3 9080 03149 0581
HB31
.M415
no.07-U
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in
2011 with funding from
Boston Library Consortium IVIember Libraries
http://www.arcliive.org/details/ageofreasonfinanOOagar
*
HB31
.^
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
Department of Economics
Working Paper Series
The Age of Reason:
Financial Decisions Over the Lifecycle
Sumit Agarwal
John DriscoU
Xavier Gabaix
David Laibson
Working Paper 07March 15 2007
Room
E52-251
50 Memorial Drive
Cambridge,
MA 02142
This paper can be downloaded without charge from the
Social Science Research Networl< Paper Collection at
http://ssrn.com/abstract=973790
'^'^
The Age
of Reason: Financial Decisions
Sumit Agarwal, John C.
Driscoll,
Over the Lifecycle
Xavier Gabaix, and David Laibson*
Current Version: March
19,
2007
Abstract
The
sophistication of financial decisions varies with age: middle-aged adults borrow at
lower interest rates and pay fewer fees compared to both younger and older adults.
document
this pattern in ten financial markets.
by observed
sophistication rises and then
a mix of age
The
risk characteristics.
53 in our cross-sectional data.
eff'ects
Our
falls
and cohort
The measured
effects
We
can not be explained
sophistication of financial choices peaks at about age
results are consistent with the hypothesis that financial
with age, although the patterns that we observe represent
effects.
(JEL: Dl, D4, D8, G2, J14).
Keywords: Household finance, behavioral finance, behavioral industrial organization, aging, shrouding,
auto loans, credit cards,
fees,
home
equity, mortgages.
Agarwal: Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, sagarwal@frbchi.org. Driscoll: Federal Reserve Board,
Gabaix: MIT, Princeton and NBER, xgabaix@princeton.edu. Laibson: Harvard University and NBER, dlaibson@harvard.edu. Gabaix and Laibson acknowledge support from the
National Science Foundation (Human and Social Dynamics program). Laibson acknowledges financial
support from the National Institute on Aging (ROl-AG-1665). The views expressed in this paper are
those of the authors and do not represent the policies or positions of the Board of Governors of the
We thank David Cutler, TimoFederal Reserve System or the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago.
*
john.c.driscoll@frb.gov.
thy Salthouse, Fiona Scott-Morton and participants at the Institute
(Aging group) for their comments.
for Fiscal Studies
and the
NBER
Introduction
1
Performance tends to
rise
and then
fall
with age.
James 2003). Mathematicians,
(Fair 2005b,
Baseball players peak in their late 20s
most
make
their
like
Queen
Authors write their
around age 50 (Simonton 1988).^
present paper studies an activity that
sonal financial decision making.
stand.
poets
Autocratic rulers
are maximally effective in their early 40' (Simonton 1988).
I
influential novels
The
lyric
Chess players achieve their
1988).
highest ranking in their mid-30s (Charness and Bosnian 1990).
Elizabeth
and
theoretical physicists,
most important contributions aromid age 30 (Simonton
Most
is
relevant to the entire adult population: per-
financial products are
complex and
difficult to
under-
Fees are shrouded and the true costs of a financial services are not easily calculated.
Making the best
financial choices takes knowledge, intelligence,
This paper documents cross-sectional variation
We
services.
pay more
fees
measures of
find that younger adults
and
in the prices
and older adults borrow
than middle-aged adults controUing
for all
skill.
that people pay for financial
at higher interest rates
risk.
The hump-shaped pattern
of financial sophistication
interest rates in six different markets: mortgages,
home
is
present in
many
equity loans,
payment
late
available to us implies a
fees,
cash advance
offers.
fees,
hump-shaped pattern
Finally,
and over
markets.
home
auto loans, personal credit cards, and small business credit cards.
optimally exploit balance transfer credit card
card fees:
and
observable characteristics, including
We
study the failure to
we study three kinds
limit fees.
We study
equity credit lines,
of credit
All of the evidence
of financial sophistication, with a
peak
in the
early 50s.
Age
effects provide
We
sophistication.
analytic ability
a parsimonious explanation for the hump-shaped pattern of financial
hypothesize that financial sophistication depends on a combination of
and experiential knowledge. Research on cognitive aging implies that analytic
concave trajectory after age
ability follows a declining (weakly)
We
20.
hypothesize that
experiential knowledge follows an increasing concave trajectory due to diminishing returns.
Adding together these two
fall
factors implies that financial sophistication should rise
and then
with age.
Cohort
effects
tional levels
adults.
may
may
also explain
explain
why
some
of the effects that
we
observe.
Differences in educa-
older adults are less financially sophisticated than middle-aged
Naturally, such education effects will not explain
are less sophisticated than middle-aged adults. Additional
why young
work needs
adults (around age 30)
to be
done to identify
What about economists? To the best of our knowledge, only Nobel (Memorial) Prize winners seem to have
been studied. Weinberg and Galenson (2005) find that "conceptual" laureates peak at age 43, and "experimen'
tal"
ones at age 61.
the relative contributions of age effects and cohort
The paper has
mance from the psychology
The next
sections.
effects.
the following organization. Section 2 discusses evidence on cognitive perforSection 3 describes the basic structure to the empirical
literature.
ten sections present results for interest rates on six different financial
products, three different kinds of credit card fee payments, and on the use of balance transfer
credit card offers. Section 14 uses all ten sets of results to estimate the age of
peak sophistica-
Section 15 discusses other findings on the effects of aging and the difficulty in separately
tion.
identifying age effects
and cohort
Section 16 concludes.
effects.
Aging and cognitive performance: Results from medical and
2
psychological research
many
Analytic ability can be measured in
memory, reasoning,
spatial visualization,
a strong age pattern in cross-sectional datasets.
with age
in adult
performance
different ways, including tasks that
and speed
(see
Figure
1).
measure
Analytic performance shows
Analytic performance
is
negatively correlated
populations (Salthouse 2005 and Salthouse forthcoming): on average analytic
falls
by two to three percent of one standard deviation^ with every incremental
This decline
year of age after age 20.
is
remarkably steady from age 20 to age 90
(see
Figure
2).
The measured
age-related decline in analytic performance results from both age effects
and cohort effects, but the panel data that
is
available implies that the dechne
driven by age effects (Salthouse, Sclu-oeder and Ferrer 2004).'^
one important pathway
for
age
Alzheimer's Disease (60%) and vascular disease (25%).
with every
five additional years of lifecycle
Age-driven declines
experience.
If
in analytic
is
this
early
life
primarily attributable to
of dementia doubles
Ronchi, Agiiero- Torres, 1999).
offset
by age-driven increases
in
a function of both analytic ability and experiential
knowledge, then general task performance should
more
De
performance are partially
general task performance
is
The prevalence
age (Fratiglioni,
primarily
Medical pathologies represent'
For instance, dementia
effects.
is
first
increase with age (as people accumulate
experience), and then decline (as experience saturates).''
Figure 3 illustrates
mechanism.
The
current paper tests the hypothesis that general task performance should follow a
shaped pattern with
age.
We focus on financial decision-making.
hump-
Because our financial market
is a standard deviation calculated from the entire population of individuals.
Flynn (1984) for a discussion of cohort effects.
Suppose Analytic Performance (AP) = a — x age, and Experience = c -I- d x age, while
APx Experience. Then, if ad > be, total performance first rises, then declines, with age.
'This
''See
''
fa
is
total
performance
Memory
Reasoning
study the following words and
thien write
Select the best completion of the missing
as
many as you can remember
cell in
the matrix
n A
D A
Goat
!
Door
1
Fish
A
Desk
1
Rope
Lake
Boot
A D
A
Frog
!Z1
Soup
Mule
Perceptual Speed
Spatial Visualization
Select the object on the right that corresponds to
the pattern on the
cfa
Figure
1:
Four IQ
O
—
I
Classify the pairs as
same
(S) or different (D) as
quickly as possible
left
Q B g
tests
used to measure cognitive performance. Source: Salthouse (forthcom-
ing)-
data span a short number of years, we are unable to decompose the relative contributions of
age and cohort effects.
Overview
3
We
document a U-shaped curve
contexts:
home
in financial
"mistakes" over the lifecycle in ten separate
equity loans and lines of credit; auto loans; credit card interest rates; mort-
gages; small business credit cards; credit card late
credit card cash
We
advance
fees;
and use of
diagnose mistakes in three forms:
and suboptimal use of balance
payment
unless otherwise noted, in each context
Here
F—
a
fees;
higher
APRs
(interest rates); higher fee
payments;
transfer offers.
identifies
observable factors that might explain patterns of fee payments or
(1)
card over limit
credit card balance transfer offers.
For each application, we conduct regression analysis that
for
fees; credit
+ /3
we estimate a
X Spline{Age)
+
F is the level of the APR paid by the borrower
-y
age effects and controls
APRs
by age.
Thus,
regression of the type:
x Controls
(or the
+
e.
frequency of fee payment), Controls
Salthouse Studies -
Memory and
Analytic Tasks
1.5
1.0
-
0.5
-
69
50
0.0
-0.5
-
-1.0
-
CD
leS
V-
—
Matrix
-1.5
Reasoning (N = 2.440)
7
Spatial Relations (N = 1,611
Pattern Comparison (N = 6,547)
-2.0
20
30
40
50
Figure
2:
Age-normed
results
70
60
Ciironological
80
Age
from four different cognitive
tests.
The Z-score
represents the
age-contingent mean, measured in units of standard deviation relative to the population mean.
More
precisely, the Z-score
is
(age-contingent
mean minus population mean)
/ (population
standard deviation). Source: Salthouse (forthcoming).
Cognitive
Experiential
capital
capital
Task
Performance
Performance
Analytic
capital
Age
Figure
3:
Hypothesized relation between general task performance and age. Analytical capital
declines with age and experiential capital increase with age.
