^i^CHt^
V
.^
fUBRARIESk ^
\^
^
IDEC
211M9
Determinants of Employees
Affective Response to the Use of
Information Technology in
Monitoring Performance
John Chalykoff
90s: 88-043
Management
Sloan School of
Manage
in
the 1990s
Determinants of Employees'
Affective Response to the Use of
Information Technology in
Monitoring Performance
John Chalykoff
90s: 88-043
February 1988
Sloan
®
WP#
1992-88
1988 John Chalykoff
Management in the 1990s
Sloan School of Management
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
DEC 2
1
1989
.
DETERMINANTS OF EMPLOYEES' AFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO THE
USE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN
MONITORING PERFORMANCE
Abstract
The results of this study show that employees' affective
response to computer-aided monitoring is largely predicted by
supervisory approaches to the use of the performance information.
Specifically, many of the factors previously found to influence
responses to performance appraisal sessions in general, most
are
also predictive
in this
notaoly the nature of feedback,
context
I
would like to thank Thomas Kochan,
N.
Robert McKersie,
Venkatraman, and John Van Maanen for their comments on an earlier
draft of this paper.
This research was funded by the "Management In The 1990s"
research program,
Sloan School of Management,
Massachusetts
Institute of Technology
,
Introduction
monitoring
Computer-aided
employees
of
in
office operations has become the subject of intense
critics,
on
the
one
view
hand,
debate.
with
rife
as
it
large-volume
The
abuse--
denigrating to employees and an invasion of privacy (Nussbaum and
duRivage,
Shaiken,
1986;
use
other, view its
largely
1987;
to 5,
essential
as
beneficial
9
conducting
to
instruct them in their work (Westin, et. al.
1985).
studies,
Other
than
anecdotal
business and
in terms of its capability to
employees
to
Proponents, on the
1986).
evidence
1985; Manoocheheri
and
a
handful of case
there are few data to support either claim.
as many
Currently,
as
28
million
Americans
use computer
terminals in their jobs.
Although no precise data are available,
it is estimated that one
third
of
terminals
the
monitored (Hickey,
1987).
use is expected to
increase substantially
prediction, the
impact of
are computer
Moreover, the number of terminals in
by 1990.
computer monitoring
Given this
on the workplace
deserves considerable attention.
While the debate over
monitoring
has
served
to sensitize
people to the potential of information technology to alter office
work radically, our current
debate places
in sharp
relief our
knowledge pertaining to the
office settings.
inability to
adequately inform this
lack of theory and empirical
impact of
information technology in
Approaches
Alternative
Conceptualizing
To
The
Effects
Of
Monitoring
Although monitoring has been the svibject
has been made to construct
little effort
the concept of control
literature
generations
developed
been
Information technology
technology.
dimensions to
1962;
However,
mechanisms
control
of
Scott,
1986).
has
control
on
and
(Blau
Eisenhardt,
1977;
One conceptual
by some organizational theorists has focused on
approach favored
,
theoretical framework
a
the workplace.
for assessing its actual role at
Ouchi
of intense debate,
Edwards,
embedded
on previous
physical
in
settings adds new
in office
past conceptualizations
conceptual
the
based
1979;
of technological control.
This technology is not only capable of initiating and pacing work
(Blau and Scott,
1962;
1979), but also of monitoring and
Edwards,
evaluating work.
Others have
attempted
McGuire
1975;
Ouchi,
technology
information
behavioral control.
a
and/or behavioral
organization's output
and
draw
to
1977,
it
distinction
between an
control strategy (Ouchi
Eisenhardt,
1986).
With
possible to intensify and expand
is
Not only is it possible to assess employees'
behaviors, but also behaviors that in the past were
general work
assessed informally,
if
all
at
--
employee
interactions with
clients
None
of
the
previous
strategies have developed
actual use
efforts
testable
to organizational
to
conceptualize
propositions
or individual
control
relating their
outcomes.
