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Sex Related Differences in Mathematics
This
Purpose:
project
explores
the
The
differences in the area of mathematics.
this
project
is
not
to
and
purpose
of
state any specific causes for
sexual differences but rather to
beliefs
proposed sexual
summarize
the
various
theories and to provide actual measurements
taken in mathematics classes at Ball State University.
Competence in mathematics has long
as
skill
crucial
a
that
is
directly
educational and occupational choices.
women
than
men
mathematics
careers.
choose
courses
Hence, a
researchers
and
major
to
to
enroll
been
identified
related
to
Even so, far fewer
in
advanced
level
enter mathematical related
concern
for
educators
and
is that of sexual related differences in the
mathematical training of students (Meece, p. 324).
Proposed Sources of Sex Differences:
sex
Recent
studies
on
differences in mathematics focus on factors that may
influence
men
mathematics.
mathematics
socialization
factors.
or
The
women
to
study
or
not
to
study
proposed sources of sex differences in
achievement
include
biological
factors,
factors, attitudinal factors and affective
Page 2
Biological factors
1.
Sex-related differences
are
sometimes
attributed
ability. Supporters
differences
in
of males.
to
from
mathematics
inherent
of
the
rompetence
differences
feel
theory
the
achievement
mathematics result
skill
of
in
males
that
and
incomparable
in
mathematical
It is important to note that while high
counterparts
on
tests
reasoning--primarily
word
Parsons, a
professor
renown
Michigan, emphasizes that,
quantitative
the
females
school boys have been found to perform better than
female
in
skills
do
of
their
mathematical
problems, Jacquelynne
at
the
Eccles
University
"Sex differences on
tests
of
of
not appear with any consistency
prior tc the tenth grade." But, although this achievement
difference does exist, it is neither very significant nor
universally
oftentimes
supported
out
(Meece
perform
skills. Hence, the extent
contribute
to
p.325). In
boys
to
on
tests
which
fact, girls
of computative
biological
factors
the development of mathematical skills is
yet to be completely determined.
2.
Sociological factors
A second group of factors that is
to
be
a
the
considered
basis for sexual differences in mathematics is
that of sociological factors.
both
often
quantity
Studies
have
shown
that
and the method of instruction varies
according to the sex of the student and the subject being
Page 3
taught. Because
school
the
counselors
regarding
attitudes
often
of parents, teachers and
reflect
cultural
stereotypes
the alleged biological superiority of males in
mathematics, male students often receive more praise
more
attention
for
counterparts in
their
both
efforts
mathematics
Hence, even
(Meece, p. 329).
if
than
and
their
female
science
females
and
classes
take
as many
mathematics courses as males, they may learn less in
classroom
because
the
they are being treated differently by
their teachers.
3.
Attitudinal factors
A third group
also
appears
sexual
to
of
According
regarding
to
mathematics
a
male
courses
females
achievement
(Meece, p. 331). These
appear
to be
1) Mathematics
domain, and
Mathematics is more useful to the future
for
major
Parsons, two
prevalent among high school students:
predominantly
factors,
have some significance in the study of
differences.
attitudes
components, attitudinal
two
suggest that males have more opportunities
of
males
popular
than
is
2)
than
ideas
females
to apply their mathematical skills outside the classroom.
As
a
result, males
tend
to be more self- confident in
their ability to learn mathematics
because
view
they
are
more
mathematics
(Fox, p. 10).
Hence,
self-confident and because they
as
being
more
Page 4
useful
have
for
a
their
more
future, male
optimistic
students will generally
attitude
and
will
be
more
motivated to learn the mathematics than female students.
4.
