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ALFRED
P.
WORKING PAPER
SLOAN SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT
CAD Systems in
Mechanical Design Engineering
Evaluating the Use of
David
C Robertson
Thomas
WP
# 3196-90-BPS
J.
Allen
January 1990
MASSACHUSETTS
TECHNOLOGY
50 MEMORIAL DRIVE
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS 02139
INSTITUTE OF
CAD Systems in
Mechanical Design Engineering
Evaluating the Use of
David
C Robertson
Thomas
WP
# 3196-90-BPS
J.
Allen
January 1990
Abstract
Despite the importance of and our long history with Computer- Aided Design
(CAD) systems, our understanding of the systems is limited. The academic and
trade literature provides little guidance on what organizational actions are necessary
to
utilize
CAD
systems for
maximum
benefit.
CAD
systems are playing in the design engineering
processes of different companies, field interviews were conducted at twelve
Design engineers, managers, CAD support personnel, and others were
companies.
interviewed to understand the use of CAD systems for mechanical design
engineering.
The result of the field research is the conclusion that managers view CAD
technology in one of three ways: as physical capital, as supporting or extending
To understand the
human
or as enabling
capital,
received from
role
improvements in social capital. Further, the value
depend directly on how managers view the
the technology will
Managers who see the systems as physical capital (i.e. electronic drafting
some benefit; managers who view the systems as enabling
improvements in social capital will receive the greatest benefit from the technology.
The characteristics of each of the three views of CAD technology will be
technology.
boards) will receive
discussed, as well as the barriers that prevent companies from realizing the full
benefit of
CAD
technology.
Introducrion
on reducing product
In recent years, industry has focused a considerable effort
development
Many
times..
Design (CAD) systems
have
made
may
believe that the appropriate use of
CAD
systems- expenditures have reached SI 00
million for a single company's hardware and software.
hardware and software was over 17
billion dollars in
The market
1987 and
is
many
for
CAD/CAM
expected to grow
to
[28].
There has been some debate, however, over the benefits of
While
Many companies
aid significantly in achieving this goal.
large expenditures on
39 bilUon by 1991
Computer-Aided
organizations have
of these organizations
made
do not believe
large investments in
their
money was
CAD
CAD
systems
technology,
[13].
some
well spent. These
organizations are not seeing the benefits they expected from their systems.
In the following sections, the results of an investigation into the uses of
systems
at
CAD
twelve manufacturing companies are reported. The goals of the research
are to understand
how
the systems are used,
what
difficulties
implementing the systems, and what benefits resulted.
introduction to
CAD
literature relating to
systems
is
occurred
in
In the next section,
an
presented, followed by a brief review of the current
Computer-Aided Design.
CAD Systems
Introduction
CAD
the design
computer
systems are defined in
this
paper
to
be those computer tools that support
and design engineering processes. This
tools
definition thus includes
normally classified under Computer-Aided Design, Computer-
Aided Drafting, and Computer-Aided Engineering (CAE). The greatest use
tools
is
in the
support of mechanical design and engineering
[20];
it is
of these
that area of
application that will be addressed in the present paper.
features
and functions
CAD
found
of such software can be
systems can potentially lead to
organizations. For example,
CAD
More
inforniation about the
in [4], [20].
many important
benefits for
systems can potentially reduce the length of the
product development cycle and improve relationships with both vendors and
customers.
The
have helped
to
literature provides
many
descriptions of
reduce the product development time
shorter design cycle allows companies to respond
challenges, incorporate
newer technology
CAD
applications that
([3],[5],[6],[14],[23],[25],[27]).
more quickly
into products,
A
competitive
to
and charge higher
prices for
unique features.
CAD
its
systems can also help improve a company's links with
customers
For example, one airframe manufacturer provides major
[7], [11].
customers with a
CAD
terminal.
personnel can access the
CAD
If
a
design
the manufacturer's support personnel
make comments on
In either case,
there
is
less
a
CAD
file
problem occurs
file
and
either (1)
communicate by phone with
(who can access an
and send
communication between
the
file
identical
CAD
and
its
customers
ambiguity in the information communicated, and there
limited.
CAD
customer
is
(2)
is
is
much
faster,
less
sites.
systems, our understanding of the
In the next section, a review of the literature
systems in organizations
or
file)
electronically to the manufacturer.
the manufacturer
Yet despite the potential benefits of
is
maintenance
in the field,
travel required of the manufacturer's support personnel to
systems
vendors and
its
on the use of
CAD
presented.
Research on the Impact of
CAD
The academic and trade
Systems
literature provides little
organizational actions are necessary to utilize
CAD
guidance on what
systems
for
maximum
benefit.
The studies
"competition" studies, social
in the literature fall into three categories:
impact studies, and case studies.
