AN INDUSTRIAL PLANT FOR THE POLAROID CORPORATION
7-71~7-.
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Architecture
at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
August 14th 1957.
John N. Morphett. A. R. A. I. A.
Bachelor of Engineering.
University of Adelaide.
South Australia (1955).
Dean Pietro Belluschi.
School of Architecture and Planning.
Lawrence B. Anderson.
Head of the Departtent of Architecture.
92 Huntington Avenue
Boston 16, Mass.
August 7th 1957.
Dean Pietro Belluschi
School of Architecture and Planning
Massachusetts Institute of Technolcgy
Cambridge 39, Massachusetts.
Dear Dean Belluschi,
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Architecture,
I herewith submit the thesis entitled,
An Industrial Plant for the Polaroid Corporation.
''
Sincerely yours,
John N. Morphett.
CONTENTS
Page
Letter of Submittal.
Acknowledgements.
Abstract.
1
PART 1 - THE BACKGROUND
Growth of a Large-Scale Economy.
4
The Structure of Industrial Organisation.
8
The Polaroid Corporation.
PART 2
PART 3
-
-
3
THE WORKERS
12
15
Man - The Group.
16
Man - The Individual.
19
The Problem of Scale.
22
THE PLANT
25
The Region.
26
The Community.
28
The Site.
31
The Production Process.
37
Manufacturing Requirements.
41
Service Requirements.
46
Structural Requirements.
52
Legal Requirements.
55
Human Requirements.
58
Bibliography
64
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my sincere thanks to the
following for their patience and criticism
in helping me compile this report.
School of Architecture and Planning.
Dean Belluschi
Professor Beckwith
Professor Brown
Mr. Paul Rudolph
Mr. Yamasaki
Mr. Reginald Knight
Polaroid Corporation.
Mr. Ray Chubbick
Mr. R. T. Kriebel
To:
My wife Vivienne, for her patience and
interpretive ability.
-rn
1.
Title: An Industrial Plant for the Polaroid Corporation
Author: John N. Morphett
This work will comprise a study of the physical
needs and requirements for a medium sized factory
manufacturing photographic film, followed by the
design of the plant layout and buildings,
Waltham,
cn a site at
Massachusetts.
During the course of the study, emphasis will be
laid on adopting the physical work environment to
human needs.
It is widely recognised that
worker's efficiency is more or less increased when
improvements are made in the working environment.
Building spaces organised in an attractive manner
and situated in a pleasing locality, provide good
advertising and add to prestige, as well as increasing efficiency and keeping production costs to a
minimum.
On the other hand, it is realised that expenditure
on "improvements"
is not always reflected in
positive savings in production.
Often, as the result
of the pressure of competition there may be overemphasis of some aspect of human conditioning
which may not contribute to favourable working
attitudes.
Thus there is often confusion regarding
the possible outcome of any given innovation in this
field.
It is necessary always to relate physical
conditions to the attitude of the workers.
An attempt
will be made to clarify the impression on man of
his working environment,
considering such factors
as the size of the working space, the noise problem,
color and lighting, air conditioning, the dust
problem, plant amenities etc.
2.
It is hoped that a careful study of these
conditions applied to the requirements of a
particular industry will help to clarify some
of the problems arising in the planning of new
factories.
GROWTH OF A LARGE-SCALE ECONOMY
'
The development of the modern industrial
process has been intertwined so closely with
changes in economic organisation that
neither can be explained without reference to
the other.
''
James A. Quinn.
5.
The home-centered industry of the medieval
town, with its small number of journeymen and
apprentices was confined mostly to small localities
with few outside connections.
Free artisans
manufactured goods and sold them directly to
customers; master craftsmen trained apprentices
in their own establishments or hired travelling
journeymen; the customs of the guilds,
rather than
competitive bargaining governed the rights and
duties of masters,
journeymen and apprentices
to one another and to the public.
Everywhere the
personal element and the human scale predominated, from the tilling of the soil, through industrial processes, to commercial transactions.
Contrast these earlier economics with contemputilising long-range
orary economic enterprises,
communication and transportation systems to
collect raw materials from many parts of the earth,
to sell finished products on every continent and to
operate branch offices in many regions.
Continuous
increases in the size of machines, individual
manufacturing plants and integrated economic
groups are now characteristic of the growth of our
large-scale industries.
This new economic order, brought about through
the Industrial Revolution by advances in technology
and political responsibility, is
characterised by
freedom of the individual and of unrestricted
competition between individuals.
Private owner-
ship of wealth and individual control of economic
enterprise is
restricted only so far as is necess-
ary to keep law and order.
Theoretically every
individual is permitted to seek any job he wishes,
to work under any conditions he chooses to accept
6.
and for any wage he can command.
If he cares
to do so he can start any kind of business or
industry, provided he can obtain sufficient money
or credit.
He can hire and discharge workers,
buy raw materials competitively and offer goods
for sale at any price he wants to ask.
Such changes in the size and character of economic
enterprises have not been introduced without
accompanying problems, many of which have yet
to be solved in terms of our cultural, economic
and aesthetic ideals.
The greater efficiency of large-scale activity
increases the difficulties faced by smaller
competitors,
often forcing them out of business.
The conflict between what is best
for men and
what is best for machines again arises.
Similarly
the greater size of individual machines and their
integration with complex production lines, make
difficult their ownership by individual labourers.
Semi-automatic and automatic production lines
decrease the number of workmen needed in
selective fields and change the emphasis on
skilled and semi-skilled labour.
The greater number of employees in a large-scale
enterprise increases the degree of anonymity and
impersonality of contacts between management and
labour.
Industrial bargaining power tends to
become unbalanced because the worker can seldom
become an enterpriser and if he loses his job he
loses his entire wage, whereas management's
profit is lessened by only a small fraction.
