l'(X?(::~,;~%]·>iC
•
.
c;:JJ----_----.J
.... c,
(."
>i·><:X>XX·
r.
~:.:.
~.
4
'1------'-------..
't-J.-" \.~,..~-:..".:-:«;
3
LEVEL
2
5
:
:::~::: .. .. ,
POST TEST
BLOCK n- 0*
OR
REVIEW
POSTTEST
BLOCK n-o
-·~t~;
DAY
PAST
I->
0'.
F1 g. 2.
"*Upa
:::-;Qj;-~ ;;~'~:{
N~ :-r~L-r-~,
l~i_j!>~~L~,~~:
I->
::~.:':':::
....
4
•. C.
'0'.
.
DAY
I
...- c--::::-
~.,,;;~,k
-r
'. ; - > - -
REVIEW
POSTTEST
3
BLOCK n-o
2
c!'j
,c....... ,..
}
~~ ::iL _ _
itL,i-l!22.L
DAY
DAY
DAY
DAY
DAY
DAY
2
3
4
5
6
7
:::::.:::~.,
Branching structure for a seven-·day concept block.
Block with lowest posttest performanceo
LEVEL
_r ,.',,'"
,
:'J
;::-
)r:.
."
a::1i~lcent
cJ2~.::;:;ronrn
c~~o;tl:;d
tr:prr;
or
r~rO'V~S~0r,~11
rn]~T
h:':?rd
!·;.~r
CXg.Y"~T'~rt
8nd
'1
;-1V1(~
PO!
C R ,!,;
to
~'0Y'
draw~Y'(T
'1 (i\vc,d
~r~ble~G
t,n~l
B.Y:
mps'::qC'f(; "'l',:!p"'e g1"e
'N~"~()
v..;~ th'~
T'ro1:J"lr::rr.,
OY":f?
o·f' 8
bjT
p~~~t!cn
TV"~~~"-"3.=7·07
rpr;~(ynd
t_r~",cv
equCi"l
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t'd::
q~d
31)(11(,1
c~tl)10Y'·t-S
tr;0
+'81 1 er~
~lJ}'O
~lor
r'8:i :~ +:E:~achnY' ',["0
r ' C; 8~~r()()rn.
t~"!(.)
-ton
nYP'qnatory
~oth
;~~.:nt~-l~>~(-:~'~
3r:dio
~b8Cl""
('l" (-;
'N{)re
r"p'~r'i';~('-i;"):'l
ireoy'y'pctl.'l
rcg;;(\Y-''"1hl f;: ti rr.e ..
1,
:J
~::
;'~!-'O:l\\'~r,cr
O-:'l
y·-rcu,:,",rl;.::r'.!
~~
o:-n
r','
Of'
::t:~t
a
c?r'
hr2('0r:.
or
r he '3!J rl i 0
+,!<-i~; s()\."
1.f/S!~~
0 mpo n -i
merr~err~
tWr)
J
f':',~;,c.,y")tn1
e rl
Thp
by
iy\
;\1't8!-' t0j~-'" jY'reSf.~rlP'e, t\tVO rro"'"'e ;)e~··::l1 rdl0 0D"':ri':1 8Y':d
or'e cov:t8~r~~n~ '·?t t::··8~n :3 Y Hj C1 ~)tp.~m~3'nnveJ, P8.J"?r1
D"rccerJf?d hy;:] hox. W'?Y'P dlsD1~lypd bnjow iJ'0 irl+i?~
sp~~;
thp
c;ho.-L~,?S
~-r~st.:ructinn.s,
to tnr:: box in
\N·:'i.~
~Ylot~""-~r'
'"tur~0nt
If the
tr) re:3ro:r(j.
'"1CrOPl1)g~j~! !?:r-1
f'rop1.
:i~~T)lav~~d
thp
of'
8r . . ·~
1-'10
?'(~t
thp
Slll~l'; 0
+. INC'! P"'~fr1,hcr~."
(1
sr~",l j "'""to (fn''> P":) W'l~:: rli srJnyed
of' tit 0 Ck'!' ;:E-~ 8 ~ 1 'on 1. 1 -t; 0 t. h (' :; t 11'1 P r t
".t t~i s rnin'l:
-: nth,? corn e Y'
f~~cp
\V(':.!"'0
"h'iYlc1
i/:4tn
touciled
('r)'~Y'pet
Y:<?::t·. . ·rl,
hi~)
-jin:ht i:yc>n
ChO;C'l"',
Ify~s,
the::
a
sJTilincr
s~:)ts
r~8,ve
n;: rr.c:rV'~·bp~·;:~," ;·lrF~ fr'espnt.~·1ti 0~J n+' t,~ie
next DrobJem began.
