Section 9. Efforts to Stabilize the International Community by the U.N. and Other
Scheme
1. General
With the end of the Cold War, expectations grew on the role of the U.N. in peacekeeping, which had not been
well played in the past. To respond to these expectations, the U.N. launched a number of peacekeeping
operations (PKO). Recently, as new approaches to deal with conflicts in a proper manner, the African Union
(AU) and other regional frameworks (see Chapter 1) have been playing an important role, and multinational
forces, mandated by the relevant U.N. Security Council resolutions, have been conducting humanitarian and
reconstructing assistance activities. (See Chapter 1) Thus, various international frameworks have been adopted
to contribute to the stability of the situation. Under these circumstances, discussions are underway on
organizational and other reforms of the U.N. to deal effectively with diversified problems. Reforms of U.N.
organs in ways that increase their effectiveness and credibility are necessary for the international community to
adequately address new issues of the 21st century, and Japan is actively involved in these reform efforts.
2. Developments in U.N. Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs)
U.N. PKOs have traditionally been conducted with the main purpose of preventing the recurrence of armed
conflicts through activities such as monitoring ceasefires after ceasefires have been agreed. After the end of the
Cold War, however, U.N. PKOs grew in scale as the scope of PKO missions expanded to include monitoring
disarmament and civilian activities such as elections, monitoring governments, and humanitarian supports
including repatriating refugees. Additionally, the U.N. is now engaging itself in disarmament and other
activities in which it is allowed to take coercive measures as well as activities to prevent the outbreak of armed
conflicts under Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter. As of the end of April 2007, 15 PKO missions are underway,
participated in by approximately 83,000 people from 115 countries.
U.N. PKOs have problems such as shortage and security of personnel and instruments146, therefore U.N.
and related states have been discussing about measures for solution.
“A more secure world: Our shared responsibility,” a report released by the U.N. High-Level Committee in
December 2004, requires developed states in particular to increase units for peace operations, because they
need to almost double the number of personnel to conduct effective peacekeeping operations in existing
conflicts. Also the report proposed the creation of a Peacebuilding Commission, standby arrangement in
brigade level, and composition of permanent police department for PKO. Among these proposals, the creation
of a Peacebuilding Commission was decided at the end of 2005 and the first meeting was held in June 2006.
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
Notes
1)
While the U.S. President is required to submit the National Security Strategy to the Congress every year
in accordance with Section 404a, title 50 of the United States Code, the release of the National Security
Strategy in 2006 was the second submission by the Bush Administration following the one in September
2002.
2) The QDR is a document that Secretary of Defense is required to submit to the Congress every four years
according to Section 118, title 10 of the United States Code. It foresees the security environment in the
next 20 years and clarifies issues including the national defense strategy, force structure, force
modernization plan, defense infrastructure, and budget plan. The release of the 2006 QDR is the second
submission by the Bush Administration following the one in September 2001.
3) The National Defense Strategy is a document released by the Secretary of Defense in March 2005 as a
guide to implement the National Security Strategy as well as the basis of the QDR published in March
2006.
4) The Transformation Planning Guidance (April 2003) defines transformation as a “a process that shapes
the changing nature of military competition and cooperation through new combinations of concepts,
capabilities, people and organizations that exploit our nation's advantages and protect against our
asymmetric vulnerabilities to sustain our strategic position, which helps underpin peace and stability in
the world.”
5) The National Defense Strategy describes that as desirable strategic targets are not always attainable while
attainable strategic targets are sometimes not worth the costs, there can be trade-off between strategic
targets and scarce defense resources. Therefore, as stated in the 2001 QDR, it notes that the following
four risks that are difficult to be eliminated at a time should be controlled carefully:
(1) Operational Risks: Risks associated with the current force executing the strategy successfully within
acceptable costs
(2) Future Challenge Risks: Risks associated with the capacity to execute future missions successfully
against an array of prospective future challenges
(3) Force Management Risks: Risks associated with managing military forces in the areas of recruiting,
retaining, training, and readiness
(4) Institutional Risks: Risks associated with the capacity of new command, management, and business
practices
6) Robert M. Gates, in securing an approval from the Congress, told in writing that he would examine the
necessity of reviewing the posture of the U.S. forces after he was inaugurated as the new Secretary of
Defense.
7) The Striker Brigade Combat Team is formed as a light unit so that it can be deployed everywhere in the
world promptly by C-130 transport aircraft and other transportation means. Unlike heavily armed
conventional mechanized divisions, the team is equipped with “Striker,” 8-wheel-drive armored vehicles
that are loaded with 105 mm guns and other weapons and are characterized by strike assets and mobility.
8) Russia is opposed to the deployment of the MD system, insisting that it will give negative impact on the
country’s nuclear deterrent capability. The United States, however, explains that the target of the MD
system is not Russia: it will be deployed to protect Europe and other allies from missile threats posed by
Iran.