7.
The widespread adaptation of diverse occupations
into an integrated economy makes the economic
welfare of each person dependant on large numbers
of strangers,
over whom he has little direct control.
Individuals tend to feel insecure and unhappy, with
the feeling that they have no say as to their future
destiny.
The seriousness of these problems brought about by
the conflict between men and machines is emphasised
by Sigfried Giedion ' ...... the equilibrium that went
out of human life with the coming of the Industrial
Revolution has not been restored to this day.
The
destruction of mans' inner quiet and security has
remained the most conspicuous effect of the
Industrial Revolution.
The individual goes under
before the march of production; he is devoured by it '
THE STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL ORGANISATION
"
Power, work and regularity are adequate
principles of action, only when they cooperate with a human scheme of living.
Lewis Mumford.
'
9.
Traditionally, large-scale industrial management
has pictured the internal organisation of an
enterprise as a formal rational structure consisting of ideal positions and relations which take the
form of an administrative hierarchy in which
superiors have the right to issue orders to subordinates.
Lines of communication - downward in the
form of orders,
questions and information and
upward in the form of reports,
questions and
grievances - permit the varicus levels to function
together as a unit.
The validity of the idea that a formal plant organisation leads to the most efficient means of
production,
rests in part, on the concept of the
industrial worker as an
'economic man" whose
behaviour is guided by his rational intelligence
to attain a larger income for himself.
It assumes
that as an automatic being, he will react favourably to higher wages and better physical conditions of work.
Sociological and psychological researchers have
discovered that there are serious weaknesses
in this theory of economic motivation.
While
agreeing that a formal structure in management
is necessary for the convenient running of
industry they point out that there exists an
informal structure created within the factory by
personnel themselves.
The need for men to be
liked and approved as human beings and not
treated as parts of an economic machine has led
to the development of more informal relations
between management and employees and amongst
the employees themselves.
10.
It is when the informal organisations or groups or
cliques of workers can be made to work sympathetically with the formal hierarchy that harmonious
An individual's
plant operations can be achieved.
favourable attitude towards change or improvements
in his working environment largely depends on this
total picture of labour relations within the firm.
Workers will be receptive to physical changes only
if they are already reasonably satisfied with their
job and employers.
Thus, it is necessary when planning a factory to
take into account the informal as well as the formal
structure of the organisation.
Many questions may
be brought up concerning the status of employees
which have a vital effect on their attitudes towards
their work.
For example,
a decision on whether
to provide a single entrance for management,
office and factory staff may or may not produce
beneficial results.
Providing management-worker
relations are good, a common entrance will help
to produce a feeling of equality within the staff.
The factory men will arrive at work more neatly
dressed, they will feel they are part of the whole
plant, not just a small section of it.
With the
opportunity for informal contact between sections of
the staff there will be more understanding and
less criticism of other departments.
On the other
hand, if management-worker relations are not
amicable when the change is made, it may well be
that the factory staff will distrust the move as an
attempt to supervise their comings and goings
more closely, the office staff may look upon it as
a threat to their superior status,
the management
as an added nuisance to be bourne for no good
reason.
I-
.11.
The success or failure of any aspect of plant design
depends in the final instance,
reaction to it,
on the employees
and it is necessary always to think
in these terms if the objects of maximum efficiency
and productivity are to be attained.
IF,
THE POLAROID CORPORATION
'
A basic long-term aim of Polaroid is to provide
means for all its employees to have a full and
complete working life.
''
Edwin H. Land.
13.
The Polaroid Corporation came into existence as a,
result of inventions that made the control of polarised light available on a widespread basis for the
first time.
Dr. Land, the inventor of this process
started manufacturing polarising sheet in a small
research laboratory in Boston in the early thirties.
With the development of more efficient methods of
manufacturing the sheet, the company grew rapidly.
During the war the company converted to the development and manufacture of war products involving
the use of polarised light.
Simultaneously it
broadened its activities of research and production
to non-polarising materials and devices.
In 1948
a great development came with the invention of the
Land Camera - a dry photographic process that
produces finished positive prints in sixty seconds
directly from the camera.
It was hailed by the
scientific world as one of the ten most significant
inventions of the year and was an immediate success.
Since then it has become the company's main activity
with 93 per cent cf the total income in 1956 derived
from the sale of photographic products.
Two camera
sizes are now produced and four different types of
film are sold in sizes to fit the two cameras.
With
progressive research going on continuously, the
quality of the film has improved greatly and new
types of film are being added to the range.
Positive
transparencies which can be developed in two
minutes are now available.
Research in the field of
color is currently being carried out.
Until recently both production and research units
were located at Cambridge,
Massachusetts but the
company is at present expanding its facilities for the
production of photographic film with the construction
of the second and final stage of a film manufacturing
plant at Waltham, Massachusetts.
The plant is a
14.
complete manufacturing unit, related to the company's
main office at Cambridge through the executive and
buying and selling organisations of the company.
The
research and administration sectors are in Cambridge,
conveniently located near scientific and cultural
institutions.
It is the purpose of this thesis to redesign the
company's plant at Waltham, Massachusetts,
making
use of the programme requirements based on the
existing plant.
0
F0
17.
Group activity is so common that it is often taken
for granted.
Individuals meet and act and work
together and no matter how casual their relationship there is an interchange of experiences which
results in group activity.
When any sort of activ-
ity takes place where there is a feeling of "we''
there is a group experience which may range from
the intimate relationship of family life to the
relationship of those who work together on a
machine in a factory.
In any group there seems to be a division of labour.
Each person in the group finds the part he has to
play and attempts to live up to the expectations
that the group defines for him.
To a certain degree,
the individual seehis to lose his own identity and
his own individuality in the group activity.
Certain-
ly all knowledge and habits come from group experiences and therein lies the basis of group power.
