Document 11152117
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Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
Working Paper No. 4378-02
Negotiation, Organization and Markets
Harvard University
NOM Working Paper No. 02-24
The Illiquidity Puzzle: Theory and Evidence from
Private Equity
August 2002
Joshua Lerner
Harvard University
Antoinette Marion Sa Schoar
MIT Sloan
This paper can be downloaded without charge from the
Social Science Research Network Electronic Paper Collection at:
http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=322420
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Table 1
Characteristics of the private equity funds in the sample. The sample consists of 243 U.S. private
equity partnerships. The table indicates the key characteristics of the funds and the private equity
organizations in the sample. Dummy variables are denoted with question marks. Note that the
industry dummies do not add up to 100 percent, since private equity funds can report activities in
several different industries.
Sequence of fund
Early-stage venture fund?
Buyout fund?
Size of fund ($ millions)
Year of private equity group establishment
Year of fund final closing
California-based fund?
Massachusetts-based fund?
New York-based fund?
California-based fund?
Pharmaceutical Industry?
Computer/Internet Industry?
Business Services?
Telecommunications Industry?
Mean
5.4
0.30
0.19
451.8
1981
1992
0.35
0.26
0.15
0.35
0.47
0.42
0.28
0.39
Standard Deviation
4.9
778.4
9.1
6.6
Minimum
1
0
0
10.5
1946
1974
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Maximum
36
1
1
6100.0
2000
2001
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 2
Summary of the provisions used to construct the dependent variables in the analyses. The first column indicates how often the contractual term
regarding transferability is found in the 243 partnership agreements in the sample. The second through fifth columns indicates whether the measure is
included in the construction of the four composite measures used in the analysis below. A “+” sign indicates that the presence of the provision was
regarded as a favorable indication in constructing the variable; a “-“ sign that its presence was regarded as a negative indication.
Contractual Feature
Other LPs have right of first refusal?
Transfers allowed to:
Other LPs?
Partners of LP?
Family members/trusts?
Former spouse after divorce?
Successor entity after merger/dissolution?
Trustee/creditor after bankruptcy?
Wholly owned subsidiary?
80% owned subsidiary?
Majority owned corporation?
Successor trustee/trust fiduciary?
Sophisticated investors?
Heir has rights to stop payments?
Transfer cannot:
Add regulatory requirements for other LPs?
Result in partnership termination?
Lead to transferee not having LP status?
Violate laws?
Add taxes?
Be to entity whose business conflicts w/other LPs?
Be to entity whose business conflicts w/GPs?
GP must approve transfer?
Transfer must be to only one person?
Transfer can only be to one non-existing LP?
Transfer must be of no more than 50% of LP interest?
Transfer must be of no less than 100% of LP interest?
GP will manage process of finding appropriate LP?
Agent handling transfer may represent multiple sellers?
LP bears cost of transfer?
GP must approve LP’s status as appropriate LP?
Transferee must agree to partnership agreement?
Frequency
of Term in
Contracts
33%
Is This Measure Included in Dependent Variable?
Composite of LP
Count of LP
Key Pro-GP
Contract
“Friendliness”
Transferees
Restrictions
Complexity
+
+
30%
17%
46%
13%
40%
4%
33%
16%
8%
69%
34%
2%
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
82%
57%
24%
64%
44%
2%
3%
89%
9%
3%
14%
10%
9%
25%
63%
73%
42%
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Table 3
Appearance of key transferability provisions in different types of partnership agreements. The
sample consists of 243 U.S. private equity partnerships. The table indicates the mean of the various
measures of transferability restrictions for funds with different characteristics. Test statistics from ttests of the differences are also presented.
Composite of LP
“Friendliness”
Sequence of fund:
Above median
Below median
Test statistic of difference
Early-stage venture fund:
Yes
No
Test statistic of difference
Buyout fund:
Yes
No
Test statistic of difference
Fund size:
Above median
Below median
Test statistic of difference
Year of private equity group formation:
More recent than median
Less recent than median
Test statistic of difference
California fund:
Yes
No
Test statistic of difference
Massachusetts fund:
Yes
No
Test statistic of difference
New York fund:
Yes
No
Test statistic of difference
Year of fund formation:
More recent than median
Less recent than median
Test statistic of difference
a
Significant at 1% confidence level.