Instead,
variables
explained
be
to
control
by
as dependent
contrast,
In
control strategy requires
a
strategies
the natvire of technology or the
environment.
organization's task
effects of
treated
have
previous models
a
examining the
model that is capable of
predicting how individuals respond to various control strategies.
Thus,
needed
new approach is
a
literature on
control to
assess the actual impacts of computer-
One promising approach is to cast the study of
aided monitoring.
computer-aided
monitoring
within
appraisal since this literature
and b)
a)
the
framework of performance
has long debated
performance on
assessing employees'
behaviors,
beyond existing
goes
that
the issue of
the basis of outputs and/or
is focused on the individvial- level of analysis.
Moreover, research on performance appraisal offers
analytical
model
evaluation
process
because
both
has
characteristics, and
it
that the
suggests
potential
that
a
the
process
takes
positive the employee
'
s
on
sharper
monitoring and
control
feedback
and
response of employees will differ
depending on whether control or feedback dominates.
more
a
That is, the
feedback characteristics, the more
response is expected
to be.
This paper
will develop and test the power of performance appraisal/feedback
research to provide
a
theoretical
framework
by
which
one can
assess the consequences of computer-aided monitoring.
Method
To do
this, data were collected in twenty computerized tax-
collection offices of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).
These
tax-collection offices are collectively referred to by the IRS as
their Automated Collection System (ACS).
First,
in two stages.
total of 91 interviews were conducted in
a
five of these offices with employees,
Second,
developed and
administered
employees
950
to
in
Seven
ACS.
questionnaires were returned.
forty completed
hundred and
supervisors, and managers.
based largely on the interviews was
survey instrument
a
The data were collected
Both
methods inform the analysis in this paper.
Hypotheses
Prescriptions
Appraisal
rely
sessions
feedback
performance
Reinhardt,
effective
the
for
heavily
literature
This
1985).
conduct
on
the
(Walther
Performance
of
findings
Taylor,
and
the
of
1983,
literature has focused on the factors
associated with recipients' perception of feedback, acceptance of
feedback,
1979).
desire
and
to
respond
Summarizing the literature,
broad categories
characteristics, and
Message
1)
feedback message are:
performance
of
Ilgen,
et.
(
al.,
Ilgen et.
al.,
suggest three
1)
feedback.
feedback
message
characteristics,
2)
source
recipient characteristics.
3)
Characteristics:
frequency
feedback
that influence the effectiveness of performance
These are:
feedback.
to
are
Factors that influence the perceived
the
In
timing,
general,
correlated
the sign,
2)
positive
with
and 3) the
reactions
to
that
is
feedback
presented with little time delay, is positive in nature, and that
6
There is
is frequent.
the
the
feedback,
moderated
by
strong suspicion that the
a
although
better,
recipient
the
therefore
as unnecessary
and
However, field
studies suggest
issue in most settings,
(Wexley,
In the
al.,
even
was:
receptive
less
feedback is
seldom given
1984).
they
as
wrong, not what was good."
particular behaviors--
wanted.
A
commonly voiced
only tell you what you did
Thus:
HI:
Immediacy of feedback has a positive and
significant
effect
on satisfaction with
computer-aided monitoring.
H2
Frequency of feedback has a positive and
significant
effect
on
satisfaction with
computer-aided monitoring.
H3
:
:
to it.
that this is not likely to be an
[supervisors]
"They
People with
were frequently monitored, they did not
receive as much feedback
criticism
be
associate with
they
though
experience.
to be
some employees in ACS noted that delayed
interviews,
feedback was difficult to
that
will
as performance
1979; Taylor et.
expected
is
likely to perceive frequent feedback
knowledge are
relevant job
task
s
this
more frequent
Sign of the feedback has a positive and
satisfaction with
significant
effect
on
computer-aided monitoring.