The extreme pressure of group expectation on
human behaviour leads the individual to conform
to the ideals and customs of his group.
In order to
understand and provide for the individual and his
needs it is necessary to look into his background
and understand what his group life with others does
to and for him.
There are two aspects of this group behaviour which
will influence the design of a factory, especially
that of the employees' facilities.
Firstly the design
should be predicated on the assumption that individuals like to feel proud of their working environment,
to be able to show it off to their friends and relatives
as the place where they work.
They like to belong to
groups within the factory which may range in size
from sports or social clubs down to the working
team who eat together,
or the members of a car-pool.
18.
Secondly, the group background of the plant
employees should be considered.
Recreation and
dining facilities and even washrooms and locker
rooms should not be too different in character
from the worker's outside environment.
If such
facilities are too primitive employees feel them
inadequate; if they are too luxurious employees
will feel uncomfortable using them and they will
probably deteriorate rapidly through improper
use.
Fundamentally all men have the same basic needs,
but each one is the product of his own environment
or class and will act differently according to his
past experiences and group associations.
The
recognition of this will help in designing for the
common needs of all men.
MAN - THE INDIVIDUAL
'' We do not want to live in a world where the
machine has mastered man; we want to live in
a world where man has mastered the machine.
Frank Lloyd Wright.
L
'
20.
Man, the most highly developed form of life, is
incredibly complex.
Each man reacts differently
towards his environment,
each is
great variety of changes in it.
ever,
adaptable to a
There are how-
limits to his endurance and intelligence
and such limits cannot be exceeded if his maximum
efficiency is to be exacted. Since man cannot be
redesigned to meet the requirements of his job, a
work plant has to be designed to meet the
psychological and physiological requirements of
man.
Man's physiological requirements are bound up
with the five primary senses of sight, hearing,
smell, taste and touch.
Through these senses
he perceives the objects and changes in his environment.
On the basis of this perceived information
he makes evaluations guided by his past education
and experiences.
The clarity with which inform-
ation and problems are presented to him has a lot
to do with the length of time he will take to come
up with an answer and act upon it.
This in turn
has a profound effect on his concentration and
endurance.
Disturbing, distracting or annoying aspects of a
job, impair a worker's ability to do his work
effectively.
Poor lighting causes error, eye strain
and irritability; excessive noise disrupts communication and mental concentration; prolonged vibration
causes headache and fatigue; extremes of heat and
cold diminish efficiency because much body energy
is lost in adjusting to extremes in the environment.
Thus if the environment can be tailored to the
worker's physical dimensions and body mechanism
it should be possible to channel much unproductive
energy into positive production.
21.
Man's psychological requirements are less
obvious; he has many desires and motives that he
knows nothing about, or is aware of only vaguely.
The desire for a feeling of the significance of
what he is doing, a feeling that he is respected
for what he is and not merely for what he can do
is a fundamental requirement of man's ego.
Proper motivation or incentive to his self interest
will go far in eliminating mistakes and delays
due to these causes.
Man is not an automaton,
he is a being whose individual ego is constantly
exerting and showing itself in preferences in
clothing, automobiles,
sports, food and women.
Although no two men are identical in their
preferences,
certain generalities can be made.
Most men prefer sunshine to rain, light to
dark, cleanliness to filth and these general
attitudes reveal themselves in his reaction to his
environment.
He will probably be confused or
irritated by intermittent noise, a blinking light,
or a pile of refuse near his machine. Any
environmental factors that distract his mind will
slow his work-pace and attention to these
psychological needs will create a favourable
response which will be reflected in his working
efficiency.
THE PROBLEM OF SQALE
Every magnitude has its own structure.
If
limits of scale are over-run either a new level
is reached or the old level collapses.
If two
scales are mixed, confused - then there is an
out of scale condition.
The pattern loses the
connectedness with its field.
of crisis. ''
There is a state
Gyorgy Kepes.
23.
The greatest challenge in modern industrial
architecture is that of size.
The sheer immensity
of the scale presents a colossal problem in establishing some form of reference against which man
may establish his position in relation to the
structure before him.
The problem of size has come with the machine.
Faced with the difficulty of housing ever bigger
and more complicated machines and production
lines man has lost himself in the maze of blank
walls which cover up,
true intent.
rather than express their
The enclosure of a great space,
using the simplest and most economical means
available has created an idiom in industrial
architecture which is carried over into many
buildings without thought as to their actual needs
and requirements.
The tiny door in a mile-long
wall of asbestos may be exciting to the casual
visitor, but to the man who has to walk through
the door into the great space inside, twice a
day for the rest of his life, it can become very
depressing.
Thus the main problem in the scalar treatment
of factories,
is how to convey to their expression
some sense of the power and movement they
enclose,
at the same time keeping in mind the
necessity to relate all this to human beings.
In smaller,
simpler plants, this problem can be
solved quite simply by forgetting all about the
industrial idiom, and designing on a human
informal scale with the idea of creating a more
intimate relationship between the factory and the
employees and imparting a sense of being personally catered for.
24.
With larger plants, the problem is not so simple.
Breaking down of size by the repitition of small
scale elements is useful only so long as it is not
carried too far.
In many cases the building itself
can be broken up into such elements,
either
physically, by a division of processes within the
plant, or visually by change of direction or grade,
or by landscaping to limit the view obtained at any
one time.
With extremely large mechanical units,
or with servicing units such as ducts etc.,
the
equipment need not be totally enclosed and can be
expressed with only small scale enclosures being
necessary for the shelter of the operators.
Finally, it is necessary to create a sense of human
importance in the plant; it must be planned to give
the impression that it was not erected simply as a
shed in which to manufacture articles, but that it is
a structure in which people manufacture articles.
THE REGION
27.