In the "competition" category are studies
which
test the
performance of
CAD
systems against drafting boards. Such studies show productivity gains from 25%
350%, depending on the complexity and repetitiveness of the task
type of task.
Many managers
interviewed for
own
gains
do not always occur
some
finding for enrichment of jobs
in their
Some
skilling" [10].
results
were
changes in
studies even
[1],
study report, however, that such
systems have produced mixed
and others finding
show both
Some
that
CAD
companies report
results,
leads to "de-
These mixed
effects occurring [18], [26].
also seen in field interviews- different
jobs.
and on the
[19],
companies.
CAD
Studies of the social impact of
this
to
different
reported that the work had become more repetitive, others
stated the opposite.
In the third category of research, case study research,
companies report the
productivity gains from implementing a certain system or application.
Swerling
the
IBM
[24] reports that the
For example,
use of computer tools cut the development costs for
3081 computer by 65%. Bull
[5]
CAD/CAM
reported that
improved
productivity for product development by 150%. Chrysler estimates that computer
tools will cut the
Kodak
development cycle
[12] linked
for
new
cars
from
five years to four or less [14].
product designers and tool designers through a
common CAD
system and were able to develop the "Fling 35" camera from project
approval in 38 weeks. They estimated that
this
CAD
start to
shipping
system helped them reduce
development costs by 25%.
Unfortunately, with few exceptions, this third category of research provides
managers
little
organizations.
insight into
The studies
characteristics of the
new
how
to
in this
achieve similar gains in their
own
stream of research focus largely on the specific
technology, and ignore the other technological and
organizarional changes that must be
advantage. With few exceptions
made
to utilize the
(e.g. [15], [23], [26]),
it is
technology
not clear
to full
how
the results
achieved in these studies could be repeated in other organizations.
It is
important to note that the large gains reported in the case study literature
are hardly guaranteed-
has hurt productivity
is
less likely that the
some managers
CAD
The reason
CAD
CAD
systems
systems are mixed,
it
negative impacts would ever be reported in the literature.
Thus we cannot count on the
experiences with
the productivity gains of
If
(cf. [13]).
believe that the introduction of
literature to accurately reflect the average
companv's
systems.
convergence
for the lack of
in the social
managers' disagreement with case study results
is
that
impact studies and
CAD
systems do not
necessarily cause any changes to occur to the structure or processes of an
organization- they only enable changes. The eventual use of a
much
orgaruzational environments as
it is
complex technology, and
Different Perspectives on the
developed
of physical,
in this section will
Physical,
human, and
development process.
A
is
as
Thus
different
systems are a
their application in organizations tends to reflect the
characteristics of the organization as
The concepts
CAD
system
and
of the features of the system.
organizations can (and do) use the systems quite differently.
field.
CAD
a result of managerial decisions, individual predispositions,
much
as the features of the technology
[2], [IS].
CAD Investment
human and
social capital that are defined
and
be used to analyze the observational data from the
social capital can be seen as resources in the
good manager
will
develop and use each
to its
product
maximum
advantage. Physical Capital comprises the machines and equipment that are used to
add value
to a
product, or allow a product to be developed
more
efficiently
(i.e.
more
quickly or less expensively). The cost and value of this type of capital are relatively
well understood by managers.
of a company's workers
development, or
Human
that allow
Capital comprises the skills and knowledge
them
add value
to
develop a product more
to
to a
to
The
is
done with the
company upon
to the
is
between individuals
development or develop
implicit
assumption
a
Social Capital
that allow
product more
[9].
them
to
classes, or
employee
is
degree
worth
Social capital resides in the
add value
efficiently.
property of the individuals in an organization-
it is
As with physical and human
individuals.
that the
returning from such as experience.
third type of resource
relationships
among
they cannot quantify the
months, or even years so that they can attend seminars,
programs. This
its
if
be received. For example, managers and companies will release employees
for weeks,
more
its
Managers are usually
efficiently.
willing to pay the cost of developing this capital, even
value
product during
to a
Social capital
product during
is
not a
a property of the relations
capital, social capital
completely fungible- the development of a certain type of social capital
is
not
may
be
productive for certain tasks, but have no effect or be harmful for others. Managers
often
do understand
that the ability' of their
accomplish goals has
a great deal of value,
employees
and
that
to
work
together to
developing social capital can
return large benefits.
Many
creating liaison roles,
or adopting a matrix structure are undertaken to improve
organizational actions such as forming ad hoc teams,
social capital.
Research Method
To understand how organizations
were conducted
produced
jet
a
at
are using
technology, field interviews
twelve manufacturing companies. The twelve companies
wide range
of different products, including college rings, plastic bottles,
engines, airframes, copiers, and automobiles.
understand:
CAD
The goal
of the interviews
was
to
of the design engineering process,
•
The nature
•
The coordination demands
•
The
•
The changes
features
and
of the design engineering process,
capabilities of
CAD
occurred since the introduction of
•
The nature
systems,
and structure
in the process
of the companies'
CAD
of the organization that have
technology,
management and
their attitudes
toward
CAD
systems, and
•
The
potential future changes that are enabled
by the systems.