If th8 st1l'1C'Ylt rlid not ,(;spond within 10
sec()f1ris "f'; heard, "::h'ich set belcwi "1'lS two mePl\:',€'rs'?"
th(2
S~."!'n!?
nurrtO['l!"
~f the stUr1p r t
~,U ~ ~ iJ) 'TI P :':: (~8. iT e,
Y'es~orri0~
t
incorrectly, he hoard the
the b 0 )( Y1 P X + t,o + he set VI i t; h
+wo rrembpY's," a,nd ~:8.W 2 ",;-~r] t>,_cP.
f"c" )T'G~-t, r!'ch!ems
.; nth e c u V'r i C 1) ] 11 m, s t 1) rl e Y" t s VI r~ r
',J Lew 0 d t h r e e c h nne e ,~
II
f' 0;
"1
t
(J
(:>
a b~~ef audio mPG~q~e
~is~l8y cnojcc.
(51:28-20\
~esncnses,
~r~cmpan;erl
If' nr "til!
-,1-;1'-+/r"-'
,
the
,,;j
T'oorly,
+1,p
:; f~
r:::(l
j
1i~ l) TC (Wi
l- R0 JE CT
(hl:1)
C8Jifornia.
Instr1)ct i on21/71 Syster"in "(be
Bytes.
and
Sc~oo]
Distrjct.
t (; p
~ i 11 cl
e f' t:
two rli
.<=>
~2
C:~~].lOol
drives-seven Rnd
c h j n vee; 11 rep S S
•
" ••• ,3
(1i~:;t"·irt.
~
Y'l;
~u8rtpr
~illior
1 e o!' t h u [r; h
l:-' + f-- ~l t
q 0';1;
') '7
,
,
CAT l'flc1-+-Ijemat;cs drjll ~~:",~(j p:~lctic(; 1~llrT'orts
-Lo fl)rr,!s!t te?c:h~rs an'l st;urjp"'ts '\.';tn systCT",cliic, short,
a1"" S1)cces~,fu1 YrP"',nfi of buiJr!;Y'f" T~'i ,'pl:aininrr
C' n ~ pll t c' t! or 3, 1 s ~; I 'I 0' •
A « (3 i ',:, ri Y'i l I "l Y' ,1 r'" V i 0 w v i ~
CAT oi' t'rorr three to ten J:ll Y1 1Jl:"'S D(;¥' ;:"l'dentinrliC'8.te:~
f'rorr
+,hic~
stud;!, at
}p'~,,,i:.
tt>8t
(~;:TY'jt'ic8nt
,aTe m;1r1e lD achiever-lent- ar: l'T1f·a:,~uY'erl.
bV a
nir r prenc 0 S
~,t~ly;rJ
Y'rl'i 'Zerl
tGst.
The most irDort~,nt po:nt tor classroom instruction
m2'! he th.-,t short dri 1 j s ',l"'(j r'pv; ews ('p;lrerl tc an
lndivir!1r11 ;ctwien+'s Y1,?w~s, h'her'(~ P8"'1 ~;turJp.nt 3crievE.'s
su~cess for hi~sel~. and is not cc~rqrerl to or
competi~~ wit~ ot~er students, accomplishes at least
2:'0 ~lJch
;,c'j
t,Y'3,riiUonal
student, anrl ri?firite1y
st1.lrl~,;ts.
-
-
inf,tr'<lc1~~;Yl
leSf; bricrht
the more able
(44: 5)
thf' ?hility to f'l~jn,q(Te 8. rn8.ior in"'cv~~+lV(" DY'o,ir,r:t
l;'rn:',JuP'h r~nncen+:1 on +f) ~n:D 1 '~men 18 t i on -Y'PT'r) r+ i npeV2.1u"d:ioY', rl;l.ta fairly ?nrl 8CCl1r~'lt('ly.
8.r:"'l.ipver:ent j r """'+]-!c;rr'ltics ;3rd ilY'lTl)C],o;e a~'t.s C~H:
hr' ey+enrieri3rrl cleee leY'?Je 1 t',r CAl.