The New England region and particularly the outer
Boston suburban area is an ideal location for the
proposed film manufacturing plant.
The area has
a large skilled labour force available for industry.
Research facilities are convenient and the Polaroid
Company has in the past concentrated its activities
within the Boston metropolitan area.
It considers
that a close liason between research facilities and
manufacturing units is a necessary condition for
efficient progress and for this reason the relationship of the plant to other sections of the company
was considered of primary importance in the
selection of the site.
The present locations of raw materials, mostly
paper and chemicals,
out the country.
are widely scattered through-
Similarly the markets for the
finished goods are nation wide, with overseas
markets beginning to expand.
Thus location of the
plant with respect to these factors is important
only to the degree that transportation facilities
must be adequate.
At present most shipping of raw
and finished materials is by truck, so a good road
system is desirable.
THE COMMUNITY
29.
The plant is located at Waltham, which is one of the
communities on the western fringe of the Boston
metropolitan area.
Waltham is mainly a residential
suburb of approximately 80, 000 inhabitants.
The
density is fairly low, the housing facilities are good
and rent levels are lower than in Boston.
The
suburban character and attractive surrounding
countryside make Waltham an agreeable place in
which to live.
The city itself is very pleasant, with
adequate community services in terms of schools,
hospitals,
parks etc.
The people of Waltham fall mainly into the middle
income group of skilled tradesmen,
office workers.
technicians and
They work in nearby light manufac-
turing industries producing precision instruments,
electrical products,
machinery and apparel.
Some
commute to Boston nine miles to the east and others
work in the thriving commercial center.
Thus there is available a high quality labour force
which will be attracted by the opportunity to work
in good surroundings close to their homes.
Zoning ordinances are well established in the area,
with one of the main industrial and commercial
zones bordering the circumferential highway - Route
128.
Situated on the edge of this zone at the corner
of Main Street and Route 128,
the plant is
close to
residential areas and undeveloped woodland.
page 30 is
On
a zoning map of the Waltham area
showing industrial locations in relation to the plant.
ZONING MAP-WALTHAM
RESIOENCE A/
RESIDENCE A2
RESIOENCE A3
RESIDENCE A 4
RESIDENCE 8
RESIDENCE C
BUSINESS A
LIMITED COMMERCIAL
COMMERCIAL
INDusrRIA L
/m
A2
(l.
N?
t1J
tr
32.
VIEW LOOKING SOUTH.
VIEW LOOKING WEST.
33.
if
VIEW LOOKING NORTH.
VIEW LOOKING NORTH EAST FROM ROUTE 128.
34.
Situated in an attractive valley surrounded by
wooded hills, the site is irregular in shape and
mainly flat, with some shallow slopes to the south
and north.
Precipitous hills showing rock outcrops
amongst the trees bcund the site on the north east
side.
To the east there is a patch of low-lying
marsh land traversed by the power lines from the
Boston Edison Company's transformer station on
the southern boundary.
Also to the south is the
Boston and Maine railroad and the access rcad to
Main Street.
Route 128 the circumferential
highway, runs along the north western boundary.
The prevailing winter winds are from the north
west, while summer breezes come from the south
west.
The flat land is good for building, but drainage is
a problem in some areas with the water-table an
average of four feet below the surface.
The soil
tests shown on page 36 indicate rock foundations
an average of ten feet below the surface, permitting the construction of heavy buildings.
All essential services including water,
sewage are available at the site.
at 13, 000 volts,
gas and
Electric power
can be drawn from the adjacent
Boston Edison transformer station.
Fire protec-
tion, an important consideration with this type of
manufacturing process,
is supplied by the Waltham
Municipality Fire Station situated less than one
mile away at the city center.
Automotive access to the plant is excellent, with
Main Street to the south leading to Routes 20,
and 117 nearby.
128
These routes provide good access
both into Bostcn and Cambridge and around the
L
metrcpolitan area, connecting with interstate throughways.
ja
..
- ------
35.
Although it is not intended to use railroad
transportation in the near future, the possibilities
of making use of this medium are good, with a
Boston and Maine railroad immediately to the south
of the site.
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3,1
THE PRODUCTION PROCESS
38.
The film used in the Polaroid Land Camera is
unique in that positive prints are obtained sixty
seconds after the film has been exposed in the
camera.
The process by which the prints are made
may be described briefly.
The roll of film consists
of a negative film, with positive sheet in close
contact with it,
the whole backed by light-proof
protecting paper.
Spaced at intervals along the
film are air-tight pods of jellied reagent which are
constructed of metal foil and plastic and sealed in
such a way that they will open when pressure is
applied,
squeezing reagent between the positive
and negative film surfaces.
The camera is
constructed in such a way that when the film is
wound on after exposure, the pod passes through
closely spaced rollers which break it and
distribute the reagent evenly between the film
surfaces.
The reagent consists of developer and
fixative in a jellied solution.
The developer converts
exposed silver halide grains on the negative into
metallic silver, while the hypo dissolves all the
silver halide not converted to silver.
The silver
ions in the hypo solution are then deposited very
rapidly onto the positive sheet with the aid of a
catalyst coating on the latter.
It can be seen then, that the production of the film
requires several operations which include the
mixing and synthesising of the necessary chemicals,
the coating of positive and negative film and paper,
the construction and filling of reagent pods, the
cutting of paper and film into the required sizes
and the final assembly, spooling and packing of the
complete picture rolls.
39.
Several types of film are now in production and
they are made in two sizes:Series 3 for the smaller Highlander Camera
consists of - Type 31
-
orthochromatic film
-
panchromatic film
Type 32
Series 4 for the larger Speedliner Camera
consists of - Type 41 - orthochromatic film
Type 42 - panchromatic film
Type 43 - fast professional pan film
Type 44 - very fast pan film
Type 46
-
projection film transparencies
The manufacture of these various types of film
can be divided into two production operations
together with the necessary warehousing of
materials before,
during and after operations.