This generates the hypothesis
that general task performance (which uses both analytical and experiential capital)
and then
declines with age.
first rises
is
a vector of control variables intended to capture alternative explanations in each context (for
example, measures of credit
consumer age as
its
risk),
and S'pline{Age)
argument (with knot points
the fitted values for the spline on age.
is
a piecewise linear function that takes
at ages 30, 40, 50, 60
and
We
70).^
then plot
Regressions are either pooled panel or cross-sectional,
depending on the context.
Each section discusses the nature of the mistake,
sets in the
documents the datasets used, and
provide
summary
statistics for the
data
Appendix.
Home
4
briefly
We
presents the regression results and graphs by age.
Equity Loans
Data Summciry
4.1
We
use a proprietary panel dataset from a large financial institution that issued
equity loans and
home
the lender offered a
menu
amounts
to pledge different
value (LTV) ratio of
100 percent)
less
home
of standardized contracts for
could choose between a credit loan and
line;
between a
of collateral, with the
first
amount
current job,
lien;
and could choose
of collateral implying a loan-to-
than 80 percent, between 80 and 90 percent, and between 90 an
In effect, the lender offered twelve different contract choices.
home
tenure), financial information (income
characteristics (credit
Consumers
equity credits.
and second
For 75,000 such
we observe the contract terms, borrower demographic information
contracts,
home
Between March and December 2002,
equity lines of credit nationally.
(FICO)
score,
We
and LTV).
and debt-to-income
(age, years at
ratio),
and
risk
also observe borrower estimates of their
house values and the loan amount requested.
Results
4.2
Table
1
reports the results of estimating regressions of
As
loans on a spline for age and control variables.
APRs
controls,
(interest rates)
we use
all
on home equity
variables observable to
the financial institution that might affect loan pricing, including credit risk measures, house
and loan
variables
them
risk,
characteristics,
all
financial
and demographic
lack economic significance, perhaps surprisingly so in
FICO
[30,
score (lagged three
in statistically significant
discussions with people
'""For
characteristics.
The
control
have the expected sign, and most are statistically significant, although some of
the log of the
comes
min
and borrower
instance, in Table
Age), and the "Age
who work
1,
>
some
months because
cases.
it is
but with a negligible magnitude.
in the industry
the "Age 30-40" spline
70" spline
is
is
is:
max (70, ^l^s).
The measure
of credit
only updated quarterly),
Our understanding from
that financial institutions generally use the
max (30, min (40, /Ige)),
the "Age
<
30" spline
is
Home
APR
Equity Loan
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
Home
4:
equity loan
APR
by borrower
FICO
score to determine whether a loan offer
The
age.
after controlling for other observable characteristics,
is
made, but conditional on the
The
do not use the score to do risk-based pricing.
figure plots the residual effect of age,
such as log(income) and credit- worthiness.
results here,
and
credit products discussed below, are consistent with this hypothesis.
strongly on the absence of a
first
The absence
of a first
amount that might be recovered conditional on a
are perceived as being riskier properties.
on the job
and negative
effects
on
APRs come
for ratios greater
from
dummy
than 90 percent.
default.
Second
log years
on APRs, as expected, since they indicate more
variables for
This
is
is
Log income and
resources available to pay off the loan, and perhaps less risk in the latter case.
effects
consumer
Loan APRs do depend
mortgage reduces the probability
homes and condominiums
also have large
being made,
mortgage (reducing the APR), and whether the property
a second home or a condominium.
of default and raises the
offer
for the other
LTV
ratios
The
largest
between 80 and 90 percent and
consistent with different
LTV
ratios corresponding
to different contract choices.
Even
after controlling for these variables,
economically significant
equity loans.
The
line
effects.
we
find that the age splines
have statistically and
Figure 4 plots the fitted values on the spline for age for
home
has a pronounced U-shape, with some younger and older borrowers
paying 100 basis points more than borrowers
in their late forties
and early
fifties.
For this and
the nine other studies, we present in section 14.2 a formal test for the U-shape, which the data
will pass.
Home
Equity Loan
APR
Coefficient
Std. Error
8.1736
0.1069
Log(FICO Score)
Loan Purpose-Home Improvement
Loan Purpose-Rate Refinance
-0.0021
0.0001
0.0164
0.0138
-0.0081
0.0113
No
-0.1916
0.0097
0.0021
0.0039
0.3880
0.0259
Intercept
First
Mortgage
Log(Months
Second
at Address)
Home
Condominium
Log (Income)
Debt/Income
Log(Years on the Job)
Self
Employed
Home Maker
Retired
Age
Age
Age
Age
0.4181
0.0165
-0.0651
0.0077
0.0034
0.0002
-0.0246
0.0039
0.0106
0.0161
-0.0333
0.0421
0.0355
0.0225
0.0083
< 30
-0.0551
30-40
-0.0336
0.0043
40-50
-0.0127
0.0048
50-60
0.0102
0.0039
Age 60-70
Age > 70
0.0174
0.0076
0.0239
0.0103
LTV
LTV
80-90
0.7693
0.0099
90-t-
1.7357
0.0111
YES
Dummies
Number of Observations
16,683
Adjusted R-squared
0.7373
State
Table
1:
The
first
column
gives coefficient estimates for a regression of the
equity loan on a spline with age as
risk score, income,
for loans
no
first
made
for
its
and the debt-to-income-ratio), and other controls
home improvements,
a
mortgage on the property, months
self-emplyed, retiree, or
homemaker
APR
of a
home
argument, financial control variables (Log(FICO) credit
dummy
for loans
made
at the address, years
status,
and a
dummy
if
(state
worked on the
the property
dummy
dummy for
dummies, a
for refinancing,
is
job,
a
dummies
for
a condominium).
Home
Equity Credit Line
APR
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
5:
Home
equity credit line
APR
by borrower
The
age.^
figure plots the residual effect
of age, after controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(income) and credit-
worthiness.
Home
5
Equity Lines of Credit
Data Summary
5.1
Data
are the
same
as described in the previous section.
Results
5.2
Table 2 reports the results of estimating regressions of
on a spline
for age
and the same control variables used
The
control variables have similar effects
loan
APRs.
on home equity
Fitted values on the age splines, plotted in Figure
5,
APRs on home
for the
line
home
APRs
equity lines of credit
equity loans regression.
as they did for
home
equity
continue to have the same pronounced
U-shape, with some younger and older borrowers again paj'ing 100 basis point more than
borrowers in their late forties and early
fifties.
,
One Mechanism: Borrower Misestimation
5.3
The amount
ratio,
is
of collateral offered
by the borrower,
an important determinant of loan
APRs.
9
as
of
Home
.
Values
measured by the loan-to- value (LTV)
Higher
LTVs imply
higher
APRs,
since
.
Home
Equity Line
APR
Coefficient
Std. Error
7.9287
0.0570
Log(FICO Score)
Loan Purpose-Home Improvement
-0.0011
0.0000
0.0551
0.0051
Loan Purpose-Rate Refinance
-0.0386
0.0047
No
-0.1512
0.0054
-0.0160
0.0019
0.3336
0.0132
0.4025
0.0079
Log(Income)
-0.1474
0.0037
Debt/Income
0.0044
0.0001
-0.0164
0.0020
0.0135
0.0073
-0.0818
0.0215
0.0139
0.0109
-0.0529
0.0050
30-40
-0.0248
0.0023
40-50
-0.0175
0.0022
50-60
0.0152
0.0035
60-70
0.0214
0.0064
>
0.0290
0.0154
0.6071
0.0050
1.8722
0.0079
Intercept
First
Mortgage
Log(Months
at Address)
Home
Second
Condominium
Log(Years on the Job)
Self
Employed
Home Maker
Retired
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
<
30
70
LTV 80-90
LTV 90+
YES
Dummies
Number of Observations
66,278
Adjusted R-squared
0.5890
State
column gives coefficient estimates for a regression of the APR of a home eqon a sphne with age as its argument, financial control variables (Log(FICO)
credit risk score, income, and the debt-to-income-ratio), and other controls (state dummies,
a dummy for loans made for home improvements, a dummy for loans made for refinancing, a
dummy for no first mortgage on the property, months at the address, years worked on the job,
dummies for self-employed, retiree, or homemaker status, and a dummy if the property is a
condominium)
Table
2:
Tlie
first
uity lines of credit
10
^
the fraction of collateral
values,
implied
and ask
is
At
lower.
for a credit loan or
LTV. The
this ffnancial institution,
hne
categories correspond to
and 90 percent; and LTVs of 90 percent or
LTVs
a loan with an
LTV
falls into,
of 60 has the
borrower characteristics
If
and not on the
same
of
between 80
financial institution separately verifies
the house value using an industry-standard methodology.
category the borrower
LTVs
of 80 percent or less;
The
greater.
home
borrowers estimate their
one of three categories depending on the
falling into
Loan
pricing depends
on the
LTV
specific value within that category; that
interest rate as a loan with
an
LTV
is,
of 70, holding
fixed.
the borrower has overestimated the value of the house, so that the
than originally estimated, the financial institution
will direct
LTV
is
in fact higher
the buyer to a different loan with
a higher interest rate corresponding to the higher LTV. In such circumstances, the loan officer
is
also given
some
discretion to depart from the financial institution's normal pricing schedule
to offer a higher interest rate than he or she
estimated the LTV.
If
would have to a borrower who had correctly
the borrower has underestimated the value of the house, however, the
financial institution
need not direct the buyer to a loan with a lower interest rate corresponding
to the actual lower
LTV;
it
may simply
choose to offer the same, higher interest rate, for a
lower-risk loan.'^
Since the
APR
LTV
paid depends on the category the
falls in,
value misestimation only leads to higher interest rate payments
in
such a way that the loan moves into a different category.
estimated
LTV
were equal to 60, but the true
LTV
were
If,
70, the
and not the LTV, home
if it
LTVs
causes
borrower would
for the highest quality loan category and would not suffer an interest rate penalty.
a Rate Changing Mistake
value causes a change in
find that,
(RCM)
LTV
to have occurred
to change
in contrast, the borrower's
still
qualify
We
when a borrower's misestimation
define
of house
category and potentially a change in interest rate paid.^
on average, making an
RCM
increases the
APR
by 125 basis points
for loans
We
and
150 basis points for lines (controlling for other variables, but not age).