'Phj s f8;~1 'V1:";
bcr-n ,1ncllmented by tf'stiY'\!T in the el('meY't:;~r,V <1nri
hirrh f"Ch,ooJ 1e l[('ls.
'i'it'! ~~'J11,TY:lY'y of 11'')0 IT',::,th
evaluc.tion data
at 2.11 levels.
s+:ll(~Orr
cle8rl~,
gt'lil:1Jd('~~
SV;JWS
t'QW':u'ri,~
the:
i !'H')c'ovec
pc,-rf'ormaYlc(' ;
~0~~)C~i:lJizat·~oY'J
t~'Y'(;')gh
by the
CA~,
s1pY'ific:~ni.
,."jr10ma'l("s 'l.nd
11 zed.
~ rn prov0f') V'\' em CA Tl ,! TV
student's C'onti"";;n(Ti"''i~~~re:~t
8.rts
-
for tl~e
8C'ceLerrr~"'s
'0;
ii'
r~,]('
CAL
l"ln{rl,l r 4>Tp
indicccJ-+;e:'
Y'rj m;'?J'i 1 y
o!' _in~-1tY"1(·~~or~J i)hc1t.
n]t:r(;r t;hen t ' ( ' ~nlti:::ll
,"81"'[1
i~O
-+;h~]t
t~le
is n.ff(l:c1.cl~
i"DeLos rrovirled
hardw~:u;'e.
tr:3chcrs wlr:o arnly the :i (jpic ot' t"e SY;3t r;frS appro'Jrh
to CAT desi~n ap~03r to px~itit ~ more positiv0
attitude t.o,w~['(j te:1Jc rlin:J' 0., '1 I! if"]Y'Y'inp- in .o:ener;ll;
th:'lt;8 t.F~o1('1'\(:?.:;o "'re mOY"e ire 1"':'1 to V.1PW t.e~lchjnf"
-
qnri. Ip8rnir·fT in 8.. rause aY:'i 0f"'C'Ct ~'el;}ti OYlf'h i Y' • • • •
V',crc ~::. pu~'f;(:'ir:'r+, sub,jectj\i(~ (1,~t~~. +0 jn r i i ('3.t,e U'.at
CAJ 1 s pa y' t 1 C U ~, r:' r .~_ ;)'~ .~-t l r r c; r r j ;-J. t p l' U)· 2'/ C') (! ~-> t (' ;~. ~
C'~.a;:~r;': ~~~ e(~ 3.: 'v~c:rnc:~.c~lri ('~~
~!~.}'~·~'v"'t'Y:·~,
~f(,Cl f'_; ('~1 Liy ~:he
rj r, ~ ,-. :j. ~ if'j !"'fr0r ta:~ -~::r !""l? ta rH~. (~.j •
-y
+~" n
'r
y ..
::j
C ;1 .-:'i :' -i
rt
y'
h
a ~~
,~,·4
... '
(\
"
'-,
(.
t~--,
11
0
+, 't r
r<\l<.'
I,"
+orl1
'
.
l
+; r'",
+1'
nt'
,
..-, :~
t
:;
.,.
!':11l
(}!1:" __ ';)
•
t
+h
+"
r>
r-
y,
0
j
n - ,;
+
C\'iFcS
RCA
(hl:1~)
r "1,\"8
"8
1 '.1 r '- ('\
y.
~
+- ~- Y'" -,')
r< ( '
(1
C ~. . i
1 f'
~l
l": d
w;
J ! h.. R .
J a ter ri8i-e.
ani y rio
]\I,d
FIAN
PT
.' 0\'
,
~'lJo..
( FrOPT2m +'or l ·p'·,rn]"n.cr
r ..._
__ • . __
-1
'1ll-Jp
_
stlJri'?Y!t
r4
in
npc;
'1~'r,c,
''<:: "'.)
A"'-'r'rr1"Y'("('
,";+h
I\roorlc:)
\....
.
.< .
....
.,
".
-.. ' \.....-
\.
I....~
1">('t
~
i
1;.:-
n~l?r";:l
cr rl i
._.
~)
\....,.
,pri' I,"
~
(.::t
wi tl:
t:1:r:: C'orr"'-'l;ter, nor ooes t:l,p n("'r1)iJ"r "1('1'J81].'/ C'lJirrjnj ster
or teach th'? student any C;f' lr;] ~c; in;:~.1"']('~~ ('1",,1 "v'n"T2.!"'.