9) In September 2004, Admiral Fargo, then Commander of the U.S. Pacific Command stated that U.S. forces
were considering additional stationing of a Carrier Battle Group in the Pacific region.
10) According to the congressional testimony in September 2004 of Admiral Fargo, the Commander of the
U.S. Pacific Command, U. S. forces deployed bombers in Guam by rotation.
— 93 —
11) White House Fact Sheet (August 16, 2004)
12) Egypt, however, would remain under the direct responsibility of U.S. Central Command.
13) As for non-strategic nuclear forces, the Nuclear Posture Review announced by the Clinton Administration
in September 1994 states as follows: 1) Eliminate the option to deploy nuclear weapons on carrier-based,
dual-capable aircraft; 2) Eliminate the option to carry nuclear Tomahawk cruise missiles (TLAM/N) on
surface ships; 3) Retain the option to deploy TLAM/N on attack submarines; and 4) Retain the current
commitment of dual-capable aircraft based in Europe and Continental United States (CONUS) and the
deployment of nuclear weapons in Europe.
14) In the organizational reform of the U.S. Army, its conventional pyramid structure (army, corps, divisions,
and brigades) will be reorganized into the headquarters with command and control functions and selfsufficient combat units (in the size of brigade) so that it can respond to various situations promptly and
flexibly by combining headquarters and working units according to the purpose and scale of the mission.
15) Its headquarters is located at Camp Lejuene in North Carolina. As the Marine Corps Special Operation
Command was created, the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade was deactivated.
16) The United States aims to increase Army permanent end strength by 65,000 personnel and Marine Corps
permanent end strength by 27,000 personnel over the next five years. In detail, the temporary 30,000person increase and 5,000-person increase in the Army and the Marine Corps, respectively will be made
permanent. Army permanent end strength will grow by 7,000 personnel annually to reach 547,000 and
Marine Corps permanent end strength by 5,000 annually to reach 202,000.
17) C-17 is a large cargo aircraft with excellent takeoff-and-landing capabilities that can transport about 70
tons of goods to a front-line base located more than 4,000 km away. C-5 with a cargo load of about 120
tons can fly approximately 4,000 km, offload, and fly to a second base another 900 km away from the
original destination.
18) Joint editorial of the Korean Workers’ Party’s journals “Rodong Shinmun” and “Workers” (June 16,
1999)
19) The approximate percentage of active servicepersons in total population is 0.2% in Japan, 0.5% in the
United States, and 0.7% in Russia.
20) Generally, missiles based on a solid fuel propellant system are considered to be militarily superior to
those based on a liquid propellant system because they are capable of immediate launch as fuel is stored
in an airframe beforehand and they are easy to store and handle.
21) For example, in his statement to the Senate Armed Services Committee in February 2007, Lieutenant
General Michael D. Maples, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) stated as follows: “North
Korea remains committed to selling missiles and related technologies. Although sales have declined to
most customers due to its increasing international isolation, North Korea’s relationship with Iran and
Syria remain strong and of principal concern.”
22) On October 27, 2006, as a result of the independently collected information and its analysis as well as our
own careful examination of the U.S. and the ROK analyses , the Japanese government has judged that the
probability that North Korea had conducted a nuclear test was extremely high.
23) A nuclear reactor that uses graphite as a moderator
24) In this framework, measures that the United States and North Korea should take are shown, including
North Korea remaining as a member of NPT.
25) Nuclear fuel rods used in the operation of nuclear reactors contain plutonium. This plutonium can be
extracted by reprocessing the fuel rods.
26) The second and third rounds of Six-Party Talks were held in February and June 2004 respectively, the
fourth round held from July to August and in September 2005, and the fifth round in November 2005,
December 2006, and February 2007. The sixth round was held in March 2007 but then suspended.
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
27) In his statement to the Senate Armed Services Committee in February 2007, Lieutenant General Michael
D. Maples, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) stated as follows: “North Korea’s resources
include a biotechnical infrastructure that could support the production of various biological warfare
agents. DIA believes North Korea has had a longstanding chemical weapons stockpile of nerve, blister,
blood, and choking agents.” Also, the Defense White Paper of the ROK published in December 2006
pointed out as follows: “It is believed that approximately 2,500 to 5,000 tons of a variety of agents,
including nerve agents, remain stored in a number of facilities scattered around the country and that North
Korea is able to produce biological weapons such as the bacteria of anthrax, small pox and cholera.”
28) The ranges of Scud-B and -C missiles are estimated to be about 300 km and 500 km, respectively.
29) North Korea admits that it is exporting ballistic missiles to earn foreign currency. (Comment by the
Korean Central New Agency (KCNA) on June 16, 1998, and statement made by a North Korea’s foreign
ministry spokesman on December 13, 2002 and reported by the KCNA on the same day )
30) In his statement to the House Armed Services Committee in March 2007, General Burwell B. Bell,
Commander, U.S. Forces Korea, stated as follows: “North Korea is developing a new solid propellant
short-range ballistic missile, which it last successfully test-fired in March 2006. Once operational, this
missile will be more mobile, more rapidly deployable, and more capable of being launched on shorter
notice than current systems. North Korea is also developing an intermediate range ballistic missile,
capable of targeting U.S. forces as far away as Guam and possibly Alaska.”