A
Affective factors
fourth group of factors that is suggested to have
some importance in the study of
in
mathematics
in
differences
and that is closely related to the group
of attitudinal factors
Included
male-female
this
is
that
category
of
affective
are the emotional reactions
males and females have regarding mathematics.
although more women than
anxious
about
factors.
men
openly
admit
mathematics, researchers
Typically,
to
feeling
argue that this
mathematics anxiety is caused by "a lack of confidence in
one's ability
Recent
to
learn
mathematics
(Parsons, p. 333).
studies have discovered that self-confidence as a
learner
of
mathematics
accurately
predicts
one's
participation in mathematics courses (Fox, p. 20). Hence,
because
women
have
more
mathematics and because they
mathematical
participate
Assuredly
negative
lack
ability, females
in
many
advanced
feelings
confidence
are
less
mathematics
toward
in
their
likely
to
courses.
then as a result of their failing to enroll in
advanced courses, women indeed would be lacking in
their
mathematical abilities.
In
regard
to
the
four
categories
previously
Page 5
"the
differences
achievement and participation of men and
talents
mathematical
from
result
mathematics
in
women
indeed
that
experts
in
do
feel
mentioned, some
superior
the
menH (Parson, p. 325). Although
of
most experts would not try to disprove such a
statement,
E. Fennema and J. Sherman attempted such a task.
has
asserted
that
the
sex-related
Fennema
differences
in
mathematical achievement result from "differential course
taking rather than from significant
abilities of the two sexes"
differences
(Parsons, p. 32).
between
In a study
completed on four schools in which all students had taken
the
equivalent
advanced mathematics courses appropriate
for each grade, Fennema
differences
32) .
Sherman
found
sex-related
in only two of the four schools (Parsons, p.
Hence, there
disprovE
and
the
appears
to
be
some
evidence
to
theory that boys are naturally superior to
girls in mathematics.
Questiors Regarding the Nature of Sex
the
possibility
does
exist
for
Differences:
sexual differences in
mathematics, three important aspects must
regarding
the
differences.
nature
The
mathematics, the
and
three
study
extent
be
considered
of these sex-related
areas, the
of
If
learning
of
mathematics and the aptitude
for mathematics are closely related but
suggest
questions related to the study of sex differences.
various
Page 6
1. The learning of mathematics
The learning of mathematics refers to achievement on
tests.
issue
critical
Here, the
is
differences that appear on tests of
high
school
level
favor
whether
achievement
at
the
males simply because they are
likely to take more mathematics courses than
the
sexual
same grade-level (Fox, p. 10).
females
of
For example, in 1974
E. E. Maccoby and C. N. Jacklin stated that although male
and
female
students
achievement
in
displayed
mathematics
level," males continually
"equal
at
the
attained
aptitude
elementary
higher
and
school
scores
than
females
at the secondary and post-secondary levels (Fox,
p. 10).
The explanation for such and
could
be
attributed
to
the
classes taken by each sex.
occurrence
indeed
variance in the number of
Because males generally
take
more mathematics classes than females, they should indeed
score higher.
2.
The study of mathematics
The
study
enrollment
school
in
of
mathematics
mathematics
seniors
in
1978
Examination board suggested
college-bound
school
female
is
courses.
by
that
related
A
the
study
College
approximately
to
of
the
high
Entrance
63%
of
males had taken four or more years of high
mathematics.
COllege-bound
On
the
other
students
hand, only
had
taken
43%
as
of
many
Page 7
(Fox, p. 12). Hence, even
classes
mathematics
differences in course-taking are
half
of
all
without
the
if
diminishing, more
sex
than
college-bound females are entering college
mathematical
background
necessary
for
entering the higher paying technical fields.
3.
Aptitude for mathematics
The
aptitude
for
predisposition to learn or
skills
is
to
not
"an
is
mathematics
learn
concepts
with ease and rapidity" ( Fox, p. 15).
difficult
to
aptitude
measure
innate
and
Because it
from
separately
learning, sex differences in aptitude for mathematics are
difficult
The
assess.
to
strongly
(SAT-M)
Test-Mathematics
aptitude as opposed to achievement.
it
should
be
noted
that
feel
that
superiority, Donlom
are due to
the
Hence, the
social
such
of
to
measure
If such is the case,
While C. P. Benhow and J.
differences
believes
"bias
claims
a difference of 40 points is
normally found to favor males.
