[UBRARIESJ
S
n c^
ll.IT.
UBRARf E8 - DEWEY
^pNOM 211988
.M41M
8A
m^
^r5^^
L
LIBRARIES DUPl
illllll
3
lOflO
DOSbESDl
M
A FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE DETERMINANTS
OF JOB SATISFACTION IN PROGRAMMER/ANALYSTS
David K. Goldstein
November 1982
Revised February 1983
CISR WP
//96
Sloan WP #1370-82
Center for Information Systems Research
Massachusetts
Institute of
Sloan School of
Technology
Management
77 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139
A FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE DETERMINANTS
OF JOB SATISFACTION IN PROGRAMMER/ANALYSTS
David K. Goldstein
November 1982
Revised February 1983
CISR WP #96
Sloan WP #1370-82
D.K. Goldstein 1983
Center for Information Systems Research
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in
research examining the determinants of job satisfaction
In the past,
programmer/analysts has focused on the relationship between characteristics of the
and
job itself - such as skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy,
It is hypothesized that certain
feedback from the job - and job satisfaction.
and
aspects of programmer/analysts' relationships with co-workers, project leaders,
Specifically, the
also be important determinants of job satisfaction.
users will
and
relationship between job satisfaction and role conflict and role ambiguity,
A
examined.
is
leadership
provided by supervisors and peers
quality
of
leadership
ambiguity,
questionnaire measuring job characteristics, role conflict and
characteristics, and job satisfaction was administered to ll8 programmer/analysts at
leadership variables
role and
indicate that both
The results
four companies.
These
least as highly with job satisfaction as job characteristics.
correlated as
redesigning data
in
interested
results have important implications for managers
development
systems
improving
the
processing jobs and for researchers interested in
process.
The study of job satisfaction and its determinants is a major research area
industrial
organizational
and
psychology.
3000 articles have been written
satisfaction
of
almost
research
no
specific
types
job
satisfaction
workers
of
been
has
One estimate is that, as of
examining
over
and
the
With one major exception [5],
[I6].
conducted
I976,
general
in
in
on
satisfaction
job
the
of
prog rammer /anal ysts.
There are strong reasons for studying job satisfaction and its determinants
programmer/analysts.
researchers
First,
negatively correlated with
several
turnover
is
Turnover
[I6].
have
outcome
that
variables,
relevance
special
of
shown
job
such
satisfaction
absenteeism
as
in
is
and
for MIS managers, due to the
shortage of experienced programmer/analysts and the high cost of training new hires.
Second,
there
evidence
some
is
satisfaction and productivity.
In
that
there
is
a
relationship
between
job
systems development, productivity improvement has
traditionally obtained through the introduction of new productivity aids, such
been
as higher
languages
level
satisfaction
and Zawacki
could
structured
and
development
also be an important 'tool'
hypothesize that improved
motivation
for
methods.
Improving
improving productivity.
among
much
debate
about
the
strength
and
Couger
programmer/analysts
lead to a reduction in the large backlog of systems awaiting development.
however,
direction
the
of
job
could
There
link
is,
between
productivity or performance and job satisfaction [1,22,23].
Third,
is
it
important
programmer/analysts
introduction of
a
to
to
gain
[I7]
development.)
for
an
There
is,
of
of
job
satisfaction
of
the
effects
of
in
the
Productivity improvement aids are becoming
processing
examination
determinants
understanding
the
better
new tool or technique.
increasingly popular in data
Martin
study
a
organizations.
these
tools
and
(See
their
Goldstein
impact
however, a controversy concerning the impact of
Page
2
[7]
on
such
and
system
aids
on
job satisfaction of programmer/analysts.
the
the use of these aids reduces the skill
lead to a decrease
could
of these aids
more
level
of
programmer/analysts
If
[15].
which
However, we could argue that the use
job satisfaction.
increases job satisfaction by making the
manageable.
its personnel
in
Some researchers have argued that
job
programmer/analysts
of
the use of productivity aids decreases job satisfaction, then
costs could outweigh its benefits.
Alternatively,
job satisfaction
if
increases with the use of productivity aids, this would provide further evidence for
those advocating its use.