Sturient-tearher interartion ~s m~int2~rerl ~r th~
(' 1 :3. S S r 0 () rr ~m rl + to (' r .j mpu t e r i::- u ~= e rl :' y, 1 vas 'll"
': i ,i t 0
the te8C')pr.
The computer becnner; :on j nformati ona]
s~sterr which recorris the stU~fnt:ts le?rnin~ anrl ar2de~ic
tistory 2r~ his propram of siudies, sccrp~ thn ~~s+s
ann. oX2.min0..t.~ion:,~, :emd +I;en f'urn! ?be~ ir. if' irfoV'm8 tion
h:lcV- to
t~e
t02Cn(':r.
rtav-to-dav b'c~f);? thE'
th~ nroF;;~'
(56:1)
';l}"e
C'c:rrr'11-t-(~~,Y"
1",OpT'e?2
0"
yv\('r;
-t;i-:('
tny·s
0Y-'
~/ol1YiJ,~der
~-l
tl;r(i1J<"'l"
(57:1)
OVI8.
( 57: 1 )
T.'1.'" pr,
(56: :1)
1L
.I,
n
( .H'Y1J:l
, - , , _. i ,c:,h~
,
"
(5'7:1)
"tu"y.
1
n
HI i
sway,
th",
r-h i ! ,-1
,6. TY1ci'lre of
. ). r +
j
or:.
co:'t.
1
S
, r·~
J:
f
\
~6!
.j
I
'-~
(25:78)
Of'
') S j Y1
n0ert~
q
o~
C 0 fY1 rut
e r s 1i e 8 i
each school
r
+ b e '1 r
;c.
b i J j t Y torn e e t
~ystprn.
Adv8ntar-c:s for Sturieni:s
fE":'ocirack.
c () eTC C tP:-1
VI"; er:
his answe r is wron r ·•
the un 1 que
~'.p
rn3.~l
" Tf
cIa
1 rj rl
3.
Ch :
2.
~vf~"ol~'
nne of t'te
0 ,J r;
rl;:}/~-n
'1
IY":I ~ r
~'" r (1
ct' t-Jf'chlf'\rr,;:-,
f'
0
Yl
r:l~·l
Y'
e ;' u 1 :l r
(' 1 "I Sf',
SQid
\VY';;Y1.!-"","
<tt, l:)Y'CT;t'wood l n he> 1 CJ I\! +0.
He wi]! r(':i.nt'c;r'~'e ;'1:; prr(1rs, ~1('tuaJly
10~31"y-. hj '; ~; :?t Cl }:02.
"','/her hE:' oO"S r"~d:r in CA.T .Iau,
the Yr2. . chinc> +:e.~_ls hirn ~JS soor 2~~ ~:C r"i~lk:es h;s +-'jr':-;t
t(~22r(:r;:::
Ca1i +'nrr.la.
rni?t:qke
,[) e co "Tl C' S
to
C2tC~1
~nj
~.1
he
ca~
,n3. b'.
,1 \~.
co~rect
j~
r~~ht
~W2V,
befoY'(>
:t
('.','7:')')~,
" .
. ' ! ~l
It
up w"th !,>im, nor does thF slow rduriert fee'
"eJnleGsly
lost.
fr0~
beer Rbsent
~lC
t5 vi
t ~
C]8SS to catch ur on
hi~
mat2riaJ
w~thout
e~•
"C:)!':"petence
Tr""
t" 00 s.
a]
SOb e
to
(1:855)
e (1)"1 I l
'7;;:j
by
f\'\f;
1)
se
0
f
(' 0 'l'T ute r c: i
y,
(1
'3 C h 0 0] •
~he poss;bi1ity of brjnri~~ err~checi rro~rRms
2.t11r1.0r~ts ~ n :l '"·~rl.et~! of' e Ylvj rOYJr:e:'lts ~!\fhp~~ su.ch
cannot :WJ:-;rJ1:1ably [,Co 0f:!'precl r'~r the to':Ch"'1rr
c5 ther b()C8lJ~~e 0" 191:\(' 0+ , i rc: oy' ::,eC2w~e of
of t; r 81nir,', is p r ob8'!ly ore 07' -r:'l~; "'''st i'11'T'0rJiat0
~()1!rses
s+,1ff,
13Ck
T:r~.3.r+.l
Cc11
(L;O:l<:J))
~lSpcct,s
c;~
·~OTnrutCl"-q~;-;~ ~i.",,;-J
'lr:~~+:r1J,:,4 ~
nn.
o·<'
( J 2 : 7)
+"t?
ccnc]us:ions:
foJlow~n;I
1.