Source Characteristics:
When
the primary
source of performance
feedback is the immediate supervisor, the salient characteristics
are
the
extent
to
which
the
employee
perceives
him/her as
possessing the technical expertise to judge performance behaviors
accurately,
extent
and the
supervisors.
In
settings
field
measured by asking employees
the
employee
trusts the
the trust construct has been
direct qviestions
supervisor (Ilgen.
trust their
much they
which
to
pertaining to how
et.
1981),
al.
or in
theoretical writings by some measure of the employees' perception
of
supervisor's
the
leadership
--
style
for
example,
consideration behavior (Kerr and Slocum, 1982).
supervisory
In the interviews,
procedures used
laws and
expertise (knowledge
was mentioned
in ACS)
carrying out effective monitoring reviews.
that
monitoring
the
neither
was
depended on how supervisors
with
conclusions
the
1987; Westin,
employees in
et.
nor bad in itself, but
This
it.
is consistent
case studies on this issue (Attewell,
A
1985).
al.,
ACS was
only to control you,
of
as critical to
Employees also noted
good
approached
of tax
familiar
comment
supervisors abused
that some
it,
by some
"use it
rather than develop you."
Thus:
H4:
Supervisory expertise has a positive and
satisfaction with
significant
effect
on
computer-aided monitoring.
H5:
Supervisory consideration
behavior has a
on
positive
and
significant
effect
with
computer-aided
monitoring.
satisfaction
Recipient Characteristics:
(Rotter,
1956),
Locus
of
Control
and age have been shown to affect the recipients'
reception of feedback.
respect to
Individuals'
age is
Ilgen
suggests
that
the
finding with
most probably due to the positive correlation
8
.
between age and experience, or job
tenure.
Thus, he recommends
studies should include some measure of experience or
that future
tenure
Based on Ilgen, et.
(1979).
al.
tenure
of employees
expected to be negatively correlated with the frequency
might be
of feedback.
However, prior literature gives no
tenure
be
will
negatively
performance feedback.
suggested as
But,
correlated
with
indication that
satisfaction with
in the interviews in
associated with
ACS,
tenure was
lower general satisfaction levels.
In the opinion of many supervisors,
the most difficult employees,
those that complained the most, were those that had been around a
long time.
On the other hand,
the more
some of
experienced employees
countered that
supervisors just didn't know how to manage.
regard to
the
effect
operating
in
of
combination.
expertise, versus that of
routine,
tenure,
often
stressful
balance, tenure in ACS
For
the
job
several
example.
supervisor,
factors
the
are likely
employee's job
the
and
toll
overtime (collecting taxes).
is expected
to be
With
of a
On
negatively related to
satisfaction with computer-aided monitoring. Thus:
H6:
tenure
has
Employee
significant effect
on
computer-aided monitoring.
In addition
to the above factors,
feedback is suggested as important.
incidents should
negative
satisfaction
a
and
with
specific support for the
That
is,
specific critical
be included in the feedback session so that the
employee understands the basis for the
Leskovec
,
1957
)
technology
Information
allows
specific employee behaviors or
basis
evaluation
for
assessment (Berger, 1983;
for
critical
should
be
the
measurement
incidents.
Thus,
seen as less subjective.
of
the
One
employee stated that she came to work in ACS because:
The performance evaluation is more objective.
depend on anyone's perception of
It doesn't
You can argue on it, but
what you're doing.
it's right there for you to see and for them
to see.
However, other employees disagreed that it was an objective
Supervisory favoritism
process.
was often mentioned as was the
"central tendency" of the performance ratings -- "everyone gets a
--
three"
on
a
five
point
behaviors are made explicit,
While
scale.
criteria
actual
the
desired employee
used
by the
supervisor were often left unspecified. Thus:
H7
:
Clarity of rating criteria has a positive and
satisfaction with
significant effect
on
computer-aided monitoring.