This paper describes
This study,
research.
several
the
study
a
variables not considered
survey
in
Following this,
hypothesized
Finally,
to
extending
Couger
and
Zawacki's
previous
[5]
survey of job satisfaction in programmer/analysts, examines
a
perspective,
in
the Couger and Zawacki
study.
in
order to place
the work of these researchers will first be reviewed.
two sets of variables
-
role variables and
leadership
variables
-
be important determinants of job satisfaction, will be introduced.
the results of a survey designed to examine the impact of
on job satisfaction, will
variables
these
be presented and analyzed.
OVERVIEW
Hackman and Oldham's [10,11] Job Characteristic Model, the model used by Couger
and Zawacki
premise
of
[5],
the
is
the dominant paradigm in the literature on job design
model
is
that personal
[6].
The
and work related outcome variables, such as
job satisfaction and work effectiveness, are related to objective characteristics of
the job.
identity,
The model
task
focuses on five
core
job
dimensions
-
skill
variety,
significance, autonomy, and feedback from the job itself
Page
3
-
task
that are
hypothesized
mean! ngfulness
s
In
and
and
with
his
turn,
over
strength
need
processing
or
in
feedback
field.
Couger
in
data
however,
did,
experience
core
five
the
higher
job
general
and
Zawacki
found
the newness of the
is
(between
was
developed
individuals working more or
to
and
.26
.^0).
Improvements
in
lead to improved job satisfaction.
therefore,
study
less alone"
"jobs
[11,
that
page 6I].
job
the
motivation and satisfaction for the worker.
the
that the model
data
positive correlations
significant
The Job Characteristic Model, however, assumes that
systems
(See
from agents, growth need strength, or supervisor
agreement with the findings of Hackman and Oldham [9].
the core dimensions should,
a
such as pay and
programmer/analysts,
between ratings on the job dimensions and job satisfaction
spend
personal
and lower satisfaction with their co-workers than other professionals.
satisfaction
in
for
indicated that d. p. professionals were very similar
One possible explanation for the higher job satisfaction
of
(need
or her job contexts,
1000 programmers, analysts, and
Programmer/analysts
satisfaction.
most
work
and
These relationships are moderated by
There was almost no difference between the two groups in
dimensions,
is
and knowledge
related to personal
professional and technical employees in their reactions to their job
Table 1).
This
experienced
-
states
ion.
a survey of
other
job
growth
skill,
satisfaction
presented by Couger and Zawacki
to
in
including job satisfaction.
outcomes,
accomplishment),
psychological
key
the work, experienced responsibility for the work,
of
an individual's knowledge
supervi
three
to
These psychological states are,
of results.
related
related
be
to
itself
are
done
This
is
independently
great deal of time dealing with users, co-workers, and managers.
h
by
not necessarily true
development jobs, where programmer/analysts typically work
Page
provides
Hackman and Oldham state
in
teams and
TABLE
1.
COMPARISON OF JOB CHARACTERISTIC DATA FOR PROGRAMMER/ANALYSTS
AND OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNICAL WORKERS
PROGRAMMER/ANALYSTS
VARIABLE
OTHER PROFESSIONAL
AND TECHNICAL WORKERS
worker
and
tasks
the
organizations has led
more
to
Kahn, et a), note that the growth of
she performs.
or
there
where
development,
he
complex
is
a
and
great
specialized
deal of
conflict and ambiguity found in these jobs can be
and a
systems
as
nterdependency among people.
a
major source of personal
The
stress
important determinant of job satisfaction.
In
their research,
ambiguity
-
as potential
person"
[2,
role conflict.
identify two variables
Kahn, et al.
sources
incongruity or incompatibility
focal
i
such
jobs,
in
stress.
of
Role
-
role conflict and role
conflict
degree
"the
is
of
the expectations or requirements communicated to
a
These researchers have identified several components of
page 92].
They are:
incongruent
person-role conflict - the extent to which role expectations are
with the orientations, standards, or values of the focal person.
intrasender conf ict - the extent to which role requirements
with the resources or capabilities of the focal person.