31) For example, a two-stage missile may be converted into a three-stage missile by installing a propulsion
device at the warhead.
32) In his statement to the House Armed Services Committee in March 2007, General Burwell B. Bell,
Commander, U.S. Forces Korea, stated as follows regarding the launch of ballistic missiles by North
Korea in July 2006: “These launches marked the highest number of missiles ever fired by North Korea in
a 24-hour period. … Some were fired in the hours of darkness? a first for the North Koreans. These
launches validated the operational status of North Korea’s inventory of about 800 theater ballistic missiles
targeting the Republic of Korea and Japan.” Also, the Commander pointed as follows at the Security
Forum held at the National Assembly of the ROK: “North Korea was able to launch a salvo of six Scud
and Nodong missiles of varying types and capabilities, by far the largest number of Theater Ballistic
Missiles ever launched by the north in a single day. By all accounts, all six of these missiles worked, …
And they appeared to be accurate.”
33) In December 2002, a North Korean vessel carrying Scud missiles to Yemen was intercepted and
inspected. It was pointed out that North Korea test-launched missiles in Iran and Pakistan after it exported
the missiles and subsequently utilized the data from said tests.
34) Four Military Guidelines were adopted at the fifth Plenum of the fourth Korean Workers’ Party’s Central
Committee in 1962.
35) In North Korea, it seems that various military decisions are made by the National Defense Commission
(Chairman Kim Jong Il), which has the ultimate military authority, and the Ministry of People’s Armed
Forces (corresponding to the Ministry of Defense in other countries) is controlled not by the cabinet but
by the National Defense Commission.
36) Reportedly, North Korea has two types of special operation forces: one under the military forces and the
other under the Korean Workers’ Party. For example, the operations department of the Party is said to be
in charge of transporting agents.
37) Covert operations by dispersed small units to infiltrate an enemy’s territory
38) The Supreme People’s Assembly is a decision-making organization composed of representatives selected
in an election. The Constitution of North Korea refers to the Supreme People’s Assembly as the “highest
organ of state power.” The assembly corresponds to Japan’s Diet.
— 95 —
39) For example, in April 2007, a large-scale military parade including the march of a missile unit was held to
celebrate the 75th anniversary of the Korean People’s Army with attendance of Kim Jong Il, Chairman of
the National Defense Commission.
40) In April 2007, the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated that North Korea’s
production of crop would be 4.07 million tons, approximately 0.1 million tons smaller than that of the
previous year and that North Korea would need to import as much as 0.96 million tons.
41) Due to the implementation of these new measures, it is pointed out that the following problems are
occurring or signs of such problems are observed in some areas: inflation accelerates due to the
simultaneous raising of wages and commodity prices despite the unsolved shortage of commodities, the
income gap widens, and dissatisfaction with the government increases as the people learn about the actual
situation.
42) According to the Country Reports on Terrorism 2006 published in April 2007. The report states that the
United States agreed to begin the process of removing the designation of North Korea as a state-sponsor
of terrorism.
43) The previous treaty contained the provision that if either of the signatories (Russia and North Korea) was
attacked, the other would immediately provide military and other assistance by any means. This
provision, however, was excluded from the new treaty.
44) The United States and the ROK have been operating the U.S.-ROK Combined Forces Command since
1978 in order to run the U.S.-ROK joint defense system to deter wars in the Korean Peninsular and to
perform effective joint operations in case of emergency. Under the U.S.-ROK joint defense system, the
operational control authority over ROK forces is to be exercised by the Chairman of the Korean Joint
Chiefs of Staff in peacetime and by the Commander of U.S. Forces Korea, who also serves as
Commander of the Combined Forces Command, in wartime.
45) The ROK dispatched a vessel to a joint search and rescue exercise conducted by the Russian Pacific Fleet
in August 2003, which was a part of multilateral joint military exercise. The exercise performed in
February 2004, therefore, was the first search and rescue exercise conducted jointly by the vessels of the
ROK and Russia.
46) The Defense White Paper 2006 described North Korea as follows: “North Korea’s conventional military
capabilities, nuclear tests, weapons of mass destruction, and forward military deployment pose serious
threats to our national security.”
47) In January 2001, the ROK and the United States reached an agreement, and as a result, the upper limit of
the range of the ROK’s missiles was extended from 180 km, which had been fixed based on a former
agreement between the two countries, to 300 km based on the Missile Technology Control Regime
(MTCR). The government of the ROK then announced new guidelines for its own missile development,
production, and possession, and joined the MTCR in March 2001.
48) Although the “Foal Eagle” exercise used to take place every fall, it has been conducted in conjunction
with “RSOI” since 2002.