The film production flow chart on the following page
describes the relationship of the various operations,
and their physical requirements are set out in the
following section.
-
FILM
(A
PRODUCTION
FLOW
__----
-~
CHART
) PROCESSING
1.
2.
3.
4.
Storage
Storage
Storage
Storage
hemicals Mixing
or Positive
ilm Coating
II
Masking Paper
Coating
_______I___
I
First Coating
First Coating
I
I
Second
Coating
Second Coating
Slitting
I
Storage
Storage
0)
Storage
0
j-"
Inspection
Storage
I
Slitting
Storage
I I
Slitting
Pod Making
Storage
Storage
(B ) ASSEMBLY
Negative
Film Cutting
I
Storage
Storage
Negative
Film Spooling
Storage
IPositive and Negative Film Splicing.
Sealing, Wrapping, Boxing, Overwrappingj
I
I
Storage
I
Shipping
0
I
0
cij
MANUFACTURING REQUIREMENTS
-pm
4Z.
The follawing production requirements are necessary for present needs, with a reascnable allowance
for expansion within the present production layout.
It is anticipated that large increases in production
Consider-
will be met by duplication of the plant.
able internal flexibility of space is desirable for all
operations,
as continuous improvements are being
made in production methods, with resulting changes
in layout.
( a )
Processing.
The area required for this operation is
sq. ft.
The mixing,
30, 000
coating and slitting machines
used, are not large and vibration and noise are not
serious problems.
A ceiling height of 12'-0'' and
a general floor loading of 200 pounds per sq. ft.
are adequate.
The raw materials used consist of
chemicals and paper which are inflammable and
explosive.
It is therefore necessary to provide
a fire-proof structure and one which is adequately
vented against explosion.
A high degree of
temperature and humidity contral is important in
order to avoid expansion and contraction of paper
during processing.
Dust should be entirely
eliminated from the atmosphere as it is particularly
injurious to film during the coating processes.
Due to the number of different types of film
produced in batches, flexibility of space for storage
between operations and for change over of machinery
is necessary.
Services to machines, which include
the supply of electrical power,
compressed air,
vacuum lines, water and drainage should be laid
out to achieve a maximum flexibility of machine
arrangement within the processing area.
43.
(b )
Assembly.
The area required for this operation is 50, 000
sq. ft.
Separate assembly lines for Type 3 and
Type 4 film are used and four negative spooler
dark rooms each approximately 150 sq. ft. in
area are required near the end of each assembly
line.
The machine sizes for sandwiching,
wrapping and splicing of the film are not available,
but floor loading and ceiling height requirements
are similar to those required for the processing
operations.
Many of the machines in this area
are noisy with a general noise level of around 70
decibels.
Although there is no danger of explosion
in the assembly area, the fire danger is considerable as the materials handled are very inflammable.
Control of atmospheric dust is important and
constant temperature and humidity within a five
per cent maximum variation is necessary to enable
the photographic materials to pass through the
machines without buckling.
A comprehensive
system af services to machines,
similar to that
required for the processing area is necessary.
( c )
Warehousing.
A total area of 40, 000 sq. ft. is required for the
storage of incoming materials,
finished goods and
to a lesser extent for goods-in-process.
Most of
the goods, with the exception of bulk chemicals are
made up in variously sized small packages.
These
goods are palletised and stored and handled by
lift-trucks.
It has been found that a 3'-01' x 4'-0''
pallet is most convenient for this purpose.
A
comparison of economies of stacking arrangements
using this size pallet is shown on page 45.
A 12'-0'
stacking height is required, necessitating a 13'-0''
clear ceiling height in the warehouse area.
44.
Most of the gocds handled are paper products and
are subject to breakability and crushability as well
as damage by moisture.
Thus closed loading and
unloading docks are required and complete temperature and humidity control of the warehouse area
is necessary in order to provide time for the paper
to adjust to the environment before processing,
and
to keep it in a
constant condition during and after
manufacture.
In order to avoid deterioration of
film emulsion, finished film storage must be
refrigerated.
Most storage of goods-in-process
occurs between the processing and assembly
operations, where batches of processed film
await their turn on the assembly lines.
Tempor-
ary storage between individual machine operations,
is handled within the areas allocated to processing
and assembly.
The bulk chemicals which are of
an explosive nature, are stored in underground
tanks adjacent to the processing area.
The tanks
should be accessible for filling, but should be
situated away from the inhabited areas of the site.
The approximate areas required for the storage
and handling of goods are as follows:Loading and unloading docks
Despatch and receiving office
6, 000 sq. ft.
500 sq. ft.
Incoming goods storage
14, 000 sq. ft.
Goods-in-process storage
10,000 sq. ft.
Outgoing goods (refrigerated)
storage
8,500 sq. ft.
Waste paper storage
1, 000 sq. ft.
In the upper drawing, the area of 90 X 36 feet permits the use of 9-foot aisles and the placement of 108 3 X 4 foot pallets on the floor, when the pallets are arranged so that the greater
dimension faces the order picker (the aisle). In the lower sketch it will be seen that the area
has 10-foot aisles, but that with the smaller dimension of the pallet facing the aisle, 120
pallets of the 3 X 4 foot size are accommodated on the floor. As a result:
Number of square feet in the area
Area of the aisles, feet
Percent of total
Area covered by the pallets, feet
Percent of total
Pallets accommodated
Aisle width, feet
Number of aisles
Aisle length, feet
Length of the order picker's walk, feet
Upper Drawing
3,240
1,944
60
1,296
40
108
9
6
36
292
Lower Drawing
3,240
1800
55.5
1,440
44.5
120
10
5
36
252
COMPARISON OF ECONOMIES OF STACKING LAYOUT
SERVICE REQUIREMENTS
47.