On the
expected to
the absolute
remote
basis of
be significant
and
and
2)
two additional factors are
predictors:
1)
percentage
their
a
variable measuring
employees' ac tual percentage of
difference between
monitoring
monitoring',
the interviews,
employees'
of
base-line
desired
remote
attitudes
toward
telephone monitoring.
supervisors sit
In side-by-side
monitoring,
next to the employees while monitoring the
supervisors
call.
remote monitoring,
In
monitor from their office, usually without
employees' knowledge that they are being monitored.
10
The
variable
first
larger
the
Thus,
because
discrepancy
the
the
method
of
is decided by management in
or remote,
monitoring, side-by-side,
ACS.
included
is
between
managerial
practice and employee desires, the less positive will be employee
perceptions of
attitudes,
is
a
measure
err.j.
of employees'
variable, base-line
basic orientation toward
items tapping
the extent to
^oyee agrees or disagrees that monitoring:
good tool if used properly, 2)
privacy, and
second
The
process.
It is made up of three
monitoring.
which the
the
3)
invasion of
is an
1)
is a
an employee's
that supervisors should not be allowed to do any
monitoring.
H8
:
H9
:
The absolute difference between actual and
desired remote monitoring has a negative and
significant effect
on
satisfaction with
computer-aided monitoring.
base-liue
attituies
favorable
toward
monitoring have a positive and significant
effect on satisfaction with computer-aided
monitoring.
Measurement of Variables and Model
A
list
of
questionnaire
from
constructs and
observed
which
indicators,
they
were
and
questions
1)
variables
constructs --
nine exogenous
one endogenous construct in the model.
represents
a
and
supervisory
structural
unobserved
expertise,
11
from the
derived, are shown in the
There are 18 indicators comprising the
Appendix.
(Figure
the
all
equation
constructs.
The model
system,
Four
with
of the
supervisory consideration
FIGURE
1
STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODEL OF SATISFACTION
WITH TELEPHONE MONITORING
5i=o
84
=
8n
=0
8,3
8,4
12
base-line
employees'
behavior,
with
monitoring, and satisfaction
latent
derived
constructs
attitudes
telephone
maximum-likelihood
1985).
capability
to
VI,
procedure
estimation
principal
A
using LISREL
was tested
strength
of
simultaneously
telephone
monitoring
--
are
manifest (observed) variables.
from
The remaining constructs are each measured by
The model
toward
a
single variable.
a
full-information,
(Joreskog
program
LISREL
the
estimate
and Sorbom,
is its
measurement
the
model
(loadings of observed variables
on
structural equation
causal relationship among latent
model (The
latent
constructs)
and the
constructs, and the unexplained variance).
Reliability Assessment Of The Multiple Variable Constroicts
The associated t-values for
and significant
all large
variables explain
latent constructs
(Table 1).
significant
a
the measurement
the composite
constructs
Linn,
supervisory
behavior
(Werts,
expertise
0.94,
computer-aided
constructs have
was
base-line
monitoring
the variation
in the
These parameter estimates can
they indicate.
be used to calculate
the
indicates that the
This
amount of
parameters are
measure reliability
and
0.90,
Joreskog,
(p^
1974).
supervisory
P^
)
of
for
consideration
attitudes 0.76, and satisfaction with
0.91.
acceptable trait
These
variance.
indicate
that
In addition,
the
these
results are the same as those derived from the more commonly used
index, Cronbach alpha (Table,
2).
13
TABLE
Maximum
Likelihood Estimates for the Model In Fiqure
Causal paths
Standardized
Standc
1
1
t-Value
Squared Multiple
Correlations!
Yl
Y2
Y3
Y4
Y5
Y6
Y7
Y8
YIO
Parameters for Measurement
As
h
h
As
As
A,2
A,3
Al4
Al5
Ai6
A,7
Ai8
var{55)
var(86)
var(57)
var(58)
var( Sg)
var(5i2)
Var(5i3)
Var(8u)
Var(G,)
Var( C2)
Var(C3)
Var(C4)
Mode
00
"O
o
in
'JO.