Interviews were conducted with a broad cross section of roles, including
design engineers, managers,
CAD
support personnel, and others.
design engineers, 32 managers, and 22
the 12 companies.
CAD
A
total of
46
support personnel were interviewed
In addition, 39 individuals
in
from other groups which assisted the
design engineer in his or her work (such as analysis or manufacturability groups)
were also interviewed. An average of two days was spent
The goal
of the interviews
and the role computer
was
tools play in
it.
to
in
each company.
understand the design engineering process
Investigating the use oi computer tools
throughout the product development process was outside the scope of the research;
it
was decided
It
was
of the ten
to focus solely
on the design engineering phase of the process.
also decided that the research should focus
on the design engineering
companies developing complex products. Significant differences were
noted between simple and complex product development processes.
Thus the
conclusions reached in this paper will not necessarily apply to the design
engineering of
all
products.
The Design Engineering Process
Many
authors have characterized the product development process as passing
through a number of stages. Myers and Marquis
[21], for
example, describe
five
stages:
and
problem solving, solution, and
recognition, idea formulation,
diffusion.
Roberts and Frohman
utilization
by designating Myers and
[22] call for six
Marquis' "solution" "prototype solution" and adding "commercial development" as
an additional, and
we might
add, a very important phase. Clark and Fujimoto
return to five phases, based on the automobile development process:
[8]
concept
generation, product planning, design engineering, process engineering, and
production.
Building on these earlier formulations,
we
will present another
characterization of the product development tailored to the current research.
goal
the
is
to build a general
many
different
model
of product
In the Recognition phase, the
phase, a design specification for a
that a prototype
built.
is
identifies a
is
design
new
translated into a set of detailed drawings so
In the Prototype
Refinement phase, defects are
to the
prototype.
After the
decided upon, the Process Engineering phase begins. In
design specifications are used to create a process design,
which may include flow
charts, plant layouts, tool
phase has been completed
Utilization
is
for a
developed. In the Design
removed and additional improvements may be made
this phase, the detailed
need
technology. In the Idea Formulation
new product
this specification
product can be
final version of the
to
development process can be described by
company
new
product or a potential application of a
Engineering phase,
development which corresponds well
complex product development processes studied.
In the products studied, the product
six phases.
The
(as
and die designs,
judged by the success of a
pilot
etc.
When
this
production run), the
and Diffusion phase begins.
This research focuses on the Design Engineering phase of the product
development process. In the next
are presented.
section, the observations
from these interviews
The
Field Interviews
The Design Engineer's Tob
Engineers in the design engineering phase of product development are often
organized functionally around either parts of the product or types of analysis
Design engineers
[17]).
responsible for
may
be assigned a part or group of parts and are then
completing the design of those parts (and are often responsible for
the parts during the later phases of product develpment).
typical
(cf.
work process
(for the
The organization
of a
companies studied) can best be described by an example.
The design engineers responsible
for the engineering of a gas turbine
engine
are usually organized around the different parts of the engine- the compressors
(which compress and heat
air),
the turbines (which drive the compressors), the
burners (which mix compressed
bearings (on which
systems
all
with fuel and ignite the mixture), the shaft and
air
rotating parts turn), the static structures,
(for circulating air, fuel
and
oil
around the engine). The engineer
responsible for the engineering of a turbine blade
Turbine group, which
is
responsible for
and the overall
all
would
report to the
manager
parts in that area of the engine.
of a
This
engineer would work with the engineers responsible for the parts adjacent to
his:
engineers in the Static Structures group, the Shaft and Bearings group, the Systems
group, and the group responsible for the next and previous stages in the engine
(possibly a
Compressor group and the Burner group).
In addition, this engineer
may
be required
to
work with many
other groups.
For example, for the design of a turbine blade, the design engineer must work with
the
Aerodynamics group, who provide
Aeromechanics group,
who
test the
Stress
and
who
test for
temperature gradients
Life Analysis groups,
airfoil
shapes
to the engineer; the
vibration properties; the Heat Transfer group,
to
who
ensure that the blade
is
cooled properly; the
check the stresses on and wear of the blades
and predict how often they would need
to
be replaced in the
field;
the Drafting
who add
group,
dimensional information and additional views
to the
design
to
prepare the design information for manufacturing; one or more testing groups,
who
are responsible for completing the necessary engine certification or qualification
tests;
which
a performance group,
specifications are met;
and
a
output of the engine
tests the
Manufacturing representative,
ensure that
to
who
ensures that the
part can be built for a reasonable cost in a reasonable period of time. Other groups,
such as a materials research laboratory,
The engineer responsible
as well as
work within
his
own
may
occasionally be involved.
must balance the demands
for a part
constraints.