49) Building of a harmonious society is said to be a process to solve social contradiction on a continuous
basis. In October 2006, at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 16th Communist Party of China (CPC) Central
Committee, the Resolution on Some Major Issues regarding the Building of a Harmonious Socialist
Society was adopted.
50) The 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR)(published in February 2006)
51) The term “responsible stakeholder,” since it was first used by then Deputy Secretary of State Robert B.
Zoellick in his speech made in New York in September 2005, has been frequently quoted in a variety of
documents published by the U.S. government. For example, in the U.S. Department of State’s Fact Sheet
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
52)
53)
54)
55)
56)
57)
58)
59)
60)
dated April 18, 2006, it is stated that “Deputy Secretary of State Zoellick has called on China to be a
responsible stakeholder in the international community, working with the United States and other major
nations to support the international system that has been such an instrumental part of China’s success.
Testimony of Deputy Undersecretary of Defense Richard Lawless at the U.S.-China Economic and
Security Review Commission held in February 2007
The Treaty states that both countries shall advance military confidence-building measures and reduction
of forces in border areas; promote technical cooperation in military fields; and hold contacts and
consultations when either of them recognizes a threat to peace.
China, Russia, and four central Asian countries (Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan)
established the SCO in June 2001. The organization aims at encouraging mutual cooperation in not only
security but also politics, culture, energy, and other broad areas. Since the establishment of this
organization, summit-level meetings have been held on a regular basis and the organization’s structure
and functions have been enhanced by such measures as establishing a secretariat and the Regional
Antiterrorist Structure (RATS).
Recent military exchanges between China and Southeast Asian countries include joint search and rescue
exercise conducted for the first time by the Chinese and Thai Navies in December 2005, joint patrol
conducted for the first time by the vessels of the Chinese and Vietnamese Navies in the Gulf of Tonkin in
April 2006, and Defense Minister Cao Gangchuan’s visits to Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore in April
2006.
The leaders participating in the fifth SCO summit meeting held in July 2005 issued a statement that a
deadline should be clearly set for the withdrawal of foreign forces stationed in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyz.
China traditionally adopted the strategy of “People’s War” based on the recognition that there was a
possibility of world-scale war in the future. Under that strategy, the country attributed importance to
guerrilla warfare using its vast territory and enormous population. This posture, however, led to harmful
effects such as excessively enlarged and inefficient military forces. Under these circumstances, based on a
new recognition that a world-scale war will not take place on a long-term basis, China has come to place
importance on local wars over its territories and territorial waters since the first half of the 1980s. After
the end of the Gulf War in 1991, it started to implement measures to improve its ability of military
operations, in order to win local wars under hi-tech conditions. In recent years, it upholds as its strategic
objective to establish informationalized armed forces and win informationalized wars.
For example, in China’s National Defense in 2006 published in December 2006, “opposing and
containing the separatist forces for ‘Taiwan Dependence’ and their activities” is included in the country’s
national defense policy.
Annual Threat Assessment of the Director of National Intelligence published in the United States in
January 2007 states as follows: “Beijing continues its rapid rate of military modernization, initiated in
1999. We assess that China’s aspirations for great power statue, threat perceptions, and security strategy
would drive this modernization effort even if the Taiwan problem were resolved.”
China pursues modernization of its armed forces “in accordance with the state’s overall plan to realize
modernization” and aims to modernize the country and its armed forces step by step by around 2020,
which falls on the centenary of the Communist Party of China and by around 2050, which falls on the
centenary of People’s Republic of China. China, for the modernization of the country, plans to “bring
China into a well-off society of a higher level to the benefit of well over one billion people” and for the
modernization of the armed forces, plans to “(lay a foundation by 2010 and) make major progress around
2020.” Also, China states that it will “bring the per capita GDP up to the level of moderately developed
countries and realize modernization in the main” by around 2050 and “to basically reach the strategic goal
— 97 —
61)
62)
63)
64)
65)
66)
67)
68)
69)
of building informationized armed forces and being capable of winning informationized wars.”
(Constitution of the Communist Party of China revised in 2002 and China’s National Defense in 2006)
Simple conversion of national defense expenditures of countries into foreign currencies based on the
market exchange rates does not always reflect the value in light of the country’s level of prices. If,
however, China’s FY 2007 national defense budget is converted at one yuan = 15 yen into yen, the
amount is equivalent to approximately 5208.5 billion yen, exceeding Japan’s national defense-related
expenditures for FY 2007 (approximately 4781.8 billion yen).
The U.S. Defense Department’s Annual Report on Chinese Military Power (May 2007) estimates that
China’s actual military-related spending for 2007 could be $85 billion to $125 billion, although its official
defense budget for 2007 is approximately $45 billion. The report points out as follows: “China’s
published defense budget does not include large categories of expenditure, including expense for strategic
forces, foreign acquisitions, military-related research and development, and China’s paramilitary forces.”