.2 o>
> c
si
rs/
c
(0 a;
<
c
»/»
o
c
a
15
•X
i^c
:
n o
»-
re
^*
E
o
E
rsi
.
.
Support For Hypotheses
The coefficient of determination for the structural equation
R^
was .466 (Table,
The hypothesis about the
predictors.
of feedback
was strongly
of the
the immediacy
effect of
supported Yi=.292
the coefficients.
the largest of all
percent
47
to
variable was explained by this set of
the dependent
variance in
close
Thus,
1).
This was
(t=7.47).
was little support
There
for the influence of frequency of feedback, Y2=.066 (t=1.79).
It
was in the expected direction, but not statistically significant.
The
influence
direction and was
However,
the
clear
of
statistically
while
¥4=-. 053
characteristics were
between
Supervisory consideration
(t=5.20).
influence
as
supervisor
t=2 42
.
)
and desired
was not
supervisory
Both
¥5=. 117
(
direction,
(t=-1.50).
supported,
¥3=. 089
actual
expected
the
in
in the expected
was
significant,
difference
absolute
remote monitoring,
significant,
criteria
rating
and Ye=.265
(t=2.74),
had over two times as much
Employee
expertise.
tenure
had no
influence on satisfaction with telephone monitoring ¥7=-. 009 (t=The sign of
0.23).
significant, Y8=.165
line
attitudes
was
the feedback
positive and
coefficient was
(t=4.19).
The influence of favorable base-
positive,
but
not
significant,
Y9=.048
(t=1.20)
there
Thus,
hypotheses.
variable
these
consideration
In
was
order
were:
behavior,
statistical
of
their
immediacy
sign
of
support for five of the nine
influence
on
the dependent
of the feedback,
the
feedback,
supervisory
supervisory
.
and clear rating criteria.
expertise,
Discussion
results
The
consistent
with
interviews
in
expertise
and
predictors.
prior
Moreover
Supervisory
correlated
with
six
characteristics, supervisory
behavior,
were
constructs
are
behavior
significantly
was
significantly
the eight remaining constructs^
supervisory expertise was significantly
2
significant
the other independent constructs (Table
consideration
of
the whole
on
source
these
many of
is
employees'
performance feedback and the
consideration
correlated with
2).
The
that
on
theory
ACS.
show
monitoring
computer-aided
with
satisfaction
analysis
the
of
correlated with
Table
a
correlation of
.07
In
is
3,
statistically significant at
p^.OS. Given
that the standard error of r is variant to
sample size (and thus in large samples, small
effect
sizes
will
be
statistically
significant), it is important to take into
account the power of the test.
The power of
the test is the probability of
rejecting the
hypothesis
null
and accepting that the
With N=532,
and r=.07,
phenomenon exists.
the power of the test is .65 (Cohen, 1969).
That is, in 35 times out of 100 we would
accept the null hypothesis.
In the present
research a conservative power value of .99
With a power level of .99 and
was adopted.
N=532, the threshold for a significant
r is
With the above
.17 (one
directional test).
values we will reject the null hypothesis 99
times out of 100.
Thus, we can have some
confidence that the effect is there when
discussing correlations of .17 or above.
Therefore, correlations of under .17 will not
be considered significant by the standard set
above
17
,
while
five of
.
confirms
This
these.
the
interview
data
of
telephone
monitoring
perceptions
employees'
approach
influenced by the
monitoring
the
to
which
suggest that
are
strongly
taken
by their
supervisor
important
Most
indicators of approach is the
these
among
central
to
explaining employees' satisfaction with telephone monitoring.