The ancillary services necessary for the smooth
running of the manufacturing process are divided
into three groups.
( a ) Offices.
Office space is
required far:-
Plant manager
200 sq. ft.
Assistant manager
200 sq. ft.
Two managers'
ZOO sq. ft.
secretaries
Personnel interview and
employment office
150 sq. ft.
Receptionist - telephonist
100 sq. ft.
All the above offices are best located away from
the processing and assembly areas, but near to
the visitor's entrance.
It is desirable that the
manager and assistant manager have private toilet
facilities.
Other offices required are:Despatch and receiving office
located adjacent to loading
docks
500 sq. ft.
Ten plant engineers',
supervisors' and secretarial
offices adjacent to the processing and assembly areas.
Quality control department
with two offices,
150 s
ft.
each
dark room
and refrigerated storage room. 2, 500 sq. ft..
( b ) Staff Amenities.
The following amenities for the manufacturing
staff of 300 were thought desirable by the Polaroid
Corporation.
A cafeteria-type dining room with kitchen
equipped to serve full meals to one half the
staff at a sitting.
A staff lounge.
A separate games room.
A classroom equipped with projection
equipment.
48.
Toilets and locker rooms for 220 men.
Toilets, locker and rest rooms for 120 women.
First-aid center.
Outdoor recreation space, which would include
a ball field.
Outdoor parking space for approximately 200
cars.
Morning and afternoon tea breaks as well as full
lunches are taken in the dining room,
so that it is
necessary that the latter be closely related to all
the manufacturing spaces in order to cut down on
walking time.
The basic layout of dining room, kitchen and
serving facilities for approximately 160 persons
is predicated on the following information,
based on two sources.
*
A comparison of various seating arrangements
shown on the next page, indicates that a diagonally
spaced table system seating four persons per
table,
provides a good compromise between
compact and extravagant seating.
The area occup-
ied is approximately 10 sq. ft. per seat, giving a
total area required of 1, 600 sq. ft.
The length of
servery counter varies with the type of food and size
of the menu, but a good average is l-'01' for every
six diners.
The size of the kitchen for the service of two meals
may be based on 5 sq. ft. each for the number of
diners at one sitting, plus 50 per cent allowance
for the second sitting.
The total area of kitchen requir-
ed is therefore 1, 200 sq. ft.
*
"
Canteens in Industry, A Guide to Planning
Management and Service.
'
-
The Industrial
-
Edward D. Mills.
Welfare Society.
"
The Modern Factory. '
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50.
Toilets and locker rooms can be located either in
separate small groups near the working spaces or
in one unit adjacent to the entrance and other
facilities.
It is considered that the latter location
is more desirable providing the plant is designed
in such a way that the toilets and locker rooms are
easily reached from the working areas.
Lockers for all personnel and toilet accomodations
at the rate of 1 w. c.
and 1 urinal for every 25
males and 1 w. c. for every 15 females are provided.
A first-aid center for the treatment of injuries
received during working hours is to be provided.
It should contain a waiting room, two changing
cubicles,
examinatin room, office,
and store.
dispensary
It is customary to staff such centers
with a full-time nurse to deal with minor casualties, arrangements being made with a local
practitioner for the treatment of more serious
injuries.
( c ) Plant Services.
The manufacturing processes require that essentially the whole of the manufacturing and warehouse
area be fully air-conditioned to maintain a constant
temperature and humidity.
It seems reasonable
then, that the small additional area taken up by
offices and employees amenities be included in the
air-conditioning system, if this can be done at
little extra cost.
The area required for the air-conditioning room is
3, 500 sq. ft.
In additin there will be a boiler and
mechanical equipment room of about 4, 000 sq. ft.
in area.
As well as boilers and heat exchangers
for space heating, the room will include compressors and pumps for compressed air and vacuum
supply to the manufacturing areas.
Both these rooms
should be located centrally within the plant to reduce
the length of supply lines to manufacturing areas.
51.
The extensive system of power, water and drainage supply, in addition to air-conditioning requirements indicates that space occupying service
supplies will be considerable.
It therefore seems
necessary to create service space as an integral
part of the design, consideration being given to
the flexibility of the space and the accessibility to
supply lines for repairs etc.
In addition to the above services, it will be necessary to provide space for:A plant maintenance shop
Electric switch room
Telephone equipment room
about 2, 500 sq. ft.
1, 000 sq. ft.
500 sq. ft.
These are in addition to the usual cleaners cupboards etc.
STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
53.
The choice of the right structural shape and
materials for one given problem is generally
based on some or all of these factors.
( a ) The site, including the topography, nature of
the subsoil, area to be built on, the value of the
land and the possibilities for future expansion.
( b ) The production requirements,
the required floor loadings,
which include
optimum bay spaces
and manufacturing spaces and the type of product
flow ( vertical or horizontal ).
( c ) The service requirements of spaces,
power
supply including lighting, heat transmission etc.
( d ) Maintenance of the plant.
For the plant under consideration the way the
above factors influence the choice of structure
is discussed below.
The shape and size of the site in relation to the
size of the plant indicates that the latter will be
of more than one floor.
The hard bed rock close
below the surface will support a tall structure
and will have sufficient bearing capacity to take
the load from columns at widely spaced intervals.
The production requirements are very flexible,
but the minimum bay space for the manufacturing
and warehouse areas is
25'-0'' x 25'-0".
However it is desired that larger spans be used,
particularly in the manufacturing areas.
Floor
loadings as previously stated are of the order of
200 pounds per sq. ft.
The air-conditioning and heating requirements
indicate that the building should be as compact
as possible, with insulated roof and walls and
a minimum of windows.