The Aerodynamics group
airfoils for optimal airflow characteristics, while the
thicker, stiffer blades to
and Aeromechanics groups'
goals.
may
prefers thin
Aeromechanics group prefers
reduce vibration. The Heat Transfer group
cooling channels within the blade, which
of each group,
conflict
may
require
with both the Aerodynamics
Against each of these groups' demands must be
balanced the cost and weight of each design alternative. Finally, a design which
works well may not be durable, maintainable,
have
to
and thus may
or manufacturable,
be redesigned, necessitating changes undesirable to any or
The
overall job of the design engineer
requirements.
Unfortunately, this
is
often
is
when asked
groups.
one of balancing conflicting
done by incorporating
perspectives sequentially and iteratively converging on a solution
the design engineers,
all
to describe their job,
different
(cf. [6]).
Many
manager." They describe their job as one of coordinating a group of people
carry out the bulk of the design
time
is
and
analysis work.
of
used the term "project
Most
who
of the design engineers'
spent coordinating efforts between the different groups.
Design engineers also perform design and analysis work on
analysis performed
by the engineers was largely described
analyses to understand the feasibility of
new
as "quick
their
and
own. The
dirty"-
ideas, or to check the accuracy of results
generated by other analysis groups. The engineers do perform some design work.
10
which involves generating new design
This
possibilities.
(in
most companies)
is
the
smallest part of the design engineers' work.
CAD
Systems
CAD
technology has been applied in
many
different
ways
many
engineering work, and design engineering work was changed in
ways with
different
the introduction of
companies was due
engineered and to variations
similar systems
Two
CAD
different
systems. The divergence in the experience of
in part to the different types of products being
in the capabilities of different
were sometimes applied
different groups in the
design
to
to similar tasks in
same company doing
CAD
systems. Yet
very different ways.
similar tasks sometimes have
CAD
One
significantly different experiences with the
same
variance, the design engineers believed,
the variance in managerial attitudes.
Managers structure
the
work
deadlines for engineers.
work
to
is
is
for design engineers.
They have
They
a large voice in
carried out. Managers' attitudes about
system.
allocate resources to
determining
how CAD
cause of this
how
and
set
engineering
systems should be applied
engineering work varied widely.
CAD
Systems
as Electronic Drafting
Some managers saw
understandable, as
CAD
Boards
systems as electronic drafting boards. This
many managers gained
systems were developed and
may
their engineering experience before
not have had the time to learn the
technology. Managers of this type often view
CAD
additional (and, to them, mysterious) features.
performance improving on some
attitude similar to that of
as a drafting
They see
tasks, but declining
on
For
some
CAD
new
board with some
their subordinates'
others.
Many
one manager interviewed: they view the
drafting board with a "rr,agic button."
is
CAD
tasks, the productivity
adopt an
system
as a
advantages
11
CAD
of the
system were undeniable. The production of a slightly different version
of a previously designed product
But
this
complex
his
way
CAD
was accomplished by
magic button did not work
For tasks such as
parts.
(which often
means on
this, this
the
CAD
system very quickly.
such as the design of
for other tasks,
manager
new and
will require that the task be
done
the drafting board).
Svstems as an Engineering Support Tool
Other managers believed
different than designing
on
a drafting
board, especially
Such managers would require
three dimensions.
CAD
on a
that designing
if
system
the
is
CAD
a process very
design
is
done
in
that all design engineering be
done
in three dimensions; they stated that, while designing in three
more
difficult
and more time-consuming process,
it
dimensions
is
a
provides significant benefits.
Designing in three dimensions requires greater mental involvement with the part
to be
designed-
completely.
it
requires that the entire part be considered simultaneously and
Design
in
two dimensions allows some cheating- some important
design details can be ignored and
left for
a
downstream process
to
determine.
For example, designing the shape of a turbine blade in two dimensions
done by specifying the cross-sectional dimensions
of the blade at various points
along the blade. During construction of a prototype, a blade
connecting the cross sections with straight
decide
how
a process in
the exact
more
to
fill
lines.
which
dimensions
on
errors can be introduced.
is
When
produced by
will then
that (1) the time to
(2)
the
produce the
downstream processes
prototypes) are shortened.
designing in three dimensions,
specified,
the part of the design engineer.
-lengthened and
is
The design engineer
or smooth this prototype to produce the final surface dimensions-
shape of the turbine blade must be
effort
is
The
a
good deal
result of designing in three
first set
(e.g.
which requires
of engineering
the production
drawings
and
is
testing of
12
Some managers
for a better simulation
also stated that the analysis features of the systems allowed
and
testing of the design before
any hardware was
built.