If
immediacy
all
independent
other
the
immediacy
equation,
construct
This
feedback.
the
of
constructs
were
is
out
left
of the
would account for 21 percent of
of feedback
important to an
Also
the variation in the dependent construct.
effective approach to monitoring are the sign of the feedback and
clear rating criteria.
monitoring,
approach
correlation
negative
suggests
constructs
desired
its
that
monitoring
remote
taken
by
the
difference
the
will
be
supervisor
between
small
where
actual
the
and
overall
is perceived as reasonable.
not generally
However, these correlations are
independent
other
with
did not
computer-aided
with
satisfaction
influence
significantly
construct
monitoring
remote-difference
While the
large,
suggesting
that other factors are related to this variable.
Tenure
had
monitoring.
no
influence
However,
it
on
was
with telephone
satisfaction
negatively
correlated
with
supervisory expertise, although not significant with immediacy of
the
feedback,
clear
rating
consideration behavior (Table 2).
criteria,
supervisory
Though tenure was the variable
suggested by theory and supported by the case
18
and
interviews, a test
for the influence of other demographic variables (age, education,
and sex) on satisfaction with computer-aided
None
and
monitoring
appears
and
not
.
characteristics'
Base-line
characteristics,
were
construct
this
Moreover,
nor
on
office-level
any of
was
significantly
not
While
the other independent constructs.
are unaffected
by being
where monitoring is taking place, it appears to be
in situations
independent
factors
with
predictive of the dependent
not
it is unlikely that base-line attitudes
quite
satisfaction
.
attitudes
correlated with
Thus,
sex.
r=.109 for
for age,
contingent on approaches to its use,
be
to
individual
on
variable.
for
r=- 007
education,
r=-.039
significant,
were
these
of
monitoring was run.
both
of
indicating
approaches
correlation with tenure,
toward telephone
satisfaction
r7
,
= 02
.
its
to
,
monitoring are
with
a
Indeed,
use.
suggests that
not
monitoring,
and
its
these attitudes
fvinction of
time on the
job.
Managerial Implications
There are
results
of
a
the
few managerial implications that follow from the
study.
First,
managerial
efforts
improving the effectiveness of computer-aided monitoring
The importance of office-level context was
tested in this research by using a sheffe
There were essentially no
pairwise test.
among the twenty
significant differences
offices for all of the constructs in the
Moreover, there were no differences
model.
based on a fixed effects model.
19
aimed at
need to
characteristics of
focus on
Tenure,
age,
influence on
the appraisal
and education of
sex,
their satisfaction
or feedback process.
employees had
no significant
with computer-aided monitoring;
nor were there any significant differences by office.
This
Organizational
unimportant.
performance
subject
monitoring,
organizational
the
employees
However, notwithstanding
general rules
affective
computer-aided
responses
to
determined
largely
by
that
desirable
are
etc.,
level
is
to the uses of
pertaining
rules
informing
information,
to
that
imply
not
does
and
they
are
necessary.
and policies, employees'
monitoring appear to be
characteristics
the
monitoring and
timely
manner is very
of
evaluation process.
Receiving performance
important to
employees.
and
was
It
a
the
strongest
computer-aided monitoring.
satisfaction with
reviews
feedback in
feedback
automated offices,
are
central
the timing
to
of the
the
predictor of
Since performance
work
situation in
feedback appears to carry
more weight in employee assessments of the process than is likely
the case in work situations where performance reviews take
to be
place less often.
The importance of feedback
a
point
repeatedly made in the performance appraisal literature.
That is, there is
of
process characteristics suggests
performance
a
need for training
reviews.
This
is
reviewers in
particularly
automated offices where computer-aided monitoring is
the
work
situation.
The
results
20
the handling
salient
in
integral to
of this study suggest that
respond
employees
positively
the extent
monitoring to
the
to
that
a
use
of
computer-aided
positive developmental approach
is fostered.
The finding with regard to base-line attitudes suggests that
employees
predispositions
have
toward
monitoring that are not
influenced by its actual use, nor by their length of
This indicates
job.
that there may be
individuals and the job
that might
a
time on the
poor fit between these
better be
assessed early in
the selection process.