If
of
the probability of making a rate-changing mistake
APR
on age conditioning on not having an
RCM
is
U-shaped with
age, then a regression
should show a nearly
flat
pattern.^
have verified this practice in our datasct by regressing the APR on both the level of the LTV and
Only the coefficients on the
variables for whether the LTV falls into one of the three categories.
variables were statistically and economically significant.
"^Note that even if the financial institution's estimate of the true house value is inaccurate, that misestimation
will not matter for the borrower as long as other institutions use the same methodology.
* Specifically,
RCMs occur when the borrower's estimation of his or her house value is such that the LTV is
less than 80, while the true LTV is between 80 and 90; or the estimated LTV is less than 80 and the true LTV
is greater than 90; or the estimated LTV is between 80 and 90, but the true is less than 80; or the estimated
LTV is between 80 and 90, but the true LTV is greater than 90; or the estimated LTV is greater than 90, but
the true LTV is less than 80; or the estimated LTV is greater than 90, but the true LTV is between 80 and 90.
^ Bucks and Pence
(2006) present evidence that borrowers do not generally have accurate estimates of their
We
dummy
dummy
house values.
11
Propensity of Making a Rate-Changing Mistake on
Equity Loans by Borrower Age
Home
Borrower Age (Years)
home equity loans by borrower
Rate Changing Mistake to have occurred wlien a borrower's misestimation
of house value causes a change in LTV category and potentially a change in interest rate paid
Figure
age.
6:
We
Propensity of making a Rate Changing Mistake on
define a
(see the text for a full definition).
for other
The
figure plots the residual effect of age, after controlling
observable characteristics, such as log(income) and credit-worthiness.
12
Propensity of Making a Rate-Changing IVlistake on
Equity Credit Lines by Borrower Age
Home
90%
80%
\
70%
^
60%
C
V
O 50%
-
a>
'^
40%
-
30%
20%
\
.
^^^
\
\
^^^^^^
'
^"^-^
10%
^^^--^'^^^
0%
Borrower Age (Years)
home equity credit lines by
Rate Changing Mistake to have occurred when a borrower's misestimation of house vahie causes a change in LTV category and potentially a change in interest
Figure
7:
Propensity of making a Rate Changing Mistake on
borrower age.
We
define a
rate paid (see the text for a full definition).
The
figure plots the residual effect of age, after
controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(income) and credit- worthiness.
13
Home
APRs for Borrowers Who Do Not Make a
Rate-Changing IVIistal<e
Equity Loan
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
The
8:
Home
equity loan
APRs
for
borrowers
who do
not
make a rate-changing
mistake.
figure plots the residual effect of age, after controlling for other observable characteristics,
such as log(income) and credit-worthiness.
Figures 6 and 7 plots the probability of making a rate-changing mistake by age for
equity loans and
ers at age 70
home
equity lines, respectively.
The
charts
show U-shapes
for both.
home
Borrow-
have a 16(19) percentage point greater chance of making a mistake than borrowers
at age 50 for
home
greater chance of
probability of
equity loans
(lines);
borrowers at age 20 have a 35(41) percentage point
making a mistake than borrowers
making a rate-changing mistake
is
at age 50.
The unconditional average
24 percent for loans and 18 percent
Figures 8 and 9 plot the fitted values from re-estimating the regressions in table
3,
for lines.
but now
conditioning on the borrower not making an RCAi.
The
APR
equity loan for a borrower at age 70 over
paid by age.
The
APR
difference for a
home
plots shows only slight differences in
home
a borrower at age 50 has shrunk from 36 basis points to 8 basis points; for a
of credit,
APR
and
it
has slnrunk from 28 basis points to 4 basis points.
For a borrower at age 20, the
difference over a borrower at age 50 has shrunk to 3 basis points for
3 basis points for
home
This disappearance of the age
of
effect is consistent
respectively, gives
of an
RCM
an expected
in
with the cost of an
RCM by age.
of making an RCM for
making an
and 19 percent additional chance
APR cost
home
equity loans
equity lines of credit.
and the additional probability
the average
equity line
for
home
APR
RCM
calculated above
For example, a 70- year old has a 16
loans an lines.
Multiplying this by
equity lines and loans of 150 and 125 basis points,
paid of 26 and 23 basis points.
14
These differences
Home
Equity Credit Line
APRs
for
Borrowers
Who Do
Not
Mal<e a Rate-Changing Mistake
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
9:
mistake.
Home
The
equity credit line
APRs
for
borrowers
who do
not
make a rate-changing
figure plots the residual effect of age, after controlling for other observable
characteristics, such as log(income)
are, very close to the
and credit-worthiness.
estimated differences of 36-8=28 basis points for lines and 28-5=23 basis
points for loans.
Credit Cards
6
Data Summary
6.1
We use a proprietary panel dataset from a large U.S.
The
dataset contains a representative
followed monthly over a 36
random sample
bank that
issues credit cards nationally.
of about 128,000 credit card accounts
month period (from January 2002 through December
bulk of the data consists of the main
billing
2004).
The
information listed on each account's monthly
statement, including total payment, spending, credit limit, balance, debt, purchases and cash
advance annual percent rates (APRs), and
fees paid.
At a quarterly frequency, we observe
each customer's credit bureau rating (FICO) and a proprietary (internal) credit 'behavior'
score.
We
have credit bureau data about the number of other credit cards held by the account
holder, total credit card balances,
and income
and mortgage balances.
We
have data on the age, gender
of the account holder, collected at the time of account opening.
on the data, including summary
statistics
and variable
15
Further details
definitions, are available in the
data
APR
Credit Card
Coefficient
Std. Error
Intercept
14.2743
3.0335
Age < 30
Age 30-40
-0.0127
0.0065
-0.0075
0.0045
Age 40-50
-0.0041
0.0045
Age 50-60
Age 60-70
0.0023
0.0060
0.0016
0.0184
Age > 70
0.0016
0.0364
Log(Income)
-0.0558
0.0803
Log(FICO)
-0.0183
0.0015
0.0003
0.0022
-0.0000
0.0000
Home
Equity Balance
Mortgage Balance
Number
of Observations
92,278
Adjusted R-squared
Table
3:
0.0826
for a regression of tire APR of a credit card
argument, financial control variables (Log(FICO) credit risk score,
This table gives coefficient estimates
on a spline with age as
its
income, total number of cards, total card balance,
home
equity debt balance and mortgage
balance).
appendix.
Results
6.2
Table 3 reports the results of regressing credit card
argument and other control
financial institution that
very
little
the effect
variables.
may
As
not statistically significant.
APRs
APRs
on a spline with age as the
we again use information observed by the
influence their pricing.
impact on credit card APRs.
is
controls,
rise
As
before,
we
find that credit scores have
with the total number of cards, though
Other controls, including the
total card balance, log
income, and balances on other debt, do not have economically or statistically significant effects
on credit card APRs.
Figure ?? plots the fitted values on the spline for age.
less
7
7.1
pronounced than
in the case of
home
A
U-shape
is
present, though
much
equity loans.
Auto Loans
Data Summary
We
use a proprietary data set of auto loans originated at several large financial institutions
that were later acquired by another institution.
loans originated for the purchase of
The data
set comprises observations
new and used automobiles. We observe
including the automobile value and age, the loan
16
on 6996
loan characteristics
amount and LTV, the monthly payment, the
Credit Card
APR
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
10:
Credit card
APR by
borrower age. The figure plots the residual
controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(income)
contract rate, and the time of origination.
credit score,
We
and
effect of age, after
credit- worthiness.
also observe borrower characteristics including
monthly disposable income, and borrower
age.
Results
7.2
Table 4 reports the results of estimating a regression of the
spline with age as the
effect
argument and control
on the loan terms.
variables.
Higher incomes lower
them, though the magnitudes
FICO
APRs and
of the effects are neglige.
APR
paid on auto loans on a
credit risk scores again have little
higher debt-to-income ratios raise
We
also include car characteristics,
APRs
in other
work (Agarwal, Ambrose and Chomsisengphet, forthcoming)-though we note that the
financial
such as type and age, as one of us has found those variables to matter for
institutions
do not condition their loans on such variables.
We
also include loan age
and state
dummies.
Figure 11 plots the fitted values on the spline for age.
pronounced U-shape.
17
The graph again shows
a rather
Auto Loan
APR
CoefRcicnt
n.4979
1.3184
Age < 30
Age 30-40
-0.0231
0.0045
-0.0036
0.0005
Age 40-50
-0.0054
0.0005
Age 50-60
0.0046
0.0007
Age 60-70
0.0031
0.0017
Age > 70
0.0091
0.0042
Log(Income)
-0.3486
0.0176
Log(FICO)
-0.0952
0.0059
Debt/Income
0.0207
0.0020
Japanese Car
-0.0615
0.0270
European Car
-0.0127
0.0038
Loan Age
0.0105
0.0005
Car Age
0.1234
0.0031
YES
YES
Dummies
Quarter Dummies
Number of Observations
State
6,996
Adjusted R-squared
Table
4:
Std. Error
Intercept
0.0928
This table gives coefficient estimates from a regression of the
spline with age as
its
APR of an auto loan on a
argument, financial control variables (Log(FICO) credit risk score, income,
and the debt-to-income-ratio), and other controls (state dummies, dummies
car is Japanese or European, loan age and car age).
Auto Loan
APR
for
whether the
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
11:
Auto loan
APR
by borrower
age.
The
figure plots the residual effect of age, after
controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(incQme)
18
and credit-worthiness.