Students
''is w~tlt
?
CAT can
seem to 1 P,UT' 8-t. J e~~s+ "8 well wi tt- CAl
cO:lvent i cn l:,l cl2.~'sroom instr~l:~t;on.
prov~de
n
e q l1i v 8: (; t
amount
~q~e
3.
4.
Ip2r~~nrr
con v e r
t 0
n~
anrl retention 8t least
t e (' h n i. q II e S i ~~ t \1 ('
t j GY; '" 1
t~~e.
The computer J?8rnirf
rr(Fra~
C2y)
lorrical
~~ke
rJ e c} s ~ n Y) say; r1 "1 ri j 1..1 S +; t o i r d ; v 1 rilJ a 1 s t 1) rl e 1'1 t (jj r f e renee s •
T1:>e computer 0:1'" rec:oy·rl ::,-1 m3r>i!,u l 'lte a vl'ide v3..Tiety
of 1 ') 8 rn i n f .j at'} a h r,] 1 t t res t J,' (. :' t s c <1 u en c e (1 f
]p8,:,vojn0: SlODS, rTsror:r>e ti"'C', number cf prrorf:', ptc.
1
').
'Pre
1
~.
~omrutpr
J ",lr11
1y
rellJire'~
The computer
"il~.~i I~t~r
caY)
0-:
ro·lqr:-e C'pr"21n
OF
~rogram
~1J.d
i.ov·j
~~llrll""i
+>'e
ran
l,ri
'He
;~+e~rate
~~')g 1 a~i d~:
f'ny--
v
:r1S
of'
+(\dlO\lS
WflTK.
m'=lthc)mcl.tic8'
iY1
'lTd rontrol a wide
e~r~ r~;r~0'Ylt
'1:.rl
1T'otlv~tion.
sr'~'Y'irp'
the ('2P"'h'1';t.;ps of' nreseY't
7.
Time
A.
t'? c h:lO 1 0 rry •
]\TO known l';l')1its ~r1V0 r)E'.:'T
:pr'o~'-"-p'l
S 11 b j e c f T'18 + t pro,' r.y'" r '" r1 U 8 1 l~' vel
q
nrO[T'raf'!1Tr o d.
Stlll,-,,,,i.S a"'p
ic:
W' Hlin
rT!:~nr:r2l
Iy
irtere~-+;erl
tr,
+r
lYO
'-1
t'np
\l:j-::4s
t
r']
(' 8
0 1'
b~
;H,r!1 ike. CAT.
(q:7-8)
h.', ."1
_,
.J
f'1) Dj
1
Accoro ir1:~ to
with
f")1Jrvey on ('nmr,qtpr 'J~)~~ '~'('; '~~1hr:~~l
CAVY s :rvey, Rf' nst5rnate,
dj~~tricts ~n th{' United S+8tes US0
~h5s V8 6 r ' s
~_
(1 0 ?O)
iI,:WO ~clto~l
rnrnrutors.
Cf thpse, more th?,n
Turrose~--;.~r()l1+
r;ot;l;c+'~ ")n "n" '"1" ,,, ..
3dr:inist"'ative
c
i8.f"'~Y'()(1"1
i
),rlO!) 11P~? thp!J1 for
1 ,000 1'''~e the'll for
,," fY'·,t,"'!y
LOO :J:f'
By i>:Duting keYfunched C2r<~S 'lf' lnforma+:ion
rooms, st1.;rlen+s, ~1rrl CO~j-r~~~~ :e~ue;:;+St
8 b)xro:'Ja-h 160 c:;:nrui~er can !"e r len,.t", ~1 'Tl:1'3t8r s('hedu1c
for-:", sc;ool r)Or:)j':c~.;or' of lOOO;n :~'){)l)t J\--LOUY',
on
t0~1"cl'l.e['~,
provicina- there pre no prrorr in
SC h p<lllJ0,
r.nnlDuL2t;:;d
b,Y
iorr~c.
'!ann 2J;d
~~'3lY'e
ti:n0 l':li:i;""Y'Y'I v8ri80 1 e8, WOUI'~
thousSJ.nd man hour~.
(h5:13~)
profit.