Conclusions
The results presented in this paper show that computer-aided
monitoring can
drawn
from
be
performance
Approaches to the
similar
to
strongly
reviews is
conceptualized
use
supervisory
suggests
that
and
appraisal
information
of
practices
the
of
essence
explained
and
feedback
technology
the
of
by hypotheses
past.
research.
have effects
Thus,
this
effective performance
the same whether they are carried out in automated or
non-automated work settings.
21
.
References
"Big Brother and the Sweatshop:
Computer
Attewell, P.
(1987)
Surveillance in the Automated Office."
Sociological
Theory 5. 87- 99.
.
Berger,
"The
(1983)
L.
(CRPA)."
Performance Appraisal
21-32.
Administration 3,
Promise of Criterion-Referenced
Review of Public Personnel
,
and W.R.
Scott
Francisco:
Chandler.
Blau, P.M.
Cohen,
(1959)
J.
Sciences
.
Formal Organizations
(1962)
.
San
Statistical Power Analys i s for the Behavioral
Academic Press
New York:
Edwards, R.C.
Contested Terrain:
(1979)
Th e Transformation of
Workplace in the Twentieth Century.
New York:
Basic
the
Books
"Control:
Organizational and Economic
Eisenhardt, K.M.
(1985)
Approaches." Management Science 31, 2, 134-149.
,
Hickey, J.B.
(1987) "VDT Monitoring Sparks Work Privacy Debate."
Work
November, 12, IJ,, 1-2.
In America
,
"Consequences
Ilgen, D.R., CD. Fisher, and M.S. Taylor
(1979)
Individual
Feedback
on
Behavior in Organizations."
of
Journal of
Applied Psychology 64, 4, 349-371.
,
Boeschen (1981)
R.B. Peterson, B.A. Martin and D.A.
"Supervisor and
Subordinate Reactions to Performance
Organiz ational
and Human
Appraisal
Sessions."
Beh avior
Performance 28, 311-330.
Ilgen, D.R.
,
LISREL VI:
Analysis of
Sorbom
Joreskog, K.G.
and D.
(1985)
of Maximum
Linear Structural Relationships b y
the M ethod
Scientific Software, Inc.
Mooresville, IN:
Likelihood
.
Slocum,
Jr.
"Controlling the
S.
and J.W.
(1981)
In Handbook
of
Performance of People in Organizations."
Nystrom and W.H. Starbuck (eds.),
Organizational Design
P.C.
Oxford University Press.
London:
Kerr,
,
Leskovec, E.W.
"A
Guide for
(1967)
Appraisal." Personnel Journal
Manoochehri.
G.H.
Discussing the Performance
.
46.
150-152.
"Automation.
(1985)
22
Job
Design
and
Productivity of High Volume Office
Systems Management 36, J^, 14-19.
Operations."
Journal of
.
duRivage
and V.
(1986)
Nussbaum,
K.
Mismanagement by Remote Control."
56, 16-20.
Review
"Computer Monitoring:
Business and Society
.
"The Relationship between Organizational
W.G.
(1977)
Structure and Organizational Control."
Administrative
Quarterly 22, 95-113.
Science
Ouchi
,
,
Maguire
"Organizational Control:
and M.A.
Ouchi, W.G.
(1975)
Functions." Administrative Scie nce Quarterly
Two
20, 559,
569.
"The State of Performance Appraisal:
Reinhardt, C.
A
(1985)
Literature Review." Human Resourc e Planning
8, 2, 105,
110.
Rotter,
J.B.
Versus
Monographs
,
"Generalized Expectancies for Internal
(1965)
External Control of Reinforcement."
Psychological
80, 1, Whole No. 609.
"A Threat to
Dignity? When the Computer
Shaiken, H.
(1987)
Runs
the Office."
The New York Times March 22.
.
Taylor, M.S., CD. Fisher, and D.R. Ilgen
"Individuals'
(1984)
Reactions
to Performance
Feedback in Organizations:
A
K.M.