Significant at 5% confidence level.
c
Significant at 10% confidence level.
b
Variable:
Count of LP
Key Pro-GP
Transferees
Restrictions
Contract
Complexity
3.69
2.97
1.91c
3.53
2.63
2.99a
1.78
1.50
3.65a
10.80
9.49
2.94a
4.62
2.67
5.11a
3.90
2.74
3.72a
1.64
1.65
0.11
11.33
9.46
4.03a
1.64
3.62
4.34a
2.04
3.33
3.46a
1.62
1.66
0.35
8.96
10.26
2.34b
3.10
3.53
1.13
2.82
3.30
1.58
1.73
1.53
2.57b
10.17
10.09
0.19
2.60
3.99
3.73a
2.37
3.71
4.55a
1.67
1.60
0.87
9.80
10.41
1.34
5.03
2.28
8.08a
4.57
2.28
8.45a
1.63
1.66
0.44
12.05
8.91
7.60a
2.28
3.59
3.19a
1.89
3.51
5.07a
1.51
1.70
2.26b
8.62
10.51
3.89a
2.47
3.39
1.79c
2.58
3.18
1.44
1.81
1.62
1.73c
9.69
10.08
0.62
2.88
3.72
2.20b
2.68
3.41
2.43b
1.77
1.50
3.54a
10.25
10.02
0.52
Table 4
Regression analysis, using composite measure of limited partner-friendly transferability restrictions. The sample consists of 243 U.S. private equity
partnerships. The dependent variable, defined in Table 2, takes on values between –3 and +11. The independent variables include the sequence of the
fund, dummy variables for funds specializing in early–stage venture and buyout investing and those based in California, Massachusetts, and New York,
the year the private equity group was established, the logarithm of fund size (in millions of dollars), as well as dummies for the industry focus of the
fund. Fixed effects for the year of the fund closing are included in all regressions; those for the private equity organization in some regressions.
Standard errors are in brackets.
Sequence of fund
Early-stage venture fund
Buyout fund
Logarithm of fund size
Year private equity group formed
California fund?
Massachusetts fund?
New York fund?
Pharmaceutical Industry?
Computer/Internet Industry?
Business Services?
Telecommunications Industry?
Year fixed effects?
Private equity group fixed effects?
Number of observations
F-statistic
p-Value
Adjusted R2
a
Significant at 1% confidence level.
Significant at 5% confidence level.
c
Significant at 10% confidence level.
b
Dependent Variable: Composite Measure of Limited Partner-Friendly Transferability Restrictions
0.09 [0.04]b
0.06 [0.05]
0.06 [0.05]
0.14 [0.05]a
0.07 [0.04]c
0.08 [0.04]c
0.08 [0.04]c
a
a
a
b
1.66 [0.43]
1.62 [0.43]
1.62 [0.43]
-0.02 [0.48]
0.92 [0.42]
0.90 [0.43]b
a
b
b
-1.49 [0.56]
-1.34 [0.57]
-1.34 [0.57]
0.01 [0.58]
-0.69 [0.52]
-0.59 [0.54]
0.32 [0.22]
0.26 [0.22]
0.26 [0.22]
-0.33 [0.21]
-0.03 [0.02]
-0.03 [0.02]
2.86 [0.52]a
2.45 [0.53]a
2.34 [0.55]a
0.25 [0.55]
0.39 [0.54]
0.32 [0.56]
0.51 [0.60]
0.80 [0.61]
0.78 [0.69]
-1.34 [0.65]b
-1.30 [0.67]
1.90 [0.65] a
-0.27 [0.69]
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
243
243
243
243
243
243
233
2.72
2.70
2.70
2.47
3.52
3.68
4.31
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.84
0.23
0.25
0.42
Table 5
Regression analysis, using alternative measures of transferability restrictions. The sample consists of 243 U.S. private equity partnerships. The
dependent variables, defined in Table 2, are the count of the number of parties that the limited partners are allowed to transfer partnership interests to
(taking on values between 0 and 8), the count of the number of key pro-general partner terms are included in the agreement (taking on values between
0 and 3), and the overall measure of the complexity of the agreement (taking on values between 0 and 18). The independent variables include the
sequence of the fund, dummy variables for funds specializing in early–stage venture and buyout investing, and the logarithm of fund size (in millions of
dollars). Fixed effects for the year of the fund closing are included in all regressions; those for the private equity organization in some regressions.