1
are
incompatible
or
expectations
intersender conflict - the extent to which role requirements
from one party oppose those from one or more other parties.
role overload - the extent to which the various role expectations communicated
for
their
time available
the
amount of
focal
person exceed
to
the
accomplishment [2, page 93]'
Role ambiguity is "the degree to which desired expectations are vague, ambiguous, or
the requirements
unclear, thereby making it difficult for the person to fulfill
his role]"
In
page 93]
their study of various jobs, Kahn,
ambiguity
boundary
[2,
to
et
al.
role
found
conflict
they
dealing
with
high
found
outside
people
role
conflict
of
the
person's
and ambiguity in
a
role
and
high among people whose job required being innovative or
be
spanning,
Specifically,
involved
work
group.
job called "IBM
Converter," which involved "developing computer programs that will make some of
work
of
other
[of
departments
electronic equipment"
[1^*,
[within
page 116].
an
amenable
organization]
This type of job
Page 6
is
the
to processing by
very similar to the
work
that
is
currently performed by programmer/analysts.
In
some more recent research, Bostrom
ambiguity
in
dyads
user-designer
75
[2]
examined
role
in systems
involved
the
designer
Bostrom's
examined the relationship between
and
ambiguity
felt
by
user's
the
information
satisfaction.
with the findings of other researchers who have
consistent
are
results
variables
these
He found
He also found significant negative
his or her job satisfaction.
and
role
and
maintenance.
significant negative correlations between the role conflict and
correlations between
conflict
role
variables
job
and
satisfaction
many
in
different types of jobs and organizations [12,18,02,21].
A
second extension
the
to
programmer/analyst's
supervisor
determinant
satisfaction.
effort,
of
job
much
involving
interactions
quality
The
characteristics.
leadership
Characteristic
Job
peers
and
is
among
team
is
leadership
another
systems
Since
interaction
of
Model
the
inclusion
provided
members,
the
is
a
significant
potentially
development
by
of
usually
quality
a
of
team
the
of the leadership and guidance provided by a programmer/analyst's
and
supervisor and peers could be important determinants of the programmer/analyst's job
sati sf act ion.
The relationship between leadership and organizational
has been well
[3]
found
studies.
documented.
that
four
In
and
outcomes
personal
reviewing the leadership research. Bowers and Seashore
characteristics
leadership behavior were common to many
of
They are:
support - behavior that enhances someone else's feeling of personal
importance.
interaction facilitation
-
worth
and
behavior that encourages members of the [work] group
to develop close, mutually satisfying relationships.
goal
goal
emphasis - behavior that stimulates an enthusiasm for meeting the
or achieving excellent performance.
Page
7
group's
behavior that helps achieve goal
work f aci
tat ion attainment by such
coordinating, planning, and by providing resources
activities as scheduling,
such as tools, materials, and technical knowledge [3. page 247].
1
i
These four characteristics can be used to examine the quality of leadership provided
by both the supervisor and the peers of a programmer/analyst.
[3]
found
correlations
positive
significant
Bowers
between
Seashore
and
measures
these
of
characteristics and job satisfaction and performance.
The
survey
described
examines
below
the
importance
relative
job
of
characteristics, role perceptions, and leadership characteristics as determinants of
job
satisfaction
Based on the boundary spanning nature of
programmer/analysts.
in
in
systems
ambiguity,
and the
programmer/analysts' jobs, and the high level of team interaction needed
development,
it
characteristics
hypothesized
is
of
supervisor
role
that
and
peer
conflict,
leadership
role
discussed
above
will
be
significant determinants of job satisfaction in programmer/analysts.
RESEARCH METHOD
Subjects and Procedure
Data were collected from 125 subjects at four large companies, each
100 programmer/analysts.
One
was
company.
both
a
over
with
Two were manufacturing companies located in the Northeast.
Northeastern insurance company, and the other was
The programmer/analysts who participated
in
the
a
study
Midwestern insurance
were
involved
the development of new systems and the maintenance of existing systems.
subjects were excluded from the study
-
two managers,
three trainees.
Page 8
two contract programmers,
in
Seven
and
The questionnaire used to collect the data
setting
to
groups
was
administered
in
of between seven and thirty subjects at a time.
recommended by Hackman and Oldham [11, appendix
were
D]
followed
classroom
a
The procedures
in
administering
is
based
the quest ionnai re.
Measures
Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity
eight
item
-
The role conflict measure
scale developed by Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman [20].
[18]
found that the scale could be separated into subscales that
the
components
of
role
conflict
identified
by
Kahn,
measures
study.
A
in
a
study
programmer/analysts
of
[2]
et al.
and
[U].
The fourth
with
job
sample item for each subscale, with the number of items in the subscale
parentheses,
in
follows:
person-role conf ict
di f f erently ."