For
example, an engineer in one automobile company built a model of half of an axle
and suspension system. He was able
rough road. The simulation
travelling over a
results
performance of an actual axle
corresponded well
The simulation provided the engineer information about the
results.
axle
to simulate the
and suspension
production of a
months
to
new
that
were
likely to
to
CAD
two days. The
areas of the
In the field, the failure of a part,
redesigned part, and retest of the part would take
complete. The use of a
completed in one
fail.
to test track
at least six
simulation allowed the same cycle to be
result
understanding of the design, and a better
was
first
the complexity of the analysis, however, the
that the design engineer
had
a better
prototype was completed. Because of
first
prototype was completed behind
schedule.
A
similar experience
was reported
in a gas turbine
certify
(as this
can occur during
flight).
The
simulated turbine blade was used to
respect.
intersection of a simulated bird with a
test the
performance of the engine
Again, the results of this simulation
first
prototype.
Systems and Communication
CAD
Some
in this
improved the engineers'
understanding of the design and the quality of the
CAD
engine manufacturer. To
an engine for commercial use, the engine must survive the ingestion of birds
systems
engineers,
in
when
many companies were used
to
improve communication.
trying to explain a design concept to others or resolve a
design conflict with others, will often coordinate with others in front of a
terminal.
The
rich representation of the design available
on the
helps ground conversations and minimizes misunderstandings.
help create a
common
CAD
CAD
terminal
CAD
systems can
language between groups with different backgrounds and
13
In fact, design engineers will often design in three dimensions, even
jargon.
designs are
still
on paper
transferred officially
if
Design engineers
to other groups.
report that a face-to-face conversation with a three-dimensional model as an aid
may be
the only
way
Another use of
adequately explain the design to others.
to
CAD
airframe manufacturer.
CAD
which a
When
the
company
This
terminal display
created a
"CAD
was projected onto
CAD
projection-TV screen.
a large
design the
"noise,"
way
drawing of the part
in question
all
parties involved
was changed,
by the engineer on the terminal. Thus,
or simplified
in
the change, with the engineer in charge of that part using
CAD
The
terminal.
to,
a large
Design Review Room,"
engineering changes to a part were requested or required,
would meet and review
added
systems as a communication aid was found in
they needed to see
One
it.
person's "detail"
and with the CAD-based design representation
all
is
all
rotated,
groups saw the
another person's
groups could see the
design in the manner they preferred.
Engineers will also use the systems to coordinate with others by accessing
others' design
between
work
Many
directly.
Engineers
parts.
systems and check the
coordination through
fit
of those parts with their
CAD
systems
Purchasing organization chooses a
geometry and
design errors are simple gaps or interferences
some companies could
in
to read'
any releases or
between these deparments
thereby
change that occurred
group responsible
was
is
in
call
and purchases them
tell
anyone
made more
CAD
library
by
a
CAD
CAD
The
in bulk.
The
which
which fasteners are preferable
in Purchasing.
The coordination
efficient.
one surveyed organization was the removal of the
for integrating the different parts of a large project.
replaced, in effect,
their
own. Another example of
characteristics of these parts are placed in a
without having
on
the use of standard parts libraries.
is
set of fasteners
engineers can access. Thus engineers can easily
A
access other parts
file
This group
containing the designs for the different parts of
u
The
the product.
to
central
CAD
file
was
ensure that the parts they designed
with the
can be responsible for understanding the
parts
around
A
by
accessible
fit
fit
and was used by
all
engineers
Each engineer
of that engineer's part with the other
and for resolving any problems that occur.
it,
example was found
similar
conceptual design of a
in
new automobile
is
done through
When
model
is
digitized
and
information
this
is
the creation of a clay model.
new model
is
sent to the Packaging
The Packaging group determines
within the automobile.
The
an automobile manufacturer.
the conceptual design of the exterior of the
other groups).
all
rest of the project.
complete, the clay
group
the placement of
(as well as
components
all
"Envelopes" for each area of the car are created, which
define the outlines of the space for the passenger compartment, luggage
compartment, engine, transmission, drive
components,
The Packaging group
models of
all
space
is
where
components, and
it
must place
now
its
it
takes
much
this
CAD
file to all
groups, defining the
model, each group
and with which group
longer to build the
major auto components. The
the
parts
CAD
transfers a
it
component envelopes
for
result,
is
as
large
a
more complete
more
and
all
specification of
under the hood leads
to less conflict
fewer misunderstandings occur. This in turn has led
relationships between groups
if
dowmstream processes. Managers downstream report
that this better definition of the space allocation
between groups,
is
three-dimensional model of
full
however,
now knows
must negotiate
needed. The productivity "impact" on the Packaging group
negative-
CAD
recently started building full three-dimensional
envelopes exactly for the groups. With
exactly
suspension, gas tank, electrical
train,
etc.
and greater productivity. Furthermore,
to better
this
automobile manufacturer believes that the overall development time will be cut
significantly.