Standard errors are in brackets.
Sequence of fund
Early-stage venture fund
Buyout fund
Logarithm of fund size
Year fixed effects?
Private equity group fixed effects?
Number of observations
F-statistic
p-Value
Adjusted R2
a
Significant at 1% confidence level.
Significant at 5% confidence level.
c
Significant at 10% confidence level.
b
Count of LP Transferees
0.06 [0.03]c
0.05 [0.03]c
a
1.20 [0.36]
0.08 [0.25]
-0.76 [0.46]
0.06 [0.31]
0.18 [0.18]
-0.36 [0.11]a
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
243
243
2.13
3.67
0.002
0.000
0.12
0.93
Dependent Variable:
Key Pro-GP Terms
0.002 [0.01]
-0.03 [0.01]b
-0.09 [0.09]
0.04 [0.13]
-0.23 [0.12]b
-0.24 [0.15]
-0.0005 [0.04]
0.01 [0.05]
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
243
243
2.39
4.20
0.000
0.000
0.14
0.75
Contractual Complexity
0.08 [0.05]
0.14 [0.05]a
a
1.62 [0.52]
-0.13 [0.46]
-1.20 [0.68]c
-0.47 [0.56]
0.20 [0.26]
-0.15 [0.20]
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
243
243
2.19
8.00
0.001
0.000
0.12
0.90
Table 6
Regression analysis, using composite measure of limited partner-friendly transferability restrictions
and controls for limited partner composition. The sample consists of 84 U.S. private equity
partnerships with data on their limited partners. The first panel indicates the mean number and
share of the limited partners in the sample funds. The dependent variable, defined in Table 2, takes
on values between –3 and +11. The independent variables include the sequence of the fund, dummy
variables for funds specializing in early–stage venture and buyout investing, the logarithm of fund
size (in millions of dollars), and the number or share of limited partners of various types. Highstatus limited partners are defined as those universities who has a greater than 5% allocation to
private equity in 1991, the foundations with the most established private equity programs, and the
funds-of-funds that were active before 1991. Fixed effects for the year of the fund closing are
included in all regressions. Standard errors are in brackets.
Limited partner type
University LPs
Fund-of-fund LPs
Bank LPs
Investment bank LPs
Pension fund LPs
Foundation LPs
Corporate LPs
High-status LPs
Sequence of fund
Early-stage venture fund
Buyout fund
Logarithm of fund size
University LPs
Fund-of-fund LPs
Bank LPs
Investment bank LPs
Pension fund LPs
Foundation LPs
Corporate LPs
High-status LPs
Year fixed effects?
Number of observations
F-statistic
p-Value
Adjusted R2
Panel A: Composition of Limited Partners
LPs for private equity group
Number
Share*
2.6
22%
1.3
12%
0.4
3%
0.1
1%
1.7
17%
0.7
5%
0.8
6%
3.0
26%
Panel B: Regression Analyses
Dependent Variable: Composite Measure of Limited
Partner-Friendly Transferability Restrictions
Using count of LPs
Using share of LPs
0.23 [0.08]a
0.25 [0.07]a
0.17 [0.07]b
0.20 [0.06]a
0.39 [0.75]
0.43 [0.73]
0.33 [0.67]
0.27 [0.62]
-0.63 [0.90]
-0.90 [0.80]
-0.89 [0.79]
-0.88 [0.74]
-0.75 [0.50]
-0.46 [0.42]
-0.39 [0.45]
-0.42 [0.38]
1.58 [1.49]
0.18 [0.12]
1.56 [1.96]
0.18 [0.20]
-1.91 [4.11]
-0.26 [0.33]
7.79 [9.03]
0.21 [0.82]
0.29 [1.52]
-0.12 [0.13]
0.59 [0.29]b
6.50 [3.83]c
2.37 [3.28]
-0.02 [0.26]
1.99 [1.28]
0.34 [0.09]a
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
84
84
84
84
3.38
4.34
4.45
5.84
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.39
0.39
0.48
0.48
*This refers to the mean share of the group among the limited partners, rather than the share of dollars
invested.
a
Significant at 1% confidence level.
Significant at 5% confidence level.
c
Significant at 10% confidence level.
b