Mortgages
8
Data Summary
8.1
We
use a proprietary data set from a large financial institution that originates
The data
gages in Argentina.
set covers 4,867 owner-occupied, fixed rate, first
originated between June 1998 and
the original loan amount, the
March
LTV
2000, and observed through
and appraised house value
March
at origination,
We observe
We
2004.
and the APR.
also observe borrower financial characteristics (including income, second income, years
job, wealth
on the
measures such as second house ownership and car ownership and value), borrower
risk characteristics (Veraz score (a credit score similar to the U.S.
payments
mort-
first
mortgage loans
as a percentage of after-tax income),
FICO
score)
and mortgage
and borrower demographic characteristics
(age,
gender and marital status).
Results
8.2
Table 5 reports results of regressing the mortgage
and control
that
may
variables.
As
controls,
we again
affect loan pricing, including risk
as a fraction of income,
APR on a spline with age
as an
argument
use variables observable to the financial institution
measures (credit score, income, mortgage payment
and LTV), and various demographic and financial indicators (gender,
marital status, a dumiriy variable for car ownership, and several others; these coefficients are
not reported to save space).
and generally
The
The
coefficients
coefficients
on the controls are again of the expected sign
though of small magnitude.
statistically significant,
on the age spline are positive below age
60 and positive thereafter.
thirty,
then negative through age
The graph
Figure 12 plots the fitted values on the spline for age.
again generally shows a U-shape, though behavior for younger borrowers
is
rather different.
Small Business Credit Cards
9
Data Summary
9.1
We
use a proprietary data set of small business credit card accounts originated at several
large institutions that issued such cards nationally.
a single institution.
and May 2002.
The panel data
The data
institutions were later acquired
set covers 11,254 accounts originated
Most of the business
formal financial records.
The
are very small,
owned by a
between
single family,
set has all information collected at the
May
by
200
and have no
time of account
origination, including the borrower's self-reported personal income, yeai^s in business of the
firm,
and borrower
age.
Quarterly,
we observe the account
19
credit
bureau
score.
Mortgage
Coefficient
Std. Error
12.4366
4.9231
30
0.0027
0.0046
30-40
-0.0023
0.0047
40-50
-0.0057
0.0045
50-60
0.0127
0.0093
60-70
0.0155
0.0434
>
0.0234
0.0881
Log(Income)
-0.2843
0.1303
Log( Credit Score)
-0.1240
0.0217
0.0859
0.2869
Intercept
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
<
70
Debt/Income
Loan Term
Loan Term Squared
-0.0114
0.0037
-0.0000
0.0000
Loan Amount
Loan to Value
-0.0000
0.0000
0.1845
0.0187
Years on the Job
-0.0108
0.0046
0.1002
0.1014
Auto
0.1174
0.0807
Auto Value
0.0000
0.0000
Gender (l=Female)
0.0213
0.0706
Married
-0.0585
0.0831
Two
-0.1351
0.1799
-0.0116
0.1957
-0.0438
0.1174
0.0853
0.1041
Merchant
-0.1709
0.1124
Bank Relationship
Number of Observations
-0.2184
0.1041
Second
Home
Incomes
Married with
Two
Incomes
Employment: Professional
Employment Non-Professional
:
4,867
Adjusted R-squared
Table
5:
APR
0.1004
This table reports the estimated coefficients from a regression of mortgage
spline with age as its
argmnent and
financial
and demographic control
20
variables.
APR on
a
Mortgage
APR
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
APR for
Figure 12:
Argentine mortgages by borrower age. The figure plots the residual
and
of age, after controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(income)
effect
credit-
worthiness.
Results
9.2
Table 6 reports the results of regressing the
APR for small business
As with
with age as the argument and control variables.
we
control for the
card limit.
We
PICO
score of the borrower, the total
also include
dummy
decreasing in this variable.
number
All controls variables are statistically significant
for years in business
on a sphne
of cards, card balance,
variables for years in business, and expect
expected sign, though only the dummies
APRs
credit cards
individual credit card accounts,
APRs
and
to be
and have the
have substantial magnitudes.
are decreasing in the age of the borrower through age 60, and increasing thereafter.
Figure 13 plots the fitted values on the spline for age.
The graph shows
a pronounced U-shape.
Credit Card Fee Payments: Late Fees
10
10.1
Overview
Certain credit card uses involve the payment of a
terms of the credit card agreement are violated.
In the next three sections,
we
fee.
Some kinds
focus on three important types of
21
of fees are assessed
when
Other kinds are assessed for use of services.
fees: late fees,
over limit
.
Small Business Credit Card
Std. Error
Intercept
16.0601
0.6075
Age < 30
Age 30-40
Age 40-50
-0.0295
0.0081
-0.0068
0.0040
-0.0047
0.0038
Age 50-60
-0.0017
0.0055
Age 60-70
0.0060
0.0209
Age > 70
0.0193
0.0330
Years in Business 1-2
-0.5620
0.1885
Years in Business 2-3
-0.7463
0.1937
Years in Business 3-4
-0.2158
0.1031
Years in Business 4-5
-0.5100
0.0937
Years in Business 5-6
-0.4983
0.0931
Log(FICO)
-0.0151
0.0008
0.1379
0.0153
Log(Total Card Balance)
0.0000
0.0000
Log(Total Card Limit)
0.0000
0.0000
Number
11,254
Number
of Cards
of Observations
Adjusted R-squared
Table
6:
APR
Coefficient
0.0933
This table reports the estimated coefficients from a regression of the
business credit cards on a spline with the business owner's age as
control variables
(dummies for j^ears in business, log(FICO)
and total card limit).
its
APR
for small
argument and other
credit risk score,
number
of cards,
total card balance,
Small Business Credit Card
APR
by Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure 13: Small business credit card
APR
effect of age, after controlling for other
by borrower age.
The
figure plots the residual
observable characteristics, such as log(income) and
credit- worthiness
22
and cash advance
fees,
1.
A
Late Fee:
We
fees.-^°
late fee of
describe the fee structure for our data set below.
between $30 and $35
beyond the due date on the
is
assessed
credit card statement.
if
the borrower makes a payment
the borrower
If
late
is
60 days once, or by more than 30 days twice within a year, the bank
'penalty pricing' by raising the
payment
report late
2.
APR
Over Limit
Fee:
make a
payment during the
late
An
over limit
3.
six
months
fee, also
of between $30 and $35,
FICO
scores.
If
is
assessed the
first
pricing as in the
imposed.
is
Cash Advance
advanced, or $5,
fees, this fee
A
Fee:
is
cash advance fee of the greater of 3 percent of the amount
levied for each cash advance
can be assessed
many
on the credit card.
times per month.
It
APR
However, the
greater than that on pmxhases, and
usually 16 percent or more.
of these fees
may be viewed
is
Unlike the
first
two
does not cause the imposition of
penalty pricing on purchases or debt.
Payment
impose
level.
The same penalty
limit.
also
also choose to
after the last late
normal (though not promotional)
will revert to its
time the borrower exceeds his or her credit
late fee
The bank may
to over 24 percent.
to credit bureaus, adversely affecting consumers'
the borrower does not
payment, the
APR
by more than
may
as mistakes in that fee
on cash advances
is
typically
payment may be avoided by
small and relatively costless changes in behavior.
We
use the
same dataset
case study discussed above.
Results
10.2
Table 7 presents panel regressions
we
APR
as that used for the credit card
regress a
dummy
for
variable equal to one
each type of
if
a fee
is
fee.
In each of the three regressions,
paid that
month on a
spline for age
and
control variables; hence the coefficients give the conditional effects of the independent variables
on the propensity to pay
examples, since
pay a
fee,
fees.
now we wish
The
control variables differ from those of the preceding six
to control for other things that might affect the propensity to
which are not necessarily the same as things that might lead borrowers to default
or otherwise affect their borrowing terms.
if
a
bill
issued.
was issued
last
month;
"Bill Activity" is
Other types of
a
"Bill Existence"
borrowers will only be
dummy
is
a
dummy
eligible to
variable equal to one
if
variable equal to one
pay a late
fee
if
a
bill
purchases or paymeiats were
was
made
balance transfer, foreign transactions, and pay by phone. All of these
important to both the-bank and the borrower. Few issuers (the most notable exception
being American Express) continue to charge annual fees, largely as a result of increased competition for new
borrowers (Agarwal et al., 2005). The cards in our data do not have annual fees. We study balance transfer
behavior using a separate data set below. The foreign transaction fees and pay by phone fees together comprise
less than three percent of the total fees collected by banks.
fees include annual,
fees are relatively less
23
on the card; borrowers
was used.
only be eligible to pay over limit or cash advance fees
will
"Log(Purchases)"
is
would expect that the propensity to pay over
with the amount of purchases.
an internal
"Log(FICO)"
limit
is
and cash advance
by the bank to predict
FICO
Higher scores mean
score.
less risky
the ratio of the balance of credit card debt to the credit limit;
would
raise the propensity to
pay over limit
For late fee payments, column one of the table,
signs
and are
some
control variables
For example,
statistically significant,
if
may
all
The
behavior.
We
behavior leading to lower credit risk scores would lead to higher
less available credit
scores are lagged
fee
payment.
"Debt/Limit"
we would expect that having
fees,
and possibly other
makes borrowers more
late fees
Hence the estimated
splines
coefficients
on the age
in
magnitude.
likely to forget to
and decrease
may
fees.
control variables have the expected
though they are also small
would both increase the propensity to pay
is
would expect the underlying
Note that
partly capture the effects of age-related cognitive decline on
increasing age
we
would be increasing
fees
and delinquent payment beyond that
late
three months because they are only updated quarterly.
is
the card
the credit risk score, and "Log(Behavior)"
risk score created
predicted by the
if
the log of the amount purchased on the card, in dollars;
pay
credit
fees
fees.
on time, that
and behavior
understate some age-related
scores.
effects.
Coefficients on the age splines are uniformly negative for splines through age 50, negative
or weakly positive for the spline between age 50 and 60, and positive with increasing slope for
splines above age 50.