The People’s Armed Police Force is responsible for protecting facilities of the Party and the state, border
patrol, maintaining security, implementing joint government-citizen projects, and conducting firefighting
activities. According to China’s National Defense in 2002, these troops are to maintain state security and
social stability, and assist the PLA in wartime in defensive operations.
Responsible for economic construction in peacetime, and for combat support in time of war. China’s
National Defense in 2002 states as follows: “Under the command of military organs, the militia in
wartime helps the standing army in its military operations, conducts independent operations and provides
combat support and manpower replenishment for the standing army. In peacetime, it undertakes the tasks
of performing combat readiness support, taking part in emergency rescue and disaster relief efforts, and
maintaining social order.”
Annual Threat Assessment of the Director of National Intelligence published in the United States in
January 2006 states as follows: “The Chinese are developing more capable long-range conventional strike
systems and short- and medium-range ballistic missiles with terminally guided maneuverable warheads
able to attack US carriers and airbases.
Since the 1980s, China has been purchasing aircraft carriers nominally for recycling scraps of iron and for
using them at leisure facilities, specifically decommissioned Majestic-class aircraft carrier Melbourne
made in the United Kingdom and Kiev-class aircraft carriers Minsk and Kiev made in the former Soviet
Union. Subsequently in 2000, China purchased an uncompleted Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier Varyag
from Ukraine and reportedly has been repairing it, including repainting. Also in 2006, it was reported that
China was negotiating about the purchase of Russian-made Su-33 ship-based aircraft, which can be
operated on board a Kuznetsov-class carrier.
The Annual Report to Congress: Military Power of the People’s Republic of China, which was published
by the U.S. Department of Defense in May 2006, points out that the goal of the Chinese Air Force is “to
develop a mobile, all-weather, day-night, low-altitude, over-water force that is capable and flexible
enough to quickly perform multiple operational tasks and to project power beyond “first island chain.”
On September 9, 2005, a P-3C surveillance aircraft of the MSDF confirmed that five vessels in total,
including one Sovremenny-class destroyer operated near the Kashi (Tianwaitian in Chinese) gas field in
the East China Sea, and some of these vessels (a total of three including a Sovremenny-class destroyer)
circled around the drilling facilities of the said gas field.
A US official presented the view that China has assumed a more confident and increasingly assertive
posture” than before, and the anti-satellite weapon test in January 2007 and the Chinese Song-class
submarine incident in October 2006 can be viewed in this context. (According to the testimony of Deputy
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
70)
71)
72)
73)
74)
75)
76)
77)
78)
79)
80)
81)
Undersecretary of Defense Richard Lawless at the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review
Commission held on February 1, 2007)
According to the national defense report published by the Ministry of National Defense of Taiwan in
2006
The economic growth rate was 6.7% in 2006.
The National Security Concept of the Russian Federation, formulated in 1997, was revised in January
2000. This revision was made in response to changed circumstances, including NATO enlargement, air
strikes on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, NATO’s announcement of its New Strategic Concept, and
the emergence of Islamic extremist groups in and around Russia.
A change can be seen in the Russian stance on NATO enlargement since the National Security Concept
was first developed. In recent years, President Putin and other high government officials have emphasized
the importance of promoting a cooperative relationship with NATO, while repeatedly expressing
concerns over NATO enlargement. In April 2005, Russia and NATO signed a status of forces agreement
allowing the transit of troops through each other’s territory.
The following issues are pointed out as additional threats to Russia: attempts to weaken Russia’s position
as a core nation in a multipolar world, moves to weaken the integration process of the CIS, and demands
for Russian territory.
The following operations are listed as other peacetime operations: preventing or intercepting subversive
acts, maintaining and using the readiness of nuclear deterrent capabilities, conducting peacemaking
operations under the mandate of the United Nations or CIS, and preventing emergencies and recovering
the damage.
Troops with high degree of combat readiness. Troops were reorganized in the reduction of military
strength after the launch of the armed forces of the Russian Federation, and military personnel were
concentrated in the troops so that they can immediately take action as combat-ready troops in the first
phase of a large-scale war or in the event of a small conflict.
In November 2005, then Defense Minster Ivanov said that Russia would decrease the number of military
personnel from 1,134,800 to 1,100,000 by 2011. Subsequently in May 2006, President Putin said that
Russia would aim to reduce the number to an appropriate level of one million through spontaneous
retirement of military personnel.
In accordance with the 1997 presidential decree, the Missile-Space Defense Unit of the Air Defense Force
responsible for operating anti-ballistic missiles (ABM) and the Space Force responsible for the launch
and control of space flight objects were integrated into the Strategic Missile Force, a military service in
charge of ICBMs. However, a presidential decree in 2002 established a new Space Force and a new
Strategic Force to launch ICBMs as branches of the military by integrating the former Military Space
Force and the former Missile-Space Defense Unit in the Strategic Missile Force by the end of May 2002.
As a result, the Russian armed forces have three services: ground, naval, and air; as well as three
independent strategic branches: missile, space, and airborne branches.