1
intrasender conflict
(2)
-
-
"I
(2)
and materials to execute
"I
have
to
do
things
should
that
receive an assignment without adequate
"I
do things that are apt
to
be
Brief
"There are clear planned goals and
and Aldag
done
resources
accepted
The six item role ambiguity measure developed by Rizzo, et al.
sample item follows:
be
it."
intersender conflict {k) person and not by others."
Schuler,
of
included in this
not
is
an
each
subscale, used to measure role overload, was not significantly correlated
satisfaction
on
Miles and Perrault
[21]
conducted
a
[20]
objectives
is
used.
A
job."
my
for
one
by
scale analysis of both the role conflict
and role ambiguity measures and recommended their continued use.
Supervisor and Peer Leadership Measures
Seashore
The
[5]
-
The scales developed
are used to measure the supervisor and peer
by
Bowers
and
leadership characteristics.
first set of scales consists of thirteen items that measure the four supervisor
leadership characteristics.
The second set consists of eleven
Page 9
items
that
measure
the
characteristics
four
peer
of
Sample supervisor leadership items
leadership.
fol low:
support
"To what extent
-
is
your supervisor friendly and easy to approach?"
emphasis - "To what extent does your supervisor encourage people
their best effort?"
to
goal
1
i
show
supervisor
your
does
tation - "To what extent
work faci
improve your performance?"
and
Hunt
identified in the Ohio State leadership behavior description
Job Characteristics
-
characteristic
Each
1
1
-
"The job requires me to use
task significance - "This job is one where
affected by how well the work gets done."
-
scales.
"The job requires
a
lot of
I
provides
measured
is
number of complex
a
task identity - "The job is arranged so that
entire piece of work from beginning to end."
autonomy
the
with
Sample items follow:
three questions from two different sections of the survey.
variety
skills."
(LBDQ)
Hackman and Oldham's Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
measures of the five job characteristics.
ski
to
these characteristics similar to the characteristics
found
[24]
how
encourage
interaction facilitation - "To what extent does your supervisor
people who work for him to work as a team?"
Yunger
you
give
high-level
or
do not have the chance to do
an
can
be
lot
a
of
other
people
cooperative work with other people."
required
feedback from the job itself - "Just doing the work
am doing."
provides many chances for me to figure out how well
the
job
measure
job
by
I
Satisfaction
Job
The
satisfaction.
scale.
job,
-
Four
principle
scales
measure
from
is
the
are
JDS
used
to
Hackman and Oldham's general satisfaction
The other scales measure satisfaction with the opportunity of growth in
with co-workers, and with supervision.
number of
items
general
job."
in
the scale in parentheses,
satisfaction
(5)
-
A
sample item for each scale, with the
follows:
"Generally speaking,
Page 10
the
I
am
very
satisfied
with
my
growth satisfaction C*) - "How satisfied are you with the
growth and development you get in doing your job?"
amount
personal
of
co-worker satisfaction (3) - "How satisfied are you with the people you talk to
and work with on your job?"
supervisor satisfaction (3) - "How satisfied are you with the amount of support
and guidance you receive from your supervisor?"
Other Measures
included
the
in
-
The other scales found in the long form of the
questionnaire.
Hackman
by
measure
and
Oldham
[11].
also
are
JDS
growth need strength, pay and job
internal work motivation, and the three psychological
security satisfaction,
identified
They
states
scales permit comparison of the
These
results of this survey to the findings of Couger and Zawacki
[5]
Hackman
and
and
Oldham [11].
RESULTS
Means, standard deviations, and
internal
consistency
reliabilities
scales and subscales used in the study are presented in Table 2.
reliabilities
consistent
exception
two
in
3
Zawacki
in
previous
studies
[11,21,2'*].
[5]
and Hackman and Oldham [11].
In
is
only
The
the
other
The only two exceptions are in the measures of task significance and
pay satisfaction.
This sample has appreciably
other two samples, and
and
by
general, the means of the
this sample are very similar to the means of the measures in
samples.
technical
presented
presents comparisons of this data with the data obtained in studies
and
measures
This
within the satisfactory range specified by Nunnally [19]results
the
for
but one of the
the person-role conflict subscale.
is
Table
Couger
is
with
All
it
lower
task
significance
than
the
has appreciably higher pay satisfaction than the sample of
professional workers.