The structure should be of fire resisting
materials as the fire risk is
considerable.
54.
In the process area where explosion may occur.
the main structure should be rigid, but the skin
should be constructed so as to give way easily
and quickly under pressure from within in accordance with the requirements of the next section.
From the point of view of maintenance, materials
which are corrosion resistant and which do not
need painting are indicated.
From the above considerations it can be seen that
a primary structure of concrete would be very
suitable.
Large, clear spaces are indicated for
most areas, providing space frames or shell
construction can be used to span these spaces
economically.
Concrete is generally not as
economical as steel for industrial buildings in
this country, but providing maximum use is
made of precast units, the costs could become
comparable.
Generally, walls and roof will have
to be of heavy materials to provide insulation
and precast concrete units seem most suitable
for this purpose.
The exceptions to this are the
blow-out walls of the process area, which must
have very little inertia and hence should be of
light timber or steel-panel construction.
LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
56.
Generally the detailed laws and requirements
relating to the construction of buildings are not
appropriate for inclusion in this thesis, but a
summary is given below of the pertinent
requirements of the National Fire Prevention
Association relating to exits from factory
buildings and the explosion venting of buildings.
( a ) Building Exits Code. N.F.P.A. No.101.
For general industrial occupancy there must be
at least two exits per floor, as far removed from
each other as possible.
No person should have to
travel more than 100 ft. to the nearest exit,
except in the case of sprinklered buildings where
150 ft.
the distance is
From every point it must
be possible to reach two exits by separate paths,
except that the first 50 ft. of travel may be along
a common path.
Rooms with less than 25 people
may have a single exit providing that the distance
of travel is not more than 50 ft.
All exit stairs,
elevator shafts and other vertical openings shall
be fire enclosed with material having a two hour
fire rating.
Exit stairs shall be a minimum of
4411 in width and all exits shall be measured in
units of 22'',
each unit having a capacity of -
45 persons per minute.
The maximum height
of stair risers shall be 7%311 and the minimum
width shall be 9", no winding stairs are allowed and the minimum number of treads in a flight
shall be three.
Ground floor exits shall be wide
enough to provide one exit unit for every 100
persons on the ground floor and one and a half
units for every two units of stairs from upper
floors.
For high hazard industrial occupancy ( the process
area ), the requirements are the same as above
except for the following.
57.
There must be at least two exits from ever
room.
The maximum distance of travel to the
nearest exit must not exceed 75 ft. and an
automatic sprinkler system or other means of
protection must be provided.
(b ) Guide for Explosion Venting. N.F. P. A. No.68.
The purpose of providing explosion venting in the
walls or roof of a restricted area which is liable
to explosion is to reduce the destructive effects
of the blast.
When an explosion occurs,
the rate
of pressure and temperature rise is very rapid.
It is necessary to provide openings of sufficient
area to relieve the explosion pressure as it
builds up.
The maximum explosion pressure
decreases as the unit area of the openings
increases, in the manner shown in the diagram
on page 55.
The diagram is the result of labor-
atory test explosions and recommended vent ratios
have been modified according to practical experience giving the following values.
For large rooms or buildings over 25, 000 cu. ft.
containing hazardous equipment and enclosed by
heavy reinforced concrete walls the ratio is
1 sq. ft. per 80 cu. ft. of volume.
When enclosed by light concrete or brick walls
the ratio is
I sq. ft. per 60-80 cu. ft. of volume
and for light weight construction the ratio is
I sq. ft. per 50-60 cu. ft. of volume.
These ratios apply to unrestricted vents.
However in practice, vents must be closed in order
to protect the building from the weather or from
unauthorised entry.
Providing the closures are
constructed of light paper or of light weight hinged
panels that will swing outwards under any increase
of pressure from within, they do not effect the
internal pressure to any serious degree.
------
HUMAN REQUIREMENTS
"
Sensory unpleasantness created by ugly form,
color, feel, noises, temperature or smoke are
so many obstacles on the road to our destination.
Raymond Loewy.
59.
The main human requirements already briefly
discussed, are those which concern man's
comfort and freedom from fatigue in relation to
his environment.
They include the physical
factors of noise, light, color, temperature,
air-bourne irritants, the relationship of man
and machine,
these factors,
size of the working space etc.
Of
the relationship of man and machine
is not pertinent to this discussion and the problems
of temperature and air-bourne irritants are
automatically solved by the manufacturing requirements, which in this instance conveniently coincide
with human requirements.
The other problems
are discussed singly below.
( a ) Noise.
The problem of noise is
a complex one, in that
standards based on noise levels will not necessarily produce a satisfactory environment.
The
nature and frequency of the sound, whether it is
continuous or intermittent etc. has a lot to do
with human comfort.
The loudest or most annoy-
ing noises are not always the most distracting and
noises can be extremely irritating and still not
effect a worker's health or efficiency.
The first
problem in noise control is to secure workers
from hearing impairment due to excessive noise.
Damage risk noise levels vary from 90 decibels to
120 decibels depending on the type and frequency
of the noise.
The noisiest machines in this plant,
situated in the assembly area, produce an overall
noise level of about 70 decibels and thus there is
no likelihood of auditory damage.
There remains
the second problem of speech inteference.
The
maximum speech inteference level varies with
the degree of communication efficiency required
and in a factory where the normal level of speech
is around 74 decibels,
a background noise of 70
60.
decibels can be tolerated, as continuous communication between workers is not a necessary part of
their job.
However, in offices adjacent to the
assembly area, where telephoning etc. is a part of
the job,
it will be necessary to reduce the back-
ground noise level to around 35 decibels by the use
of insulating partitions.
(b)
Light.
Adequate lighting in manufacturing plants is one of
the most important requirements for human comfort.
It is generally regarded that natural lighting,
supplemented by artificial lighting produces the most
pleasant environment from a physiological and
psychological point of view.