A
compar~blp
co"'t2 i niY1? th('
+;SJ.!~e
~pveY'rl'l
(1\):105)
Computers may oven be
u~""j
to
teR~
in~ov8tions.
In the school of t'le fut,)Y'f.'!, rln innovatinn
mi('"'lt bi? oJ d by the ti m;:; ;, t i s trier1 or the stun ent8.
T t w;] J l::=tve bref' tesl''('d by 8 comnni,('r f1 rst.
~lhrow;h simu,lati or, Ue compu r:er crlr~ c:l.id ]n
sr:hooJ manar:ement an (:1 decisj on-m~~ki n,r b,Y ,'l.cf;inc:r out
?
flan ,gYlrj ~!"forrrinE the 'J:lminislr'2.+'~()r 0;' the
c ens s' \' 11 en c e ''; •
I n :1 f e \.v Tn i n lJ t e s, t h 8 C o;n 1:' 1\ t ere a [1
,'!'o t:~r(,qCTh a proce r 1\p'e that "<'ould no:n:aLly t;:r\.::e 'J
:::'u i ] y'~ac's time '1''''~ th.')S ("ncb 1 (; c"'u"r1 t ors to try :Jl1t
r~:'rlical inYloVCl.t~ ons Wi i'!>cnt ~l)1'f'eriypr the rotentially
h?.rmf'Jl r8S1)!1;S.
In 'Jciri i iioY' t,-; Plt],lc: i np the
fe2.sib i llty of neVI i(!>?'1(~. the ccmC'l)L(C\;, (:;~r 'lC'lnt ')ut
neede4 improvements in exjstjnp ani'v~ti0S.
(18:21)
C("Tl[,1)ters.
••• F,qr from freeing teachecY's f'roP." Y'nut~ ~c • the
eOll: 01'J10 n t "1 J es on more mech:o'Y' j r;.'; i "l.nri r. l 0ri ('''3.1 wory::
t<::,::;t-in.?', r o ccrdi.n2, set+;ir.cr th;nn:s U1'. stor1ng 3Y'rJ
~nstal1in~ tao9s or pro~rams.
The ~~m 1~ to
"indiv i dIJali7C?"i.nstn.lctirn, but tt,iS ie! seldom thE>
rpsul+. There is 8 Rtron~ ernph8~is on rl~nning and
maintai nine: schedtlles. Cftp]', trc rY'ote('+'~ or of 1,,,o
e:x:oensive equ i :om8 r t t8 1-':88 rY r'0--:'erjr>nc·:' over1e;o)rr,i'l!'!.
(Chewirp- p:l)~ j;-, R rna,lor thrcc::.t.) .. ,'ll>,!., Y'ew technolon:y
is neutral to such important rnqtte~s as ~rad;na and
grOllr;ing p8.tterns, whj cr. con i . e r )e 1J'lchanped.
The
extent Tn vvidch existing comput(::!r-~l(;Ri,:'ted Snstrllction
re81'o1"d8 to iryJivi(l~Jals if' mi "'!2maL ••••
Tl-]eo!'etic,:l1ly,
it's rossihle to create all ~orts of comnlex, brqnchinp
prr)fT8.Tr.S that c,'n griant to 3n~l nU'1lbe"> 0:' n:;~l'OY'1f~PS
f' r C"" ;; t 1.1 i e '" t s •
I Y' 0 II
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ip:r~or2Y'jce , however'.
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Sal~ries for comruter operators
Te~chor tr2:nin~ workshops arrt
2;'[ S,OOO
in-serv;cG courses
ics fer ("~(,?y,!·'tl'!..-;~':
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the!"] fo;' reg1)8,'i r textbook !,ut! icg+,i (IY:.! n 1''1'''-\, I
would prerjict:tha+ ~hey will he even less ab l 0 to
curr i
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indivir,l',,llzat;01" !)i' mc:deY'ig'E' ber;or'H:'~~ tr,~ :T"'.i~)r it-teme
of c()rrpu-:;er-a~~sisterl instruction.
(ht3:107)
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the methods classroom.
F1) t1) r'p
OtheY';";,
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com " llter as th,o rrost. sig,nif'icant riP'Tc;loT'ment s.inC'e
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T hplieve it
will rio rrore to ch:"JnGe our W3,Y (;1' I "f'e 'n"an the
l!'1:lu:,trial Revolution din.
(29:JO)
Fo~
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