The relative magnitudes of the means for this
Page
11
TABLE 2, SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR DEPENDENT AND
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
TABLE
3.
COMPARISON OF THIS JOB CHARACTERISTIC DATA WITH PREVIOUS STUDIES
CURRENT
STUDY
MEAN
SKILL VARIETY
STD DEV
COUGER AND
ZAWACKI STUDY
MEAN
STD DEV
.kk
TABLE 5-
INTERCORRELATIONS AMONG JOB CHARACTERISTICS
SKILL
VARIETY
SKILL VARIETY
TASK
IDENTITY
TASK
S
I
GN
I
AUTONOMY
FEEDBACK
FROM JOB
was
The
.49.
between role conflict and role ambiguity was .kd.
correlation
high
levels
leadership.
Correlations among the dependent variables are presented
significant,
are
characteristics
leadership
both
Tables
in
The correlations between role
job
characteristics
between
leadership
and
8
and
9.
leadership
between
correlations
weak
relatively
but
characteristics and job characteristics.
and
that
of role conflict and role ambiguity tend to occur together, as do high
levels of peer and supervisor
There
indicates
This
intercorrelations among the job characteristics was only .28.
The
perceptions
tended to be much
stronger.
The combination of high correlations
role
and
perceptions and between role perceptions and job satisfaction prompted further
House
investigation into the relationship among these variables.
observed
and
Rizzo
[12]
that the relationship between leadership variables and job satisfaction
That
moderated by role variables.
role
characteristics
conflict
ambiguity
and
positive
is,
and
characteristics
leadership
satisfaction.
increased
to
lead
is
reduce
This can be
diagrammed as follows:
_\
7
role
conf ict
1
_\ job
/ satisfaction
leader ship_
character istics
\ rol(
/ ambigui ty
This finding
analysis
found
conflict
or
is
in
Table
and
in
10.
ambiguity
role
characteristic
confirmed
for
role
all
In
reduced
general
conflict,
in
study
by
partial
the
correlation
cases but one, controlling for either role
the
relationship
satisfaction.
controlling for role ambiguity were,
controlling
present
the
First
between
order
partial
Page I6
is
correlations
order
general, smaller than first
indicating that role ambiguity
leadership
a
a
partials
more important
.E
8.
CORRELATION OF ROLE AND LEADERSHIP VARIABLES WITH JOB CHARACTERISTICS
SKILL
TABLE 10. PARTIAL CORRELATIONS OF LEADERSHIP CHARACTERISTICS AND GENERAL
SATISFACTION CONTROLLING FOR ROLE CONFLICT AND AMBIGUITY
GENERAL SATISFACTION
The most significant of the conclusions is that extensions are
Characteristic
Job
satisfaction
support
Model
programmer/analysts.
in
conclusion.
this
The data provide
First,
is
great deal of
a
programmer/analysts
the
highly on the dealing with others scale,
less
needed
in this
evidence
'more
scores
(5-6)
of managers
(6.^4)
and salespeople
this measure [11].
for
or
Their average score (6.0)
between the average score of other technical and professional workers
the
to
survey scored
indicating that they do not work
alone' as required by the Job Characteristic Model.
norm
the
to
allowing us to better understand the determinants of job
and
(5-8)
and is well above the national
(6.4),
Second, correlations between job satisfaction and
role and leadership variables were at least as high as the correlations between
satisfaction
characteristics.
job
and
This
programmer/analysts with others are important
sources
job
that the interactions of
indicates
satisfaction
of
these
for
workers.
finding
This
redesigning
important
is
for
researchers
and
managers
If
for work redesign,
the redesign would focus on job enrichment.
the Job Characteristic Model were to be used as the sole basis
example,
For
programmer/analyst
complete
possible
a
control
of
a
project from systems analysis through testing.
identity,
like this,
would
This
involve
the tasks performed by programmer/analysts to improve some of the five job
characteristics.
task
in
work performed by programmer/analysts to increase job satisfaction
the
and productivity.
changing
interested
and
autonomy
It
redesign
give
could
each
specific part of a systems development
This should
increase skill
leading to increased job satisfaction.
however, will affect the
and project leaders.
work
A
variety,
job change
interactions between programmer/analysts, users,
could lead to reduced job satisfaction
by
increasing
conflict between users and the programmer/analyst and by increasing the ambiguity
the programmer/analyst's job.