The top
line in
Figure 14 plots fitted values for the age splines for the late fee payment
regression.
Credit Card Fee Payments:
11
The second column
controls
and age
The bottom
payment
of Table 7 presents regression results for the over limit fee, on the
splines as for the late fee.
line in
controls
and over
and age
fee.
Figure 14 plots fitted values for the age splines for the over limit fee
Cash Advance Fees
of Table 7 presents regression results for the cash advance fee,
splines as for the late fee.
on the
Results are very similar to those for the late
limit fee.
The middle
payment
same
regression.
The second column
same
fee
Results are very similar to those for the late
Credit Card Fee Payments:
12
Over Limit Fees
line in
Figure 14 plots fitted values for the age splines for the cash advance fee
regression.
24
Over Limit Fee
Late Fee
Coeff.
Std. Err.
Cash Adv. Fee
Coeff.
Std. Err.
0.0446
0.1870
0.0802
0.3431
0.0631
30
-0.0021
0.0004
-0.0013
0.0006
-0.0026
0.0011
30-40
-0.0061
0.0003
-0.0003
0.0001
-0.0004
0.0002
40-50
-0.0001
0.0000
-0.0002
0.0000
-0.0002
0.0000
50-60
-0.0002
0.0000
-0.0002
0.0000
-0.0003
0.0000
60-70
0.0004
0.0002
0.0003
0.0001
0.0004
0.0000
>
0.0025
0.0013
0.0003
0.0001
0.0004
0.0000
0.0153
0.0076
0.0104
0.0031
0.0055
0.0021
Bill Activity
0.0073
0.0034
0.0088
0.0030
0.0055
0.0021
Log(Purchases)
0.0181
0.0056
0.0113
0.0023
0.0179
0.0079
Log(Behavior)
-0.0017
0.0000
-0.0031
0.0012
-0.0075
0.0036
Log(FICO)
-0.0016
0.0007
-0.0012
0.0003
-0.0015
0.0005
Debt/Limit
-0.0066
0.0033
0.0035
0.0013
0.0038
0.0012
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
Age
Bill
<
70
Existence
Eff.
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
^ES
of Obs.
3.9 Mill.
3.9 Mill.
3.9 Mill.
Adj. R-squarcd
0.0378
0.0409
0.0388
Acct. Fixed Eff.
Time Fixed
Number
7:
Coeff.
0.2964
Intercept
Table
Std. Err.
This table reports
coefficients-
from a regression of
dummy
variables for credit card fee
payments on a sphne for age, financial control variables (log(FICO) credit risk score, internal
bank behavior risk score, debt over limit) and other control variables (dummies for whether a
bill existed last month, for whether the card was used last month, dollar amount of purchases,
account- and time- fixed effects).
25
Frequency of Fee Payment by Borrower Age
0.35
Late Fee
Over
Limit
"
Fee
Cash Advance Fee
0,33
Sc
0.31
£
0.29
o
g_0.27
2*0.25-
C
as
3
0.23
-
0.21
-
CT
i
O
d) 0.19
-
u.
0.17
0.15
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
14:
Frequency of
fee
payment by borrower
age.
The
figure plots the residual effect
of age, after controlling for other observable characteristics, such as log(income)
and
credit-
worthiness.
13
'Eureka'
Moments: Balance Transfer Credit Card Usage
Overview^
13.1
Credit card holders frequently receive offers to transfer account balances on their current
cards to a
to the
the
new
new card
card.
for a
Borrowers pay substantially lower
APRs on
six-to-nine-month period (a 'teaser' rate).
new card have high APRs.
The catch
is
the balances transferred
However, new purchases on
that payments on the
new card go
first
towards
paying down the (low interest) transferred balances, and only subsequently towards paying
down
the (high interest) debt accumulated from
The optimal
strategy for borrowers,
is
to
new
make
purchases.
all
new purchases on
their old credit card
and to make no new purchases with the new card to which balances have been
transferred.
We
hypothesize that some borrowers will figure this out before making any purchases with
the
new
card.
only figure
it
Some borrowers may
not initially understand the optimal strategy, and will
Those borrowers
will
one or more months, then have a 'eureka' moment, after which they
will
out by observing their (surprisingly) high interest charges.
make purchases
for
implement the optimal strategy.
Some
borrowers will never identify the optimal strategy.
26
Data summary
13.2
We
by a
use a proprietary panel dataset from several large financial institutions, later acquired
single financial institution, that
made balance
The data
transfer offers nationally.
set
contains 14,798 accounts which accepted such offers over the period January 2000 tlirough
December 2002, The bulk
of the data consists of the
main bilhng information
listed
on each
account's monthly statement, including total payment, spending, credit hmit, balance, debt,
We
purchases and cash advance annual percent rates (APRs), and fees paid.
also observe
the amount of the balance transfer, the start date of the balance transfer teaser rate
the
initial teaser
offer.
APR
on the balance
transfer,
and the end date
At a quarterly frequency, we observe each customer's
We
a proprietary (internal) credit 'behavior' score.
of the balance transfer
credit
We
APR
bureau rating (FICO) and
have credit bureau data about the number
and mortgage
of other credit cards held by the account holder, total credit card balances,
balances.
offer,
have data on the age, gender and income of the account holder, collected at
the time of account opening.
Further details on the data, including
summary
statistics
and
a balance transfer do no spending on the
new
variable definitions, are available in the data appendix.
13.3
Results
About one
third of
all
customers
who make
card, thus implementing the optimal strategy immediately.
customers who make a balance
trairsfer
Slightly
more than one
third of
spend every month during the promotional period,
thus never experiencing a "Eureka" moment.
Figure 15 plots the frequency of Eureka moments for each age group. The plot of those
never experience a "Eureka" moment-that
pronounced U-shape by
The
age.
pronounced inverted U-shape by
is,
who
age.
never implement the optimal strategy-is a
who implement
plot of those
Plots for the other
Table 8 reports the results of a regression of a
moment on
Credit risk
financial sophistication.
more
the strategy immediately
months
dummy
are relatively
is
a
flat.
variable for ever having a Eureka
a spline for age and controls for credit risk (log(FICO)), education, gender and
log(income).-''.
to be
who
likely to
is
included because higher scores
Similarly,
we would expect borrowers with
experience Eureka
young adults and older adults are
moments The
less likely to
coefficients
associated with greater
higher levels of education
on the age spline imply that
experience Eureka moments.
Figure 16 plots fitted values for the age splines.
Note that, unlike the other
values indicate a smaller propensity to
"Although we report an OLS
may be
make
regression for ease in interpreting the coefficients,
27
figures, higher
mistakes.
we have
also run the regression
Fraction of Borrowers in Each
Age Group Experiencing
Eureka IVloment, by
- - -----
50%
Month Two
Month Five
Month One
Month Four
No Eureka
Month Three
Month Six
-^^
----"''
\^,.
40%
a
iVIonth
;.--'^^^
30%
20%
,..___
10%
0%
18
to
24
25
to
34
35
to
44
45
to
64
Over 65
Borrower Age Category
Figure
15:
Fraction of borrowers in each age group experiencing specific delays. For example,
the dashed-blue line plots the fraction of borrowers experiencing no delay to a Eureka moment.
These sophisticated borrowers represent a large fraction of middle-aged households and a much
smaller fraction of younger and older households.
28
Propensity of Eureka
Std. Error
Intercept
0.2587
0.0809
Age <30
Age 30-40
Age 40-50
0.0134
0.0026
0.0019
0.0005
-0.0001
0.0000
Age 50-60
Age 60-70
-0.0029
0.0009
-0.0035
0.0008
Age >70
Some High School
-0.0083
0.0072
-1.6428
0.9570
High School Graduate
-0.6896
0.8528
Some
College
-0.4341
0.8944
Associate's Degree
-0.2439
0.4537
Bachelor's Degree
0.3280
0.5585
Graduate
0.6574
0.3541
log(FICO)
0.0102
0.0019
log(Limit)
0.0120
0.0022
-0.0044
0.0067
log(Income)
Number
of Observations
3,622
Adjusted R-squared
Table
8:
Moment
Coefficient
0.1429
This table reports estimated coefficients from a panel regression of
more spending on the balance transfer card
its argument and other control variables.
the borrower did no
spline with age as
tlie
month
in
which
(the 'eureka moment')
on a
Quantifying the Performance Pecik
14
Locating the Peak of Performance
14.1
Visual inspection of the age splines for the ten case studies suggests that financial mistakes
are at a
we
minimum
To estimate the minimum more
in the late forties or earlj' fifties.
precisely,
re-estimate each model, replacing the splines between 40 and 50 and 50 and 60 with a single
spline running
from 40 to 60, and the square of that
In other words,
tively
we run the
spline.
following regression, where
F
is
the outcome associated respec-
with each of the 10 studies:
a
(2)
-(-
+a
Here Spline{Age)
is
/?
X 5'p/me(A(/e)4jg^[4o
X Spline
60]
(A5e).45e6[40,60]
^
'
x Controls
+
e
Spline (^5'e)A3eel40,60]
a piecewise linear function that takes consumer age as
knot points at ages 30, 40, 60 and
70).
Spline{Age) j^gg^i^QQQ-^
of the [40,60] age range, while Spline {Age) y^^^^Q
as a logit
+
+7
and found similar
results.
29
QQ^
is
its
•
argument (with
represents the splines outside
the linear spline with knot points at
Moment by
Propensity of Ever Experiencing a Eureka
Borrower Age
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure 16: Propensity of ever experiencing a eurelca
moment by borrower
The
age.
figure
plots the residual effect of age, after controlling for other observable characteristics, such as
log(income), education, and credit- worthiness.
40 and 60. Hence,
age between 40 and 60, the above formulation
for
F=
The peak
of performance
is
Controls
+
a x Age
+
b
is
just:
x Age^
the value that minimizes the above function,
Peak = -a/
(3)
i.e.