C. Stanley
Aptitude
Scholastic
reflect
these score irregularities
test
conditioning
content"
(Fox, p. 16).
that directs girls away
from an interest in learning mathematics could indeed
affecting
the
male
be
results of such standardized tests as the
SAT-M.
Strategies for Change:
If
sex-related
differences
do
Page 8
exist in the field of mathematics, numerous steps must be
taken
to
Because proficiency in
overcome this problem.
mathematics is required for a career in
fields
such
as
science, business administration and the social sciences,
women who are deficient in their mathematical backgrounds
have
been
options.
prevented
from
tas~s
numerous career
change
for
Hence, strategies
be
must
These strategies must encompass
implemented immediately.
such
considering
as reducing the sex-typing of mathematics as a
masculine
field
and providing greater encouragement for
female achievement in the
classrooms
and
on
the
job.
Currently, there exist three different approaches to this
solution:
"remediation
intervention
decisions
for
younger
for
some
no,v
women
adult
,,,omen,
making
career
and the prevention of future inequities in the
rna thema tics educa i ton of
young
,,,omen"
(Fox, p. 30).
A
study conducted at the University of Missouri-Kansas City
attempted to implement these suggestions.
During
project
the
was
Missouri-Kansas
1974-75
academic year, an intervention
conducted
at
City. This
the
University
of
project focused on a special
introductory mathematics course for female students only.
The purpose of this project was to
for
women
by
helping
them
open
career
options
acquire basic mathematical
skills and by helping them to overcome various social and
Page 9
cultural
Overall, the
stereotypes.
project
was
quite
A few of the more important areas of success
successful.
include each participant earning higher grades than
previously
had
in
having
students'
mathematics
and
their
positive
more
the
mathematics
courses, the
attitudes
being
students'
they
less
toward
likely
to
withdraw from the introductory mathematics class and more
likely to
continue
with
the
next
mathematics
course
(Brody, p. 115).
Assuredly, a
discussion of a basis for observed sex
differences with respect
ability
can
only
be
to
mathematical
learning
and
highly speculative at this point.
While there is evidence suggesting
that
differences
in
the endocrine systems of males and females are related to
"differential
sensitivity
information", no
one
is
to
and processing of sensory
confident
as
to
how
these
differeLces affect the learning of mathematics (Brody, p.
195).
Hence, the
theory
regarding
differences remains just that--a theory.
sex-related
Page 10
Study Taken at Ball State University:
examine
the
prevalence
of
In order to better
sexual
mathematics, a small study was completed
University.
This
differences
at
Ball
in
State
study, completed winter Quarter of the
1987-88 academic year, involved four mathematics classes.
The first class, Basic Algebra, was composed of
who
either
scored
students
between 21 and 28 on the Mathematics
Placement Examination (an exam that is required
for
all
incoming
at
Ball
freshmen
or
matriculating
State) or who had completed the
Pre-Algebra.
The
second
Mathematical
Analysis
II.
required mathematics class
Majors.
prerequisite
course
of
in the study was Basic
This
course
is
the
final
for students who are Business
Business Majors who had taken the prerequisite
course of Mathematical Analysis I.
The third and
fourth
in the study were Elements of Analysis I and II.
The majority
of
Mathematics
the
students
in
these
of
courses
were
Teaching Majors who had completed nearly all
the other mathematical course requirements.
number
course
Hence, the students enrolled in this course were
primarily
courses
students
students
enrolled
relatively small, and
because
in
the
Because
the
these two courses was
courses
were
quite
similar, they were combined into one group throughout the
study.
Since
the
purpose of the study was to determine
the prevalence of sexual differences, the data
collected
Page 11
was
separated into two groups--one group for females and
one for males.
Data Collected:
1.
Basic Algebra
In the
included
Basic
the
Scholastic
mathematics and
score
(MPE)
Algebra
the
for
course, the
Aptitude
Mathematics
data
collected
Test (SAT) score for
Placement
Examination
Then, the
every student in the class.
overall averages were calculated for the
group
of
male
students as well as for the group of female students.
2.