However,
in plants such
as this, where strict air-conditioning becomes a
major factor,
the amount of glass area must be
reduced to a minimum.
Thus, main reliance must
be placed on artificial lighting, with a minimum of
windows to satisfy human psychological requirements.
Such openings as there are should be placed at, or
above eye level, so that the people inside can get an
impression of the surrounding outside conditions.
The problem of light contrast comes in here;
continuous unshaded strip windows are bad, especially on a sunny day, as brightness and glare from
such strips is extremely distracting.
Variation in
lighting is also important and large glass areas
opening onto pleasant landscaped gardens adjacent
to the amenities and dining area, will provide a
welcome variation from the controlled environment
of the working spaces.
The optimum standards of illumination intensity
for various tasks have been tabulated on numerous
occasions and will not be repeated here, as
detailed lighting design will not be carried out.
61.
( c ) Color.
As important as adequate standards of illumination
are the effects of color and texture of surfaces in
the immediate vicinity of the working environment.
Color controls contrast and also effects human
moods through mental and direct associations.
It also plays an important role in the field of
safety and identification, with consequent decrease
in the likelihood of accidents and increase in
efficiency of servicing and controls.
Tabulated
below is a summary of a color safety code used in
the U.S. Navy shore installations and in many
civilian plants.
Also tabulated are colors for pipe-
line identification and the effects of color on mood.
COLOR SAFETY CODE
Color
Use
Yellow or
Used for hazards which the worker
Yellow and
might strike against, fall into, or
Black Bands
trip upon, such as low beams, stairways, edges of platforms.
Since
both colors are clearly visible, they
can be used for marking aisles whereever motorized materials-handling
equipment constitutes a danger to
workers.
Orange or
For most dangerous hazards that can
Chinese Red
do serious bodily harm to a worker,
such as electrical fuse box covers,
crushing or cutting edges.
Also use-
ful on emergency switches.
Green
Associated with safety, and therefore
used on emergency showers,
room entrances,
cabinets,
first-aid
first-aid equipment
stretchers.
A white cross
is often superimposed on green
m
62.
Blue
Generally used on tags or signs
which indicate something is out of
order, or should not be moved.
Red
Marks fire protection devices.
White
Used for traffic control, to indicate
traffic direction (via arrows), and
to call attention to waste receptacles.
COLOR FOR PIPE LINE IDENTIFICATION
Yellow or
Dangerous materials, such as acids,
Orange
gases, steam.
Blue
Protective materials, such as fluids
used to combat dangerous materials.
Red
Fire protection equipment such as
sprinkler systems.
Purple
Very costly materials, or things of
special value.
Others
Safe materials.
EFFECTS OF COLOR ON MOOD
Red, Yellow,
As a group, these three create feel-
Orange
ings of warmth and mild stimulation.
Red
While exciting, it can have such
negative effects as nervous tension,
restlessness.
It causes the individual
to overestimate time, and weights.
It is best used in modified rather than
pure forms.
Orange
Effect like that of red.
Yellow
A cheerful color, with fewer negative
Yellow-Green
effects than red or orange.
Best used
in modified or pastel form.
Neutral.
Restful,
cool, relaxing, they gener-
ally reduce tension.
Greens and
Most useful for stationary and mental
Blues
task areas.
63.
Blue
Exactly opposite effects on human
mood from red.
Best used in modif-
ied forms when large areas are being
covered.
Dark Colors
Therapists report these as neutral,
but industrial experts consider them
negative,
White
depressing.
Effect ranges from neutral to positive.
Easily dirtied, it also causes glare.
(d ) The Working Space.
It is desirable that the size of the working space should
be considered in relation to the workers as well as in
relation to the production process.
Many processes
require very large unrestricted spaces where many
hundreds of employees are working.
In order to
relate these spaces to human scale, they should be
restricted either visually or by separation of functions
so that each individual can relate to his environment,
see himself as part of a group of workers and thus
have the opportunity to feel he .plays a significant
part in the manufacturing process.
Where there are
more than one independant parallel production lines
for example, they may be separated by service or
circulation spaces, without sacrifycing flexibility of
layout to any great degree.
As in all architecture,
care must be taken in relating these individual
spaces to create a unified whole.
The breaking up
of a unified production area into spaces that are not
well ordered may create chaos worse than that it
was intended to overcome.
64.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Urban Sociology.
James A. Quinn.
Human Behaviour in Industry.
A.Q. Sartain, W.M. Tate.
W.W. Finlay,
Human Conditioning in the Factory.
Edited by John Linehan.
Space, Time and Architecture.
Never Leave Well Enough Alone.
Technics and Civilisation.
Polaroid Corporation.
S. Giedion.
Raymond Loewy.
Lewis Mumford.
Annual Report. (1956)
From Inhibition to Exhibition.
A Reconstruction of a New Photographic Process.
Edwin H. Land.
Human Engineering Guide for Equipment Designers.
Wesley Woodson.
Plant Layout Planning and Practice. (1951)
R.W. Mallick, A. T. Gaudreau.
Practical Plant Layout. (1955)
Muther.
Planning Industrial Structures. (1948)
Dunham.
Plant Layout and Materials Handling.
James M. Apple.
The Layout of Industrial Buildings and Equipment.
Roy J. Bemmo.
Chemical Engineering Plant Design. (1942)
N.F.P.A. Fire Codes. (1956)
Architectural Forum.
December 1956.
Thesis. Design of a Foundry to Produce Chilled
Iron Railroad Car Wheels. (1951) G.H. Heck.
Thesis. Manufacturing Plant and Research Center
for the Polaroid Corporation. (1951) V. Kampman.
Thesis. Towards a New Architecture for Industry.
( 1955 ) N.K. Scott.
4
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