15
Concurrent Design
Although concurrent design was not intended
managers interviewed
in
as an interview topic,
every company mentioned some effort to implement
concurrent design practices. The level of effort
is
quite different in different
companies, however. One airframe manufacturer has radically changed the
organizational structure, physical location, and design process to insure that
groups are involved
companies, while endorsing concurrent design practices, did
encourage engineers to meet
companies had
tried
more
implementing
little
the meetings
more
that
Four
often with engineers in other groups.
a policy that required the design engineer to
meet regularly with representatives from other groups, but these
dropped when
all
and design engineering process. Other
in the design
were found
to
efforts
were
be unproductive.
Discussion
Managers
in
every company surveyed exerted a large influence over the
design engineers and their use of
of the capabilities
how
and
limitations of
effectively the systems
physical,
toward
human, and
systems.
CAD
were used
Managers' attitudes and knowledge
systems were a crucial determinant of
(cf. [2], [16], [26]).
social capital will
In this section the concepts of
be used to categorize managers' attitudes
CAD systems.
Managers views
corresponding
CAD
CAD
of
to the three
systems as physical
and some
CAD
as enabling
systems can be classified into three categories
types of capital discussed earlier.
capital,
some
improvements
as supporting
Some managers saw
and extending human
capital,
in social capital.
Fhysic3l Capital
Some managers saw CAD systems
as physical capital, as electronic drafting
boards. Managers in this category (such as the manager
who saw
the
CAD
system as
16
a drafting
system.
board with a "magic button") did realize
The engineers
productivity gains from the
deprtments would openly express frustration
that
could be done withthe systems.
much more
Human
in these
son-ie
Capital
Some managers understood
that
CAD
systems could provide the design
engineer a better understanding of the design; they saw
or extending
human
capital.
Managers
in this
CAD
systems as supporting
category believed that
CAD
systems
allow the design engineer to understand the geometry and characteristics of the
design more
The detailed representation
fully.
of the design, coupled with
sophisticated rendering capabilities, allow the design engineer to understand the
design in more
detail.
Design engineers working
at a
CAD
terminal reach a
"resonance" with the design- an ability to understand the design in great detail- that
is
not as easy to achieve with a drafting board. With
CAD
systems the design
engineer has in front of him a tool that allows him to work with the design as
when
appear
it is
produced. Engineers report that the tool
that engineers are able to concentrate
The transparency
Managers
complete a
full
and
on the design and forget about the
in this category
medium
allowed
three-dimensional model
improve the engineers'
others).
less to the
ability to
will
in effect "disappears,"
of the tool enables the design engineer to devote
the design process,
it
more
tool itself.
attention to
of design.
their engineers the time necessary to
CAD
model, as they realized
understand the design (and
These managers would also allow the time necessary
to
to
it
would
communicate
it
to
perform detailed
analyses of the designs, as they gave the design engineers a better understanding oi
the characteristics of the design.
Social Capital
The
third category of
in social capital.
managers saw
The managers
m
CAD
systems as enabling improvements
the previous group, while understanding the
17
CAD
capabilities of
ability of
CAD
systems as individual support
systems
to
tools,
improve communication between individuals
groups. These managers took advantage of the ability of
"common language" between
communicated design information around
a central
Of
CAD
file
viewed
improvements
CAD systems
in the copier
and
human
and 7 viewed
capital,
This rating
in social capital.
is
as physical capital, 6
unambiguously
company
Managers were not asked
subordinates.
In every
is
viewed
CAD
CAD
or the
was always
models, checking the
fit
at least
of the
systems as enabling
the subjective
judgement
an
of different applications of
this
had
companies, but were supported by management
8:
Factors Affecting the
There are
many
systems are used and
make
management
CAD
These enablers
CAD
with the
in
some
Systems
systems for various
fall
model
in others.
how CAD
which uses the systems can be applied. These
possible the use of
referred to as enablers.
Use of
to fight
the
to others
organizational policies and actions that affect
to
CAD
one engineer building three-dimensional
model with other engineers, analyzing
Engineers such as
aid.
of the
their
systems by the managers'
with whatever tools were available, and explaining the design
as
systems as
to classify themselves.
company, there was evidence
systems. There
CAD model
CAD
based upon the interviews with the managers and
subordinates, as well as the actual use of
actions
CAD
the automobile Packaging group.
supporting or extending
Section
to act as a
the 29 managers interviewed in the ten complex product development
processes, 16
authors,
systems
company, enabling improvements
a
such as the removal of the integrating group
CAD
in different
and (where possible) used
different specialties
design review rooms. They understood that
improved layout from
did not understand the
activities,
policies
and
and are thus
into three general categories:
basic
18
enablers,
which allow the use of
enahlers,
which allow
coordination enahlers,
CAD
systems as physical capital;
and extend human
the systems to support
which allow improvements
human support
capital;
and
in social capital.