Control
Theory Perspective."
In
Rowland and G.R.
Ferris
(eds.).
Research
in Per sonnel
and Human Resource
Management 2, 81-124, Greenwich, CT:
JAI Press.
,
Walther, F. and S. Taylor
Spark Performance."
Can
(1983)
Feedback Program
"An Active
Ad mi nistrator June. 107-
Personne l
,
149.
R.L. Linn
and K.G.
Joreskog
"Interclass
(1974)
Reliability
Estimates:
Testing Structural Assumptions."
Educational and Psychologica l Measurement, 34, 25-33.
Werts. C.E.,
Westin. A.F.,
Lehman (1984)
H.A. Schweder,
M.A. Baker
and S.
The
Changing Workplace:
to
Man aging the People.
A Gui de
New
Organizational and Regulatory Aspects o f Office Techno logy
York:
Knowledge Industry Publications, Inc.
.
Wexley, K.N.
In
"Performance Appraisal and Feedback."
(1979)
S.
Columbus,
OH:
Grid
Kerr (ed.) Organizational Beha vior.
Publishing.
9 to
5
(1986)
Cleveland:
"Computer Monitoring and Other Dirty Tricks."
National Association of Working Women.
APPENDIX
List of
questions used for
all
variables in the
model
Timeliness
XI With regard to the feedback
I
receive from telephone monitoring,
my
supervisor presents
it
me
to
personally, the
same day
(1
=
Almost
Never; 7 = Almost Always)
Frequency
to your performance on telephone monitoring
X2 How often are you provided with information pertaining
(1
= Never, 7 = Daily)
Rating Criteria
X3
there are clear criteria set out regarding what
"In this call site
is
necessary to get an outstanding rating on telephone monitoring reviews"
= Strongly Disagree, 7 = Strongly Agree)
(1
Remote Difference
X4 There are different approaches to telephone monitoring. In some call sites all of it is done on a remote basis
(from supervisor's desk), while in other call sites it is done on a side-by-side basis (supervisor sits next to the
employee). Other sites use both methods. Please indicate in percentage terms, the relative use of therse methods by
your supervisor. If only one method is used, please allocate all 100 percent to it.
METHOD
PERCENT
%
Remote monitoring
%
Side-by-side monitoring
TOTAL
%
100
The same question was asked
for their percentage of either
method that they
desired.
Supervisory experience
X5 My
supervisor,
x6 Has a
knows
a great deal about the technical side of
good unders'^anding
of the oro^edures
i
use
ir
my job
my work
Supervisor's consideration behavior
X7 Provides appreciation and encouragement
X8
Gives recognition for a job well
X9
Is
I
= Not At
(1
done
concerned that grow and get ahead professionally
All
Accurate; 7 = Extremely Accurate)
Tenure
X10 Length
of time
m this call
site. (1 =
to
3
months, 6 = over 24 months)
Sign
X1
1
Overall, the feedback
I
receive
mainly
is
1
Positive, 2
Negative
Base-line Attitudes
XI
2
Telephone monitoring
is
a
XI
3
Telephone monitoring
is
an invasion of an employee's privacy
good
tool
if it is
used properly
XI 4 Supervisors should not be allowed to do any telephone monitoring(l= Strongly Disagree;
7 =
Strongly Agree)
Satisfaction with telephone monitoring
How satisfied or disatisfied are you with the follwing items pertaining to telephone monitoring
y The amount of feedback you receive
y2 The way in which feedback is shared
1
y3 The
constructiveness of the feedback
y4 The frequency of
the feedback(l = very dissatisfied,
GSiiQ
u5l
7 =
very satisfied)
24
m/iu
'"""*RiEs
II
3
^oao oosaa^oi
Date Due
/ilY
DEC 29
MAY 2 3
1992
MIT
UBRIBIES
D'JJ,L,|,
111
3
1060 00566E01
1