Page 19
the
in
redesign
Work
perspective,
programmer/analysts
for
just
not
should,
would
approach as advocated by Cherns [4] and others
approach
to work redesign focuses on both the social
examination
Work redesign is based on an
information
among
therefore,
concentrating on job enrichment.
involved
those
in
systems
appropriate.
more
and technical
development
systems
broader
a
i
interactions
the
of
be
take
soc o-techni cal
A
aspects of work.
and
as
This
flow
the
well
of
the tasks
as
performed by programmer/analysts.
A
second important result of this study
is
the significance of role perceptions
Strong correlations between role ambiguity and
as determinants of job satisfaction.
between
job satisfaction and slightly weaker correlations
Bostrom's
support
satisfaction
[2]
conflict
role
House
are consistent with results obtained by Rizzo, House, and Lirtzman [20],
Rizzo
and Schuler, Aldag, and Brief
[12],
[21]
in
The high correlations between role perceptions and job
indicate
reducing
role
conflict
and
studies involving many different
types of jobs.
that
job
and
findings in his study of systems designers and
satisfaction
and ambiguity could be an effective way to
improve job satisfaction in programmer/analysts.
process
One change in the organization of the systems development
reduce
role conflict and ambiguity is the use of user liaisons.
have trained members of user groups in systems design and
development
team.
These
liaisons
could
people
act
reduce
the
amount
of
Some organizations
them
part
of
the
liaisons between the user group and the
as
By facilitating communication
programmer/analysts.
made
could
that
between
the
two
groups,
the
intersender role conflict perceived by the
They could also reduce role ambiguity by eliminating
some
of
This result also has implications for researchers interested in the effects
of
programmer/analysts.
the less well-defined tasks that the programmer/analysts perform.
productivity
aids
on
job satisfaction.
Many productivity aids now being used add
Page 20
structure
systems
the
to
programmer/analysts
and
analysis and design [7].
productivity
structured
[15].
If
development
Some
more
routine.
guidelines
for
language for documenting systems
argued
have
that
use
the
these
of
lead to the rout ni zat on of systems development
aids will
i
The programmer/analysts'
affected.
providing
by
formal
a
researchers
this were the case we would
development
process
providing
by
expect
i
job
several
characteristics
be
to
skill variety could be reduced by making systems
autonomy
Their
could
guidelines that are part of the productivity aid.
reduced
be
imposing
by
the
Their task identity could also be
reduced by splitting the development process into smaller pieces.
These productivity aids,
satisfaction,
using
if
have
could
productivity
of
programmer/analysts
a
better
aids
-
to
reduced
role
conflict
by
ambiguity
increasing
increasing their capabilities.
on
job
analysis
methods
gave
-
understanding of the user's business and facilitated
by
providing
understanding of what they should be doing.
role
effect
This author [7] found that
structured
communication between users and systems developers.
lead
opposite
the
we take role perceptions into account.
class
one
however,
These
aids
could,
therefore,
programmer/analysts with
They could lead to reduced
better
a
intrasender
the resources available to programmer/analyst and by
They could also lead
conflict by improving communications with users.
reduced
to
intersender
role
Thus, the use of productivity aids
could lead to increased job satisfaction in programmer/analysts.
A
third result of this
characteristics,
role
perceptions,
analysis in Table 10 supports the
perceptions,
and
concerns
study
especially
role
the
causal
and job satisfaction.
findings
of
House
and
link
between
leadership
The partial correlation
Rizzo
[12]
that
role
ambiguity, act as intervening variables between
leadership characteristics and job satisfaction.
This indicates that an increase
the amount of aid provided by supervisors and peers could cause a
Page 21
decrease
in
in
the
amount
ambiguity
role
of
which
programmer/analysts,
and
-
lesser extent role conflict
to a
could,
cause
turn,
in
perceived by
-
increases
an
in
programmer/analysts' job satisfaction.