Basic Mathematical Analysis II
The data collected from this course was comprised of
the
SAT
scores
for mathematics, the MPE scores and the
grades the students received in the
prerequisite
course
of Basic Mathematical Analysis I.
3.
Elements of Analysis I and II
The
data
gathered
slightly different.
these
courses
implemented at
1985), this
the
these
two
courses
Because several of the
not
taken
university
the
until
MPE
students
(it
Fall
was
Quarter
was
in
not
of
category of data was deleted for this group.
Instead, since
mathematics
had
from
the
students
had
taken
numerous
courses, the mathematics grade point average
was incorporated into the
study.
for mathematics were utilized
Also, the
SAT
scores
Page 12
Table of Results:
Basic Algebra
1.
Females
Males
122
85
397
396
a.Highest SAT
580
530
b.Lowest
250
260
Enrollment
2 . Average SAT
3. Average MPE
a.Highest
b.Lowest
16.4
17
27
27
4
4
Page 13
Basic Mathematical Analysis II
Females
1. Enrollment
Males
37
31
2. Average SAT
545
552
a.Highest
710
730
b.Lowest
400
350
3. Average MPE
27
27
a.Highest
38
37
b. Lmvest
11
9
4. GPA for
prerequisite
2.811
2.724
a.Highest
4.0
4.0
b.Lovlest
1.0
1.0
course
(out of 4.0)
Page 14
Elements of Analysis I and II
Females
Males
22
17
2 . Average SAT
532
542
a.Highest
700
640
b.Lowest
390
450
2.845
2.489
a.Highest
4.0
4.0
b.Lowest
1.848
1.375
1- Enrollment
3. GPA for
mathematical
courses
(out of 4.0)
Page 15
After careful observation of the results,
Conclusions:
it appears that at least among those
no
sex-related
considered
differences in mathematical skills exist
at Ball State University.
difference
classes
In
regard
to
the
40
point
that normally favors males on the SAT scores,
no drastic separation such as this was found
in
any
of
the courses observed.
Furthermore, the
over beys
on
represented
tests
in
occasional outperformance of girls
of
the
computational
sample.
The
skills
was
not
average scores on the
MPE, primarily a computational test,were either the
same
or very near to being the same for both groups.
Additionally, the
girls
in
the
application
gathered.
II
and
area
was
not
theory
of
that boys are better than
mathematical
supported
reasoning
distinctly
and
by the data
In the classes of Basic Mathematical
Analysis
Elements of Analysis I and II where mathematical
reasoning and application are
differE~nces
existed
among
very
the
demanding, no
sexes.
major
Although
the
average SAT scores for males was somewhat higher than for
the females, the overall grade point average for
females
was higher than for males.
In
conclusion, although
the
data does not support
the theory that males are more competent
in
mathematics
than females, this study does not, by any means, disprove
that
theory.
Because
this
number of mathematics classes
study involved a very small
and because the time
..
--
-
..
span
_----------
Page 16
was
so
narrow, the
limitations of this study are quite
significant.
Hence, in order to
results, one
would
need
to
receive
begin
sample and would need to follow the
with
over an extended period of time.
quite
evident
differences
the
need
to
accurate
a much larger
performance
group
that
more
of
the
Therefore, it is
research
sexual
in the area of mathematics is still quite an
overwhelming task.
Page 17
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Brody, Linda, and Lynn H. Fox. Women and the Mathematics
Mystigue.
Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1980.
2.
Fox, Lynn H.
The Problem of Women and Mathematics.
A Report to the Ford Foundation: New York, 1981.
3.
Meece,Judith L., et al.
Sex Differences In Math
Achievement:
Toward a Model of Academic Choice.
American Psychological Association No.2, 1982#
4.
Parsons, Jacquelynne E.
The Psychobiology of Sex
Differences and Sex Roles. Washington, D. C.:
Hemisphere Publishing Company, 1980.
Sex Related Differences in Mathematics
An Honors Thesis (ID 499)
by
Wanda M. Blankman
Thesis Director
Ball State University
Muncie, Indiana
February 1988
Expected date of graduation (Spring 1988)