In April 2007, President Putin said that professional servicemen would account for two-thirds of the
armed force in his annual presidential message.
The national defense budget for FY 2007 increased by approximately 23% over the previous fiscal year
on a nominal basis.
Military cooperation between the two countries, which started with confidence building, has been
developing into a state that envisages actual joint actions. For example, command post exercises
codenamed “Torgau 2004” were started between the U.S. ground forces stationed in Europe and Russian
ground forces in 2004, and “Torgau 2005,” which included field training, was also launched in 2005.
— 99 —
82) The United States, in its Quadrennial Defense Review published in February 2006, states “The United
States remains concerned about the erosion of democracy in Russia, the curtailment of non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and freedom of the press, the centralization of political powers and limits on
economic freedom.” President Putin, on the other hand, criticized the U.S. diplomatic attitude for
imposing its policies on other nations at the Munich Security Conference held by a private organization in
February 2007.
83) Some CIS countries want to maintain their distance from Russia. Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and
Moldova formed a regional alliance named GUAM by combining the initial letters of the member
countries, and have been following pro-Western policies to reduce their security and economic
dependence on Russia.(Uzbekistan jointed the GUAM in 1999 after withdrawing from the CIS Collective
Security Treaty, but withdrew from the alliance in 2005.)
84) In August 2001, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz, and Tajikistan provided one troop (battalion or smaller
unit) each to form the Collective Rapid Deployment Force that was 1,000 to 1,300 strong. The command
is located in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyz. In May 2004, Tajikistan provided another two troops and
Russia and Kazakhstan provided one more each. As a result, there are now nine battalions with 4,500
personnel.
85) The United States and others have been using the Manas base for antiterrorism operations, which is
located in the vicinity of Kant Air Base.
86) The following nine items have been named as common interests: (1) the fight against terrorism, (2) crisis
management, (3) the non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and their conveyance, (4)
measures to increase arms control and confidence, (5) theater missile defense, (6) search and rescue at
sea, (7) military cooperation and defense reform, (8) responses to civilian emergency situations, and (9)
new threats and challenges.
87) President Putin has expressed Russia’s intention to join the East Asia Summit as an official member.
88) Russian Foreign Policy Concept (published in July 2000)
89) From 2003 to 2004, Russia concluded contracts with Indonesia, Malaysia, and Vietnam to sell its Su27and Su-30 jet fighters. In addition, Russia signed a contract in January 2004 to sell its aircraft carrier to
India. In 2006, the country concluded agreements to sell its Su-30 jet fighters with Algeria and
Venezuela, and some were already sold to the countries. It seems that Russia is promoting export to
countries other than its traditional trade partners.
90) At the Kananaskis Summit held in June 2002, the G8 countries decided to provide up to $20 billion over
next ten years to assist Russia in disposing of chemical weapons, dismantling decommissioned
submarines, and fissionable materials.
91) Some divisions and brigades are designated as permanent combat-ready troops. Others are through to be
extremely deficient in the number of staff, although they have sufficient equipment.
92) In 2000, the nuclear submarine Kursk of the Northern Fleet sank in the Barents Sea in an accident. In
2005, a small submersible vessel became incapable of surfacing off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula.
Also, aircraft and helicopter accidents often took place.
93) Estimated number of military personnel within the Siberian and Far Eastern Military Districts
94) For the recent examples of increasing air force capabilities, Vietnam introduced Su-30 fighters and
Indonesia introduced Su-27 and Su-30 fighters in 2004. Singapore signed a contract with the United
States in 2005 to purchase F-15 fighters. Furthermore, Malaysia plans to introduce Su-30 fighters within
2007. To develop naval force capabilities for example, Malaysia, which had not possessed any
submarines, signed a contract to purchase Scorpene-class submarines with France in 2002 and Singapore
signed a contract to purchase Vastergotland-class submarines with Sweden in 2005.
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
95) The ReCAAP is designed to enhance cooperation among maritime security agencies of the countries
involved through the establishment of a piracy-related information sharing system and a cooperation
network among the countries. Among 16 countries that participated in the negotiations, there are 14
signatories (Japan, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia,
China, Republic of Korea, India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh) except Indonesia and Malaysia (as of
November 2006).
96) Thailand, the United States, Japan, Singapore, Indonesia and 9 additional countries participated in this
exercise conducted in May 2007.
97) Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA), which was a status based on the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 and
the Nunn Amendment of 1987, allows designated countries to receive benefits in military areas such as
eligibility to have U.S.-owned military equipment. A status of MNNA also represents significant
implications that the United States places importance on its close military cooperation with MNNA
countries.
98) IMET, started in 1976, provides military personnel of U.S. allies and friends with opportunities to study
and receive training at U.S. military education facilities. The United States has suspended IMET to
Indonesia since 1999 as sanction measures against the suppression by the Indonesian authorities of the
East Timor independence movement.