Leadership training could, therefore, be an important method for improving
satisfaction
job
possibly
and
productivity
the
programmer/analysts.
of
training
programmer/analysts and project leaders have a great deal of technical
programming
systems
and
design.
systems design, systems analysis, and project management.
project
organizing, and controlling work
programmer/analysts
-
project
and
and
leaders
these
in
to
-
Training
interpersonal skills.
in
reduced role conflict and ambiguity and indirectly
then
to
planning,
of
both
could lead directly to
areas
satisfaction.
job
improved
these skills will make programmer/analysts and project leaders more effective
Since
in
in
These programmer/analysts
are lacking training and experience in management
leaders
Many
Many have technical degrees and have followed a
career path that leads from program maintenance to program development and
and
the
carrying out
jobs,
their
this
training
could
also
to
lead
improving
the
productivity of programmer/analysts and the quality of the systems they develop.
this point it is
At
of partial
correlations.
act
intervening
as
important to interject a word of caution concerning the use
Even though it is logical
variables
by
a
partial
analysis.
correlation
leadership
between
satisfaction, the direction of this causal
and
job
satisfaction.
characteristics
The
longitudinal study
and
job
certainty
data in Table 10 could also be used to
That
determinants
is,
high
ambiguity lead to the perception of poor leadership and poor
is
perceptions
link cannot be determined with
support the hypothesis that role perceptions are
characteristics
to assume that role
of
role
job
both
conflict
leadership
and role
satisfaction.
A
needed to determine with certainty the direction of the causal
links between the variables.
Page 22
Implications for Future Research
The conclusions discussed
determinants
research
explore further some issues raised
One area where research
certain
environmental
is
factors
programmer/analysts
systems maintenance.
satisfied
less
satisfaction
It
from
their work group.
is
also
that
and
of
determinants.
its
For
satisfaction
job
in
systems development and those involved
in
programmer/analysts
maintenance
likely that
find
the
effects
the
of
differences
the
would
in
be
programmer/analysts, because their jobs are more
programmer/analysts
maintenance
that
characteristics, because they deal
job
If
satisfaction
examine
involved
examination
the
is
job
on
development
than
We might
routine.
studying
of
the previous section.
in
warranted
example, a survey could be used to
between
importance
the
programmer/analysts and the need for further
in
This section discusses some specific research projects
this area.
in
highlight
above
satisfaction
job
of
derive
more
less with people outside
improving systems
this were the case the strategies needed for
maintenance jobs would be different than the strategies recommended
in
previous
the
section for improving systems development jobs.
A
second topic that
productivity
productivity
is
Recent
[16].
a
be
examined
There
satisfaction.
job
is
lead
by
Bagozzi
and
[1]
satisfaction.
increased
to
productivity
measure
Although
there has been much research
this research)
a
survey
a
is
of
for
others
could
be
link
between
productivity
Before
we
is
true
is
programmer/analysts
of
can test this hypothesis, an
programmer/analysts
in this area
reverse
the
indicate that the former
(see Jones
must
[I3]
no single agreed upon measure has been developed.
survey
the
great deal of debate as to whether
a
determinant of job satisfaction or whether
research
adequate
found,
with
This could mean that increasing the
correct.
could
and
can
developed.
be
for a summary of
Once
a
measure
is
used to examine the strength and direction of the link
Page 23
between productivity and job satisfaction.
There are several areas where longitudinal
satisfaction.
productivity
controversy
One
as
area
to
change
[8]
in
satisfaction.
whether
decreased job satisfaction.
importance
particular
of
job
on
aids
the
A
use
research can be used to examine
As
is
productivity
of
the study of the effects of
mentioned
longitudinal study
could
job
above,
aids
some
is
leads to increased or
used
be
there
to
job satisfaction attributed to the use of productivity aids.
examine
the
This author
has presented the design of such a study.
Longitudinal
research can also be used to examine the effects of other
organizational changes on job satisfaction.
change
in
job
or
For example, we might want to study the
job satisfaction, role perceptions, and leadership characteristics caused
by giving programmer/analysts and project
recommended
in
the previous section.
leaders a leadership
training
course
as
We might also want to examine the effects of
introducing user liaisons on role perceptions and job satisfaction.
As can be seen
answers.
in this
highlights
It
section,
the
this study
importance
raises
as
of the quality of
many
questions
as
project leaders and co-workers, and of the interactions of programmer/analysts
others
as determinants of job satisfaction.
research to
examine
in
greater
It
ways
detail
it
leadership provided by
with
also points up the need for further
to
improve
productivity
and
job
satisfaction in programmer/analysts.
References
1.
Bago2zi, R.
Causal Models
in
Marketing
.