Basic Enablers
Good
very
More
how
Training:
little
Many
to teach
training classes (including those offered
an engineer
how
often, these classes provide
an introduction
by most vendors) do
technology to the tasks
to features,
but
little
those features should be used. By the time the user has learned
the basic features to his or her
forgotten.
The
best
CAD
own
job, the
and complete
to class,
Good Support A good support group
to tailor the
accessible
to
guidance on
how
to
apply
features have been
that task
by the end
keep the system operational, and will respond
system
hand.
company-specific
and must respond quickly
S low Hardware/Inefficient Software
tasks.
A
to users' requests
good support group must be
to requests.
:
hardware and software. Engineering
involvement with the work.
of the class.
will provide assistance to users in learning
:
features, will
more advanced
at
training classes require that the engineer bring a design
problem from the workplace
new
CAD
apply
to
Many
is
engineers are working on outdated
a process
which requires great mental
Having concentration broken by slow response time
can drastically affect productivity. With the cost of machine power falling rapidly
and the
cost of labor increasing,
upgrade
difficult.
their systems.
it is
Yet without
understandable
this,
Unfortunately, response time
why many companies
wait to
design in three dimensions can be too
is
not dependent on machine hardware
alone- poor response time can be caused by poorly designed software as well.
19
Ease of Use and Usefulness
:
A
system that
overly con-iplex in
is
its
that lacks functionality will not allow organizations to gain the full
CAD
execution or one
advantage of
technology.
Human Su pport
Enablers
Managerial Understanding of
capabilities
and limitations
CAD
Systems
:
managers do not understand the
If
of their subordinates' systems, they cannot adequately
judge their subordinates' behavior. The drafting board provided the manager with
instant feedback
on subordinates' progress; measuring work progress with
systems requires that the manager understand
CAD
model. This
is
much
who understand CAD
proposed
new
curve costs are
easier
CAD
if
when
progress has been
capabilities are
CAD
made on
a
known. Further, managers
technology can more accurately gauge the benefits of a
application,
and can
better guess
whether the financial and learning
justified.
Enforcing Three-dimensional Usage
:
Engineers sometimes
resist
designing
in three
dimensions. The design takes longer to complete and must be thought through
more completely; much
greater concentration
is
required in the process.
Yet
designing in three-dimensions allows other activities to occur:
•
Designing in three-dimensions with surfaces or solids provides a
A
manufacturability check.
surface or solid models,
much
it is
rule of
thumb
is:
"if it is
difficult to
design with
impossible to manufacture." In addition,
easier for an experienced
manufacturing engineer
to
it is
check a three-
dimensional model for manufacturability.
•
When
designing in three-dimensions there
engineers can
work from
the
is
less
duplication of effort-
same model. When designing
dimensions, the analysis groups must construct their
own
in
all
two
three-dimensional
20
models, which
want
also
may
to see the
be different from one another. The different groups
model from
can
all
a different angles, or see different
Or\ly with three-dimensional representation
information about the model.
•
may
groups work from the same model.
With three-dimensional design,
to others, as the design
there
is
a greater ability to explain the design
can be rotated and
(if
surfaces or solids are used) the
design can be shaded and hidden lines removed.
Coordinat ion Enablers
Required Use of
requirement for
created
strict
on
CAD One
CAD
:
use,
CAD systems.
major step that
i.e.
many companies never make
the requirement that
CAD will impose
information from the
Moving
a cost
non-CAD
the Official Design
on those
CAD
is
the
products be
systems, coupled with
systems. Those engineers
who do and who need
who
to access design
user.
Document onto
CAD When CAD
:
generate a paper document which becomes the
make
CAD
new
parts for
Often, the learning curve for
deadline pressures, will inhibit the use of
do not use
all
official
models are used
to
design document, the urge to
last-minute changes to the paper document only can be quite strong
take ten minutes to erase and change the paper, while accessing the
file
(it
may
on CAD,
changing the model and generating a new drawing can take hours). Yet
coordination through the
CAD
data
files is
much more
difficult
if all
design
information cannot be accessed, or the design information on the system
is
not
current.
One Model
:
Different groups
may need
to see the
design in different ways.
Returning to the turbine blade example, an Aerodynamics group
is
concerned with
21
airflow lines, while an Aeromechanics group
A
surfaces.
strategy
and more prone
less efficient
use, or
the initial
if
which requires
model
is
to errors
Adding
Intelligence to the Design
amount
information to those
effective.