99) As of March 2007, the strength of UNMIT is 1588 personnel in total, including 33 military observers and
1555 police. In addition, 1161 personnel such as civilians are deployed.
100) The draft of the Regional Code of Conduct in the South China Sea was proposed at an ASEAN-China
officials meeting discussion in 1999 and consultations have been continued at working level meetings
since then. The draft, however, has yet to be adopted because there is a great difference in the countries’
opinions on the details.
101) The Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea clarifies general principles for
resolving issues related to the South China Sea. However, this declaration contains political targets only
and is not legally binding. Therefore, it is mentioned in the declaration that the parties concerned will
continue the efforts to develop the Regional Code of Conduct in the South China Sea, which will provide
detailed activities and be legally binding.
102) The country has Islamic population exceeding 100 million, which is estimated to be the world’s second
largest next to Indonesia.
103) President Bush called India a natural partner of the United States.
104) In cooperation with India, the United States intends to provide India with capabilities and technologies
required for the country to improve its defense capabilities to the appropriate level, including the sale of
F-16 and F-18 fighters.
105) The U.S. and Indian air forces conducted joint exercises in November 2005 and the U.S. and Indian
ground forces carried out joint exercises in January 2006. Also, the Indian air forces participated in a
multilateral joint exercise organized by the U.S. air force in July 2004. Furthermore, the joint naval
exercise Malabar 07-1 was carried out off the coast of Okinawa in the East China Sea in April 2007.
106) For the solution of the pending border issue, the countries agreed to each appoint a special representative.
Also, in the declaration, India recognizes that the Tibet Autonomous Region is part of the territory of the
People’s Republic of China.
107) In the agreement, China admits that Sikkim belongs to India. Also, the two countries agreed to continue
efforts for the early settlement of the pending border issue.
108) Both countries agreed to hold regular summit meetings and established the target of doubling the bilateral
trade amount to $40 billion by 2010. They also signed an agreement on such issues as investment
protection and mutual establishment of new Consulates General.
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109) In November 2004, India conducted a test launch of the missile on board.
110) The Indian Prime Minister’s special envoy, Shyam Saran referred to President Putin’s expression of
intention to cooperation in civilian nuclear activities that implementation would be after the revision of
the rules of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
111) It is estimated that weapons from the former Soviet Union or Russia account for about 70 percent of those
possessed by India.
112) The two countries signed the document concerning the joint development project of mid-size
multipurpose transport aircraft and the fifth generation fighter. Also, study was made on the proposal to
provide India with additional T-90 tanks, Su-30MKI fighters, and Mil-17 helicopters within the
framework of the agreement already concluded. It was confirmed to enhance the production capabilities
of the Brahmos cruise missiles now under development jointly by the two countries as well as to aim to
develop the air launch version of the missile. An intergovernmental agreement was concluded concerning
the contract for licensed production of engines for MiG-29 fighters. It was also agreed that the two
countries conduct joint antiterrorism military exercises in Russian territory in April and September 2007.
113) The joint exercise Indra has been conducted every other year since 2003.
114) At the same time, India signed the Framework Agreement on Comprehensive Economic Cooperation
between India and ASEAN and the ASEAN-India Joint Declaration for Cooperation to Combat
International Terrorism.
115) In November 2006, Chinese President Hu Jintao visited Pakistan to meet with President Musharraf and
both agreed to strengthen the military and strategic cooperation and expand the economic cooperation
including the Free Trade Agreement (FTA). President Hu Jintao expressed the intention to continue
cooperation in civilian nuclear activities. The two countries also agreed on the joint development of air
force aircraft including the Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS).
116) Pakistan has supported the fight against terrorism led by the United States and other countries. For
example, it provided logistical support for the U.S. operations against Afghanistan, and carried out
operations to mop out terrorists in the border areas of Afghanistan. Also, it started to dispatch warships to
naval operations in the Indian Ocean in April 2004. Appreciating these supports from Pakistan, the United
States designated the country as a major non-NATO ally.
117) At the same time, the sanctions that had been imposed also on India by the United States and other
countries due to India’s nuclear test were lifted.
118) Regarding the possibility of extending cooperation to Pakistan in the nuclear energy issue, President Bush
only referred to the differences between Pakistan and India in terms of energy needs and history. In
response, Pakistan stated that it was important for the United States to treat India and Pakistan equally in
order to ensure strategic stability in South Asia.
119) In September 2005, President Musharraf reportedly demonstrated his recognition that the Kahn network
had probably exported a dozen of ultracentrifuges to North Korea.
120) In March 2006, some including a U.S. diplomat were killed in a suicide car bombing targeting the U.S.
Consulate General in Karachi.
121) The two countries have adopted greatly different positions in relation to solving the Kashmir territorial
issue. India’s territorial claim over Kashmir is based on the document from the Maharaja of Kashmir to
India, while Pakistan claims that the territorial claim over Kashmir should be decided through the
referendum in accordance with the 1948 U.N. resolution.