(26)
We calculate the asymptotic standard errors on Peak using the delta method, so that
is
the standard error associated with the linear combination:
— l/(26)-(Coefficient
s.e.{Peak)
on age)
+
a/(26^)-(CoefHcient on age^).
In Table
9,
we
report the location of the 'age of reason':
The mean age
mistakes are minimized.
deviation across studies
is
most
is
statistically different
"difficult" task,
for that task
i.e.
would be
The standard
4.3 years.
Formal hypothesis testing (Hq: a
moment
the point at which financial
of reason appears to be at 53.3 years.
+ 25 x
53
=
0)
shows that only the location of the Eureka
from 53 years. Interestingly, the Eureka task
the most cognitively intensive one.
earlier
It
is
arguable the
makes sense that the peak age
than the other tasks. Since we do not have a rigorous measure
30
Age
of Peak Performance
Standard Error
55.85
4.24
53.30
5.23
Card-APR
Auto Loans-APR
50.31
6.02
49.63
5.03
Mortgage- APR
61.75
7.92
56.04
8.01
Credit Card Late Fee
51.94
4.87
Credit Card Over Limit Fee
53.97
5.02
54.82
4.89
Eureka Moment
45.81
7.93
Average of the 10 Studies
53.34
Home
Home
Equity
Loans-APR
Equity Lines-APR
Credit
Card-APR
Small Business Credit
Cash Advance Fee
Credit Card
Table
9;
Age
at
which financial mistakes are minimized,
each case study
for
of the "difficulty" of a task, the interpretation of the Eureka case remains speculative.
Formal Test of a Performance Peak Effect
14.2
Table 9 allows us do a formal test for a peak
peak
>
and
In regression (2), the null hypothesis
effect.
Peak = —a/
(26)
6
imply that mistakes follow a U-shape, with a peak that
is
of a
effect
is:
For criterion
10 studies b
is
For criterion
(i)
(i),
6
0,
(ii)
we note that the
significantly different
(ii),
[40,60].
Together these conditions
between 40 and 60 years of age.
b coefficients are positive for all 10 studies.
from zero (the credit card
Table 9 shows that a peak
in the 40-60
APR
study
is
For 9 of the
the exception).-'^
age range can not be rejected for
all
ten studies.
15
Discussion and Related
Age
effects offer
Work
a unified parsimonious explanation for our findings in
However, our cross-sectional evidence does not
current section,
Some
we review some
results could
definitively
all
be driven by unobserved variation in default
risk.
For instance, the U-
We test
by regressing default rates on age splines
auto loans, and
credit lines.
the contrary,
9,
We
home
In the
possible alternative explanations.
shape of APRs, could be due to a U-shape of default by age.
and
ten case studies.
support this interpretation.
for credit cards,
plot fitted values in Figure 17.
None
this alternative hypothesis
of the graphs
home
is
equity loans
U-shaped.
On
equity loans and lines show a pronounced inverted-U-shape, implying that
'*To save space, we only report the t— statistics associated with the b
they are: 2.20, 4.55, 7.80, 8.77, 17.05, 1.61, 4.57, 2.91, 3.08, 2.67.
31
coefficients.
Following
tlie
order of Table
Percent Defaulting by Borrower Age
-
™„,
8,00%
——Auto Loans
Credit Cards
"-'^
'^'"^^"^-
Small Business
\
-^-
700%
6,00%
HE-Loans
Argentina Mortgage
HE-Lines
"'"'--.,
4,00%
3
-"
«_—.
00%
u™^
,.^^---"'-""^'
«"'""''*''*°*^'"
.^.u-v—
"'"^^^^^^^^^^^^""•^^.^
'^^^^^^^S^*!r^
""
2,00%
1
,00%
..^-^
^
^^
000%
Borrower Age (Years)
Figure
17:
The
Default frequency by borrower age.
figure plots the residual efi'ect of age, after
controlling for other observable characteristics, such as income
the young and old have lower default rates.
and credit-worthiness.
Credit cards and auto loans also show a slight
inverted U-shape. Hence, Figure 17 contradicts the hypothesis that our results are driven by
an unmeasured default
risk.
Also, note that age-dependent default risk could not explain the
observed patterns in credit card fee payments or suboptimal use of balance transfers.
Some
age effects could be generated by age- variation in the opportunity cost of time [Aguiar
and Hurst
However, such opportunity-cost
2005].
mistakes, which
is
The presence
not what
effects
would predict that
believe this to be unlikely, for two reasons.
discrimination for legal reasons.
in
is
Related
not relevant (since
some kind
of age
First, firms avoid age
Second, the U-shaped pattern
all
card holders face the same rules).
Work
Other authors have studied the
rniotis
fewer
contexts such as fee payments and misuse of balance transfer offers in which
discrimination
15.1
make
Penalties for age discrimination from the Fair Lending Act
are substantial (as would be the resulting negative publicity).
shows up
retirees
in the data.
of age effects might also be interpreted as evidence for
We
discrimination.
we observe
effects of aging
on the use of
financial instruments.
Ko-
and Kumar (2007) examine the performance of investors from a major U.S. discount
brokerage house.
They use census data
to
impute education
32
levels
and data from the Survey
.
and Retirement
of Health, Aging
Europe to estimate a model of cognitive
in
find that investors with cognitive declines earn annual returns
lower on a risk adjusted basis.
are
more
likely to
borrow
In a related paper,
at high interest rates
Zinman
abilities.
They
between 3-5 percentage points
(2006) reports that older adults
on credit card accounts, while simultaneously
holding liquid assets in low-interest bank accounts.
In their work on financial hteracy, Lusardi and Mitchel find evidence consistent with an
inverse-U shape of financial proficiency. Lusardi and Mitchell (2006) find a decline in financial
knowledge
after age 50.
Lusardi and Mitchell (2007) also find an inverse U-shape in the mastery
of basic financial concepts, such as the ability to calculate percentages or simple divisions.
After some of our presentations other researchers have offered to look for age patterns of
financial mistakes in their
own data
Lucia
sets.
Dunn
has reported to us that the Ohio State
Survey on credit cards shows a U-shaped pattern of credit card
auto loans (loans
Scott-Morton
made by banks and
et ai,
APR
Fiona Scott-Morton has reported that
personal communication).
2003), loan
terms by age (Dunn,
in her dataset of indirect
finance companies using the dealer as an intermediary; see
APR terms
show a U-shaped pattern (Scott-Morton, personal
communication)
A
relationship between earning
and performance has been noted
in
many
non-financial^
contexts. Survey data suggests that labor earnings peak around age 50 (Gourinchas and Parker,
2002) or after about 30 years of experience (Murphy and Welch, 1990). This
our hypothesis that economic performance depends on both analytic
Turning to purely noneconomic domains, there
is
is
abilities
consistent with
and experience.
a literature on estimating performance
peaks in professional athletics and other competitive areas. Fair (1994, 2005a, 2005b) estimates
the effects of age declines in baseball and chess,
among
other sports.
James (2003) estimates
the age of peak performance in baseball to be 29.
A
burgeoning literature in psychology and economics reports systematic difference in
tionality"
"ra-
between groups of people. Benjamin, Brown and Shapiro (2006) find that subjects
with higher
test scores, or less cognitive load, display fewer behavioral biases. Frederick (2005)
identifies a
measure of "analytical IQ":
people with higher scores on cognitive ability tasks
tend to exhibit fewer /weaker psychological biases. While this literature
perimental data (where
paper.
make
Similarly,
it is
easier to control for unobservables)
Massoud, Saunders and Schnolnick (2006)
,
we
rely
find that
is
motivated by ex-
on
field
data
in
our
more educated people
fewer mistakes on their credit cards.
A number
of researchers have written about
closely overlaps with that of
of credit card accounts to
Agarwal
show
that,
et al.
(2005),
who
credit card use.
use another large
Our work most
random sample
on average, borrowers choose credit card contracts that
minimize their total interest costs net of
choose suboptimal contracts.
consumer
fees paid.
About 40 percent
of borrowers initially
While some borrowers incur hundreds of dollars of such
33
costs,
most borrowers subsequently switch
to cost-minimizing contracts.
complement those
(2005), since
and
Agarwal
of
et al.
we
The
results of our
paper
find evidence of learning to avoid fees
interest costs given a particular card contract.
Several researchers have looked at the response of consumers to low, introductoi'y credit
card rates ('teaser' rates), and at the persistence of otherwise high interest rates.
Ausubel (2004) show that consumers prefer credit card contracts with low
short period of time to ones with
the latter
is
ex post,
more
somewhat higher
Consumers
beneficial.
Shui and
initial rates for
rates for a longer period of time, even
also
a
when
appear 'reluctant' to switch contracts.
DellaVigna and Malmendier (2004) theorize that financial institutions
set the
terms of credit
card contracts to reflect consumers' poor forecasting ability over their future consumption.
Bertrand
consumer
et al.
(2005) find that randomized changes in the "psychological features" of
credit offers affect adoption rates as
much
as variations in the interest rate terms.
Ausubel (1991) hypothesizes that consumers may be over-optimistic, repeatedly underestimating the probability that they will borrow, thus possibly explaining the stickiness of credit card
interest rates.
Calem and Mester
(1995) use the 1989 Survey of
Consumer Finances (SCF)
to argue that information barriers create high switching costs for high-balance credit card
customers, leading to persistence of credit card interest rates, and Calem, Gordy and Mester
(2005) use the 1998 and 2001
SCFs
to argue that such costs continue to be important.
and Dunn (2002) use data from the 1998 SCF to argue that having large
raises
consumers' propensity to search
(2004) use
SCF
for
data to argue that banks
bank depositors, and about
whom
the
lower credit card interest rates.
offer better
Kerr
credit card balances
Kerr and
lending terms to consumers
who
Dunn
are also
bank would thus have more information.