CAD
File
file
transfer in
who must
quickly.
if
a single
If
model
all to
is
own model
translated for
is
much
all to
access.
there exists an organizational
norm
that the
access
:
A
file
it,
will provide a richer source of
and thus make coordination through
naming convention
CAD
for design data files can aid
design data by engineers, and thus enables coordination by
some
instances.
Standardized Use of Levels
coordination.
:
CAD
Naming Conventions
in the location of the
CAD
than
its
of information possible about the design should be placed in the
with the geometry, then the
more
concerned with cross-sectional
complete enough for
greatest
file
is
each group construct
that
Naming
:
Naming
CAD
systems
for
levels helps other engineers locate the parts of interest
Further, standards for
geometric information
of levels can aid in the use of
is
where design data
is
placed and where non-
placed can aid in the understanding of another engineer's
work.
Network Transparency The
:
current
work
area
is
ability to easily access others'
important to using
Incompatibility of systems and data
communication networks can
CAD
fUes.
all
CAD
files,
work and bring
it
into the
systems for coordination.
or technical problems with
affect the engineers' ability to
work with
others'
22
Presence of a
CAD
implementation of
the presence of a
Design Review
CAD
CAD
:
characteristic of the
technology that allows improvements
design review room- a room with a
to a projection-screen television.
coordinate work
Room Another
Such rooms are helpful
in
CAD
using
in
coordination
is
terminal connected
CAD
to
across groups (as discussed earlier).
Conclusions
There are four specific observations that are important
some
there are
significant production-related benefits of
CAD
to
emphasize.
First,
Even
systems.
if
CAD
systems are used solely as electronic drafting boards, some productivity gains will be
achieved.
Second,
common
CAD
systems,
language or
set of references.
and interdependent groups
The combination
when used
as
This
to conversations, create a
common
language allows differentiated
communicate about design-related
to effectively
of a face-to-face meeting
representation of the design lead to a
an aid
and the
medium
of
availability of a rich
communication
that
and
is
issues.
flexible
both
unique and powerful.
Third, while
the
way
CAD
systems
engineering work
is
done,
The manager who believed the
CAD
be directly responsible for some changes
many changes
initial sales
work
is
CAD
systems can lead
to large
it
CAD
CAD
gateway innovation- an innovation
CAD
that
is
in productivity, but
to
only
CAD
allows them to be used as a
important for the other innovations
systems should be evaluated for their
design changes, and not expected
systems.
takes for engineers to produce
improvements
medium
in
systems was misled.
reorganized to take advantage of the features of the systems.
systems' effectiveness as a communication
allows.
are only enabled by
pitches for
systems do not necessarily decrease the time
drawings.
the
may
ability' to
enable productive
automatically cause changes.
it
if
23
Finally, the
what appear
to
most productive changes enabled by
be productivity losses
improve coordination
result in
More
more
w^ork
is
The use
level.
earlier,
and the
productivity gains downstream
It is
CAD
of
and more
result
that
is
may
(e.g. in
Many companies
other group
to
may
being resolved early.
conflicts
it
take longer to complete
some
to occur, as the
the prototype refinement phase) can be
may
lead to significant
downstream
are experimenting with or have
gains.
implemented concurrent
design methods. Concurrent design practices force the design engineer
other groups
systems
imjxjrtant that these apparent productivity "losses" be recognized as
an "investment," as they
all
entail
in the early stages of the design engineering process
issues being raised early
done
group
may
systems
Schedules should be adjusted to allow these changes
initial tasks.
significant.
at the
CAD
when making
to
work with
design decisions. Rather than working with each
sequentially and iteratively converging on a solution, a concurrent
design process will require the design engineer to involve
design decisions. The communication demands are thus
all
other groups in
much
greater.
design has some dear benefits: a wider involvement in the design
engineers' understanding of other groups' specialties and
(2)
(1)
all
Concurrent
increases
changes engineers'
relationships with other groups. Instead of only seeing a small part of the process,
individuals from different groups are invited into the central flow of the product
development process. This makes the
tense,
and
conflicts that inevitably occur
much
less
easier to resolve.
CAD
systems have the potential
to
within the product development process.
improve the
If
CAD
design information, concurrent design meetings
the entire process
may
be more
design information enabled by
inefficient to
be worthwhile.
effective.
CAD
ability to coordinate
systems are used
to
may become more
Without the
effective
systems, concurrent design
work
communicate
productive, and
communication of
may
be too
24
CAD
systems will not cause any major changes by themselves, but
changes that can lead to significant productivity gains.
CAD
systems
may
systems are used
limitations of
if
is
CAD
they are to see a
not be sufficient to enable
important.
may
enable
Further, the simple use of
some changes-
way
the
Managers must understand the
in
which the
capabilities
and
systems, as well as the nature of the changes the systems enable,
full
return on their
CAD
systems investment.
25
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