John Wiley and Sons, New York,
Bostrom,
R.P.
Role Conflict and Ambiguity:
User-Designer
Relationship.
Proceedings of the
Personnel Research Conference, I98I, 88-112.
2.
Page
2^4
Variables
Critical
Seventeenth Annual
I98I.
in
the
Computer
Predicting Organizational Effectiveness with a
Bowers, D.G. and Seashore, S.E.
Administrative Science Quarterly (I966), 238-263.
Four-Factor Theory of Leadership.
3.
if.
Cherns, A. The
783-792.
Principles
of
i
Relations
Human
Design.
Soc otechni cal
29
,
(1976).
Motivating and
Couger, D. and Zawacki, R.
5.
Wiley and Sons, New York, I98I.
Managing
Evans, M.G., Kiggundu, M.N., and House, R.J.
Motivation.
of
Job Characteristics Model
Performance 2k (1979). 35'*-38l.
6.
A
the
Personnel
Computer
,
John
Partial Test and Extension of
Organizational Behavior and Human
,
Goldstein, D.K. The Impact of Development Aids on the Systems Development
7.
I982,
Proceedings of the Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems
Process.
130-13^.
,
The Effects of Structured Development Methods
Goldstein, D.K.
CI SR
Model.
Theoretical
A
Satisfaction of Programmer/Analysts:
Cambridge, MA, I982.
on
WP
8.
the
90,
Development of the Job Diagnostic Survey.
Hackman, J.R. and Oldham, G.R.
Applied Psychology 60 (1975). 159-170.
9.
Job
MIT.
J.
of
,
10.
A
Test
Motivation Through the Design of Work:
Hackman, J.R. and Oldham, G.R.
250-279Organizational Behavior and Human Performance I6 (1976)
of a Theory.
Hackman, J.R. and Oldham, G.R.
11.
.
,
Work Redesign
Addison
,
Wesley,
Reading,
MA,
1980.
12.
in
Role Conflict and Ambiguity as Critical Variables
House, R.J., and Rizzo, J. R.
Human
Behavior
and
Organizational
Behavior.
Organizational
Model
of
a
Performance
.
2 (1972), i+67-505.
Tutorial Programming Productivity;
Jones, C. (Ed.)
IEEE Computer Society Press, Los Angeles, I98I.
13.
and
]h. Kahn, R.L., Wolfe D., Quinn R., Snoek J.D..
Studies in Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity
Stress;
15.
Kraft, P.
Programmers and Managers
,
Issues
for
Eighties
,
Organizational
Rosenthal
R.
John Wiley, New York, 1964.
,
Spr nger-Ver ag. New York,
i
the
1
1977-
in Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.)
The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction.
Locke, E.A.
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Rand McNally, Chicago. 1976.
16.
,
Application
J.
17. Martin,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, I982.
Development
Without
Programmers
,
Prentice-Hall,
Antecedents
Its
Organizational Role Conflict:
18. Miles, R.H. and Perrault, W.D.
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance jj (1976), 19-44and Consequences.
,
Page 25
19.
Psychometric Theory
Nunna)ly, J.C.
,
Second
Edition,
McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1978.
Role Conflict and Ambiguity
J.R., House, R.J. and Lirtzman, S.J.
Administrative Science Quarterly 15 (1970), 150-163'
Complex Organizations.
20. Rizzo,
in
,
Role Conflict and Ambiguity:
A
21. Schuler, R.S., Aldag, R.J. and Brief, A. P.
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 20 (1977). 111-128.
Scale Analysis.
,
Sheridan, J.E. and Slocum, J. Jr.
Between Job Satisfaction and Work
Performance
U (1975), 159-172.
22.
The Direction of the Causal
Relationship
Performance.
Organization Behavior and Human
,
22. Wanous,
J. P.
A
Causal -Correl at ional
Performance Relationship.
J.
Analysis
of Applied Psychology
of
,
^
the
(197^)
Job
.
Satisfaction
and
139-1'*'*-
An Empirical Comparison of the Michigan Four-Factor
23. Yunger, G.W. and Hunt, J.G.
Organizational
Behavior and Human
and the Ohio State
LBDQ Leadership Scales.
Performance
(1976). '5-65,
H
Page 26
3
'^aao
oosbesDi
^
G262
7
Date D ue