Other authors have used credit card data to evaluate more general hypotheses about consumption.
Agarwal, Liu and Souleles (2004) use credit card data to examine the response of
consumers to the 2001 tax rebates.
Gross and Souleles (2002a) use credit card data to argue
that default rates rose in the mid-1990s due to declining default costs, rather than a deterio-
Gross and Souleles (2002b) find that increases
ration in the credit-worthiness of borrowers.
in credit limits
and declines
in interest rates lead to large increases in
consumer debt.
Ravina
(2005) estimates consumption Euler equations for credit card holders and finds evidence for
habit persistence.
15.2
Our
Some Open Questions
Future Resecirch
findings suggest several directions for future research.
First,
it
would be useful to study age
simple procedure for
and age
for
this:
(1) identify
effects in other decision
domains.
We have presented
the general shape of age effects, as in
splines; (2) estimate a linear-quadratic
form to
34
localize the
(1),
a
using controls
peak of performance,
as in
(2)-(3).
Second,
There
it
may be
possible to develop models that predict the location of
peak ages - think about mathematics
Galenson 2006).
ages.
(see
Simonton 1988, Galenson 2005, and Weinberg and
Analogously, problems that are more experientially-relevant have older peak
For instance, Jones (2006) finds that the peak age for scientists has drifted higher in the
More knowledge now needs
twentieth century.
the
peak performance.
a growing consensus that analytically intensive problems are associated with younger
is
to be accumulated to reach the cutting edge of
field.
In our last case study,
we found
that
what
is
arguably the most analytically demanding
task - deducing the best way to exploit "interest-free" balance transfers -
the youngest age of peak performance.
analytically
Third,
It
would be useful to know
demanding problems and young peak ages
it
would be useful to identify
is
if
is
associated with
this association
cost-effective regulations that
would help improve
financial decisions.
Forced disclosure
print will have
impact on distracted and boundedly rational consumers. ^'^
little
is
not
itself sufficient, since disclosing costs in
who do
sure rules will need to be effective even for consumers
print or
who have
We
limited financial education.
produce comparable and transparent products.
the dynamic cost that
it
may
between
general.
the fine
Good
disclo-
not take the time to read the fine
conjecture that effective regulations would
On
the other hand, such homogenization has
create a roadblock to innovation.
Fourth, studying cognitive lifecycle patterns should encourage economists to pay more
attention to the market for advice.
Advice markets
may
not function efficiently because of
information asymmetries between the recipients and the providers of advice (Dulleck and Ker-
schbamer 2006).
are
now
It is
required to
particularly important to study the advice market for older adults
make
rollovers, asset allocation,
their
own
financial decisions (e.g.
who
by making decisions about 401 (k)
and decumulation).
Conclusion
16
We
find that middle-age adults
financial markets.
factors.
Our
For example,
borrow at lower
interest rates
analysis suggests that this fact
FICO
scores
show no pattern
effects
and pay lower
Moreover, age variation
from the one that we measure.
parsimoniously explain the patterns that we observe, but, cohort
also contribute to the observed findings.
fees in ten
not explained by age-dependent risk
of age variation.
in default rates actually predicts the opposite pattern
Age
is
effects
Whatever the mechanism, there appears
robust relationship between age and financial sophistication in cross-sectional data.
'^See Gabaix, Laibson, Moloche and Weinberg (2006) and Kamcnica (2007)
under information overload.
35
for
may
to be a
Future
models of economic behavior
research should untangle the different forces that give rise to these effects.
are important, economists should analyze the efficiency of
If
age effects
financial institutions - like
modern
defined contribution pension plans - that require older adults to
make most
of their
own
financial decisions.
References
Adams,
C.
W.
(1946).
"The age
at
which
scientists
do their best work."
Isis,
36, pp.
166-169.
Agarwal, Sumit, Brent Ambrose, and Souphala Chomsisengphet (forthcoming) "Information
Asymmetry and
the Automobile Loan Market."
Agarwal, Sumit, Souphala Chomsisengphet, Chunlin Liu and Nicholas
S.
"Do Consumers Choose the Right Credit Contracts?" Mimeo, The Wharton
Souleles (2005).
School, University
of Pennsylvania.
Agarwal, Sumit, John C. Driscoll, Xavier Gabaix and David
The Path from Naivete
ulus and Response:
I.
Laibson (2006).
to Sophistication in the Credit
"Stim-
Card Market."
Manuscript, Harvard University.
Agarwal, Sumit, Chunlin Liu and Nicholas
S.
Souleles (2004).
"The Reaction
of
Consumer
Spending and Debt to Tax Rebates- Evidence from Consumer Credit Data." Manuscript, The
Wharton
School, University of Pennsylvania.
Aguiar,
Mark and
Eric Hurst,
"Consumption versus Expenditure," The Journal
Econo7ny, 2005 Volume: 113 Issue:
5,
of Political
919.
Ameriks, John, Andrew Caphn, and John Leahy (2004). "The Absent-Minded Consumer".
NBER
Working Paper 10216.
,
Ameriks, John, and Stephen
P. Zeldes,
"How Do Household
Portfolio Shares
Vary with
Age?," Working Paper, Columbia University, 2004.
Ausubel, Lawrence M. (1991).
American Economic Review,
"The Failure
of Competition in the Credit
Card Market."
81(1), pp. 50-81.
Benabou, Roland and Jean
Tirole.
"Self-Confidence and Personal Motivation." Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 117: 871-913.
Benartzi, Shlomo, and Richard Thaler,
"How Much
Is
Investor
Autonomy Worth?" Journal
of Finance, August 2002, Vol. 57.4, pp. 1593-1616.
Benartzi, Shlomo, and Richard Thaler, "Heuristics and Biases in Retirement Savings Behavior," Journal of
Economic Perspectives, forthcoming.
Benjamin, Daniel, Sebastian A. Brown and Jesse Shapiro (2006)
nitive ability
"Who
and anomalous preferences." Working Paper, University
36
is
behavioral? Cog-
of Chicago.
.
Dean Karlan,
Bertrand, Marianne,
man.
"What's Psychology Worth?
Sendhil Mullainathan, Eldax Shafir, and Jonathan Zin-
A
Field Experiment in the
Consumer Credit Market."
Manuscript, University of Chicago Graduate School of Business.
Know
Bucks, Brian and Keren Pence, "Do Homeowners
Terms?," 2006, Finance and Economics Discussion Paper
House Values and Mortgage
their
Series,
Board of Governors
of the
Federal Reserve System.
Calem, Paul
S.
and Loretta
J.
Mester (1995). "Consumer Behavior and the Stickiness of
Credit-Card Interest Rates." American Economic Review, 85(6)
Calem, Paul
S.,
Michael B. Gordy and Loretta
J.
Mester.
,
pp. 1327-1336.
"Switching Costs and Adverse
Selection in the Market for Credit Cards." Manuscript, Federal Reserve
Camerer, Colin F. (2003). Behavioral
Game
Bank
of Philadelphia.
Theory. Russell Sage Foundation and Prince-
ton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Campbell, John Y. (2006). "Household Finance," Journal of Finance, 61
Charness, N., and Bosnian, E. A. (1990).
"Expertise and aging:
(4),
1553-1604.
Life in the lab." InT.
H. Hess (Ed.), Aging and cognition: Knowledge organization and utilization (pp.
Amsterdam:
343-385).
Elsevier.
Crawford, Vincent P. (1995). "Adaptive Dynamics in Coordination Games." Econometrica,
63(1), pp. 103-143.
DellaVigna, Stefano and Ulrike Malmendier (2004).
Theory and Evidence." Quaiierly Journal of Economics,
W.
Dennis,
(1966).
"Contract Theory and Self-Control:
119(2), pp. 353-402.
"Creative Productivity between the ages of 20 and 80 years." Journal
of Gerontology, 21(1), pp. 1-8.
Uwe and Rudolf Kerschbamer
Dulleck,
Specialists:
Ellison,
The Economics
Glenn,
(2006)
"On Doctors, Mechanics, and Computer
of Credence Goods," Journal of
"Bounded Rationality
Torsten Persson, and Richard Blundell
Economic Literature
in Industrial Organization,"
eds..
in
44(1), 5-42.
Whitney Newey,
Advances in Economics and Econometrics: The-
ory and Applications, Ninth World Congress, (Cambrige,
UK: Cambridge
University Press,
forthcoming)
Fair,
Ray
"How
C. (1994).
Statistics, 76(1), pp.
Fast
Do Old Men Slow
Down?'' Review of Economics and
103-118.
(2005a).
"Estimated Age Effects in Athletic Events and Chess." mimeo, Yale.
(2005b).
"Estimated Age Effects in Baseball." mimeo, Yale.
Flynn,
J.
R. (1984).
"The mean IQ
of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978".
Psycho-
logical Bulletin, 95, 29-51.
Fratiglioni Laura,
Diana De Ronchi and Hella Aguero Torres
Incidence of Dementia," Drugs
&
Aging,
Volume
37
15,
Number
5,
,
"Worldwide Prevalence and
November
1999, pp. 365-375
Frederick, Shane, "Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making", Journal of
Economic Per-
spectives, 19(4), Fall 2005, 25-42.
Gabaix, Xavier and David
I.
Laibson (2006). "Shrouded Attributes, Consumer Myopia, and
Information Suppression in Competitive Markets." Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(2),
p. 505-540..
Gabaix, Xavier, David
I.
Laibson, Guillermo Moloche and Stephen Weinberg, "Costly
Information Acquisition: Experimental Analysis of a Boundedly Rational Model," American
Economic Review,
vol.
96
(4),
September 2006,
p.
1043-1068.
Galenson, David, Old Masters and Young Geniuses:
Two
Life Cycles of Artistic Activity.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
Gom'inchas, Pierre-Ohvier, and Jonathan Parker (2002).
"Consumption Over the
Life
Cycle." Econometrica, 70(1), pp. 47-89.