122) Also, in August 2005, the two countries agreed on the prior notification of ballistic missile testing and on
the establishment of a hotline between their Vice Foreign Ministers.
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Part I Security Environment Surrounding Japan
123) India and Pakistan have said that they will make efforts to reach a national consensus to sign the CTBT.
124) Following the nuclear test, India expressed concern about the nuclear environment in India’s
neighborhood. On the other hand, Pakistan gave the reason of the nuclear test as India’s nuclear threat.
125) Pakistan conducted the test-launch of the Babur (Hataf VII) cruise missile also in March 2007.
126) Pakistani Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz, who observed the launch of the Ghauri missile, stated that
Pakistan can be justifiably proud of its defence capability and the reliability of its nuclear deterrence.
127) Trilateral security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States, which went into effect
in 1952. However, the United States has suspended its obligation to defend New Zealand since 1986
because of New Zealand’s non-nuclear policy.
128) This consultation has been held every year since the United States suspended its obligation to defend New
Zealand in 1986.
129) The participation in the Joint Strike Fighter Program was decided in June 2002. The expansion and
improvement the U.S.-Australia joint training facilities were agreed upon in Australia-United States
Ministerial Consultations in July 2004.
130) Joint exercises between the two countries had been suspended from September 1999 until April 2005 due
to differences in their response to the East Timor issue.
131) Referred to as non-Article 5 operations.
132) In the NATO Summit, the enhancement of the ISAF was an issue of discussion and it was pointed out
that there were split opinions on matters such as the increase of military force and the restriction of the
areas of deployment imposed on by the respective countries. Also, a policy was launched to strengthen
cooperation with non-NATO countries on a case by case basis.
133) The NATO Ministerial Meeting in Berlin in June 1996 made a decision enabling access to NATO’s assets
and capabilities in operations led by the Western European Union (WEU). Most of the WEU’s roles and
duties were thereafter handed over to the EU. Accordingly, the NATO Washington Summit Meeting in
April 1999 again decided to give the EU access to NATO’s assets and capabilities. The decision is called
Berlin Plus. In December 2002, a permanent arrangement on the said decision was made between NATO
and the EU.
134) These are termed Petersburg operations, and comprise combat unit missions in crisis management,
including (1) humanitarian support and rescue/relief, (2) peacekeeping, and (3) peace building.
135) The tactical and strategic forces of Allied Command Europe and Allied Command Atlantic were
consolidated into a single force (Allied Command Operations), and Allied Command Transformation was
created to oversee reform of NATO’s military capabilities and improvement to interoperability.
136) NATO concluded a cooperation treaty with East European countries and other non-NATO countries of
the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) to build confidence and maintain
interoperability.
137) The United Kingdom defines the capability to perform operations as that to perform a total of three
operations at the same time: one large scale operation under the United States leadership as in the Gulf
War, and two small to medium operations under NATO leadership as in conflicts in Bosnia and Kosovo.
138) Since Vanguard class nuclear-powered submarines now in operation are expected to decommission
starting in the early 2020s, the British government studied on whether or not to maintain nuclear deterrent
and consequently published this white paper. In March 2007, the House of Commons adopted the motion
submitted by the government to support the policy of the white paper.
139) The intervention force comprises combat readiness troops equipped with state-of-art weapons. It is
designed to deal with opponents that have well organized military formations in intensive operations,
which are implemented multilaterally by NATO combat readiness troops or EU Battle group units, with
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140)
141)
142)
143)
144)
145)
146)
the goal of providing foundation to peace stabilization operations. The stabilization force deals with
opponents that have a certain level of military formations and perform peace stabilization operations in
low- and medium-intensity operations that last for a relatively long period. The assistance force supports
the intervention and stabilization forces in preparing for and performing operations in Germany and in the
target areas, including the management of command, educational, and training organizations.
France is now operating one nuclear-powered submarine.
NATO and Warsaw Pact Organization (WPO) member countries as of 1990
Several problems must be resolved before it goes into effect, including the fact that the three new Baltic
members of NATO have not concluded the CFE Treaty.
Efforts are made to disclose military intelligence, restrict certain military operations, and promote military
communication in order to prevent accidental armed conflicts and build confidence between states. In
general, these are referred to as confidence building measures.
Later, the Vienna Document 1999 was adopted in 1999, adding the following to the former documents:
promotion of multilateral and bilateral measures for regional confidence building; provision of
information on military exchanges; and restriction on the implementation of exercises based on the
number of armored infantry combat vehicles and the scale of artillery units.
Aerial inspections are conducted by unarmed aircraft equipped with predfined types of sensors, in
accordance with flight plans proposed by the inspecting nation and accepted by the country being
inspected. Any signatory can access data collected through the inspections.
The number of U.N. personnel killed in operations such as PKOs was 104 in 2006, and the total thus far
has reached 2,355 (at the end of March 2007); it is desired that measures to ensure the safety of personnel
engaged in such activities as PKOs be taken promptly.
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