Gross, David B. and Nicholas
Rates Matter
for
S.
Souleles (2002a).
"Do Liquidity Constraints and
Interest
Consumer Behavior? Evidence from Credit Card Data." Quarterly Journal
of Economics, 117:1, pp. 149-185.
(2002b).
"An Empirical Analysis
of Personal
Bankruptcy and Delinquency." The
Review of Financial Studies, 15{1), pp. 319-347.
Heidhues, Paul, and Botond Koszegi, "Loss Aversion, Price Stabihty, and Sales," Working
Paper, Universitj' of California, Berkeley, 2006.
James,
Press,
Bill (2003).
The
New
Bill
James
Historical Baseball Abstract.
New
York,
NY: Free
.
Jones,
Benjamin F.(2006), "Age and Great Invention", September 2006, Mimeo, North-
western University.
Kerr, Sougata and Lucia
Dunn
(2002).
"Consumer Search Behavior
in the
Changing Credit
Card Market." Manuscript, Ohio State University.
Kerr, Sougata, Stephen Cosslett, and Lucia
Dunn
(2004).
"Do Banks Use Private
mation from Consumer Accounts? Evidence of Relationship Lending
in Credit
Card
Infor-
Interest
Rate Heterogeneity." Manuscript, Ohio State University.
Lusardi,
for
Annamaria and Olivia
S.
Mitchell, "Financial Literacy
and Planning: Implications
Retirement Wellbeing," (2006) Mimeo, Dartmouth.
Lusardi,
Annamaria and
Olivia S. Mitchell, "Financial Literacy and Retirement Prepared-
Evidence and Implications
ness:
for Financial
Education Programs," (2007) Mimeo, Dart-
mouth
Malmendier, Ulrike, and Devin Shanthikumar, "Are Small Investors Naive about Incentives?"
mimeo, Harvard University and Stanford University, 2005.
Massoud, Nadia, Anthony Saunders and Barry Scholnick (2006).
Mistakes?," mimeo, University of Alberta.
38
"Who Makes
Credit Card
Mullainathan, Sendhil, and Andrei Shleifer, "The Market for News," American Economic
Review, 95 (2005), 1031-1053.
Murphy, Kevin M. and Finis Welch (1990). "Empirical Age-Earnings
Profiles."
Journal of
Labor Economics, 8(2), pp. 202-229.
Oster, Sharon M., and Fiona
M. Scott Morton, "Behavioral Biases Meet the Market: The
Case of Magazine Subscription Prices," Advances in Economic Analysis and
Ravina, Enrichetta (2005). "Habit Persistence and Keeping
from Micro Data." Manuscript,
New York
Up
Policy, 5 (2005).
with the Joneses: Evidence
University.
Salthouse, Timothy, "Effects of aging on reasoning", 2005, Cambridge handbook of thinking
and reasoning. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press.
Salthouse, Timothy, "Executive Functioning," D.C. Park
Aging:
A
&
N. Schwarz (Eds.), Cognitive
Primer, Psychology Press (forthcoming).
Salthouse, Timothy, David H. Schroeder and Emilio Ferrer "Estimating retest effects in
longitudinal assessments of cognitive functioning in adults between 18 and 60 years of age,"
Developmental psychology, 2004, 40(5), 813-822.
Scott-Morton, Fiona, Florian Zettelmeyer and Jorge Silva-Risso (2003). "Consumer Infor-
mation and Discrimination:
Does the Internet Affect the Pricing of
Minorities?" Quantitative Marketing and Economics
Shui,
1:1,
New
Cars to
Women
and
pp. 65-92.
Haiyan and Lawrence M. Ausubel (2004) "Time Inconsistency
in the Credit
Card
Market. "Manuscript, University of Maryland.
Simonton, D. K. (1988).
"Age and outstanding achievement: What do we know
after a
century of research?" Psychological Bulletin, 104, 251-267.
Spiegler, Rani,
4,
"The Market
for
Quacks," Review of Economic Studies, 2006, Vol. 73, No.
pp. 1113-1131.
Stango, Victor and Jonathan
Zinman
(2006).
"How
a Cognitive Bias Shapes Competition?
Evidence from Consumer Credit Markets," mimeo, Dartmouth.
Weinberg, Bruce A. and David A. Galenson (2005), "Creative Careers: The Life Cycle of
Nobel Laureates
in
Economics"
Zinman, Jonathan (2006).
NBER WP
11799.
"Household Borrowing High and Lending Low Under No-
Arbitrage." mimeo, Dartmouth.
••
39
I
Appendix A: Data Summary
Table Al:
Statistics
Credit Cards
Account Characteristics
APR
Purchase
Interest
Rate on Cash Advances (%)
Credit Limit ($)
Current Cash Advance
Payment
New
Mean
R-equency
($)
($)
Std. Dev.
Monthly
14.40
Monthly
16.16
2.22
Monthly
8,205
3,385
Monthly
148
648
Monthly
317
952
2.44
Monthly
303
531
Debt on Last Statement
($)
Monthly
1,735
1,978
Minimum Payment Due
($)
Monthly
35
52
Monthly
29
36
Purchases
($)
Debt/Limit (%)
Fee Payment
Monthly
10.10
14.82
(S)
Monthly
5.09
11.29
($)
Monthly
4.07
3.22
Total Fees ($)
Cash Advance Fee
Late Payment Fee
Over Limit Fee
($)
Extra Interest Due to Over Limit or Late Fee
Extra Interest Due to Cash Advances
($)
Monthly
1.23
1.57
Monthly
15.58
23.66
Monthly
3.25
3.92
Cash Advance Fee Payments/Month
Monthly
0.38
0.28
Late Fee Payments/Month
Monthly
0.14
0.21
Over Limit Fee Payments/Month
Monthly
0.08
0.10
($)
Borrower Characteristics
FICO
(Credit Bureau Risk) Score
Quarterly
731
76
Behavior Score
Quarterly
727
81
Number
of Credit Cards
At Origination
4.84
3.56
Number
of Active Cards
At Origination
2.69
2.34
At Origination
15,110
13,043
At Origination
47,968
84,617
Total Credit Card Balance
Mortgage Balance
Age
($)
(Years)
Income
Notes:
($)
($)
The
"Credit Bureau Risk Score"
the score, the less risky the consumer
is.
is
At Origination
42.40
15.04
At Origination
57,121
114,375
provided by Fair, Isaac and Company.
The "Behavior Score"
consumer's past payment history and debt burden,
among
capture consumer payment behavior not accounted for by the
40
is
The
greater
a proprietary score based on the
other variables, created by the bank to
FICO
score.
Home
Table A2:
Equity Loans and Credit Lines
Loans
Mean
Description (Units)
APR(%)
Borrower Age
Income
($,
LTV
(%)
Appraisal
LTV
(%)
Borrower
Home
Value Estimate
Bank Home Value Estimate
($)
Loan Requested by Borrower
Loan Approved by Bank
Mortgage Balance
First
Months
No
First
at
($)
($)
(S)
($)
14
46
12
78,791
99,761
90,293
215,057
18
41
19
55
733
49
6fi
26
62
24
29
64
23
144,085
346,065
250,355
186,509
123,031
335,797
214,766
43,981
35,161
61,347
50,025
42,871
33,188
60,725
51,230
79,496
83,560
154,444
112,991
92
(%)
Condo (%)
Refinancing (%)
Home Improvement
40
713
69
Address
Home
0.88
196,467
Mortgage (%)
Second
Std. Dev.
4.3
(Credit Bureau Risk) Score
Customer
4.60
1.16
Debt/Income (%)
FICO
Mean
7.96
(Years)
Annual)
Credit Lines
Std. Dev.
(%)
Consumption (%)
122
99
129
29
4^
15
42
3
14
3
12
8
18
6
17
66
47
39
49
18
39
25
44
16
39
35
35
7.9
27
7.8
27
Retired (%)
9.5
29
7.7
27
Homemaker (%)
1.4
12
1.3
11
Years on the Last Job
6.3
8.1
7.6
9.1
Self
Employed (%)
41
Mortgage Loans
Table A3:
Loans
Mean
Description (Units)
Std. Dev.
APR(%)
12.64
Borrower Age (Years)
40.54
9.98
Income
2,624
2,102
22.84
12.12
686
253
($)
Monthly Mortgage Payment/Income (%)
Veraz (Credit Bureau Risk) Score
LTV
61
17
44,711
27,048
9.43
8.01
15.54
5.18
(%)
Loan Amount
(S)
2.17
Years at Current Job
Second House (%)
Car Ownership (%)
73.56
44.11
Car Value
5,664
13,959
($)
Gender (Female=l)
30.96
46.24
Second Income (%)
20.44
40.33
Married (%)
71.32
45.23
Two
Married with
Self
Incomes (%)
Employed (%)
Employment (%)
Professional
Nonprofessional Employment (%)
Relationship with
15.78
36.46
49.93
10.40
30.52
Mean
APR(%)
8.99
Borrower Age (Years)
Montlily)
LTV(%)
FICO
34.57
Auto Loan APRs
Description (Units)
($,
37.34
13.87
52.78
Bank (%)
Table A4:
Income
16.75
(Credit Bureau Risk) Score
Monthly Loan Payment
Blue Book Car Value
Loan Amount
($)
(S)
($)
Car Age (Years)
Loan Age (Months)
42
Std. Dev.
0.90
40
21
3416
772
44
10
723
64
229
95
11,875
4,625
4172
1427
2
1
12
8
Small Business Credit Cards
Table A5:
Mean
Description (Units)
APRs
Std. Dev.
APR(%)
13.03
5.36
Borrower Age (Years)
47.24
13.35
Line
Amount
($)
Total Unsecured Debt
FICO
(Credit Bureau Rislv) Score
Mortgage Debt
($)
3 5 2
6
I
43
9,623.95
6,057.66
12,627.45
17,760.24
715.86
55.03
102,684.70
160,799.57
Date Due