TACHISTOSCOPIC TRAINING FOR
BEGINNING TYPING STUDENTS
IN A SECONDARY SCHOOL
by
HAROLD OSCAR PALMER
A THESIS
submitted to
OREGON STATE COLLEGE
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the
degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
June
l95
APPROVED:
Redacted for privacy
Head of Department
,Óf
Business Education
In Charge of Major
Redacted for privacy
Dean of School
crl
ducation
Redacted for privacy
Chairman of Schoc&,raduate Committe
Redacted for privacy
Dean of Graduate School
Date thesis is presen
Typed by Ellen McFarl
______________________
A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. C. T. Yerian,
thesis adviser, for his valued counsel and constructive
criticism throughout the direction of this experiment.
Grateful appreciation is expressed to Dr. Fred E.
Winger for his many helpful suggestions and guidance.
Appreciation is extended to the school administration
of Kiamath Union High School, and especially to Mr. Wendell
B.
Smith, Assistant Principal, for his cooperation in
scheduling the classes.
Recognition is accorded to Dr. Jerome
C.
Li for the
verification and guidance of the statistical aspects of the
experiment.
Thanks are due to Mr. G. E. Hamilton, President of
Keystone View Company, for providing equipment used in the
experiment.
H.
O.
P.
TABLE 0F CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I
II
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
..................
CLASSROOM AND INDUSTRIAL
APPLICATIONS OF TACHISTOSCOPIC TRAINING
.....
...............
..............
Early Backgrounds
Naval Applications
Development of Keystone Overhead Projector
Classroom Developments Since World War II.
Business and Industrial Applications
III
THEEXPERIMENT
8
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.................
24
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.
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...................
................
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Straight-copyTrping .............
Letter Writing ................
NumberWriting ...........
Lasting Effect of Method ...........
Error Analysis
RESULTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES
................
Effect on Test Items Other Than Typing
V
8
10
li
li
19
Objective Tests Used in the Study
Textbook and Supplementary Drill Materials
Equipment and Material Used in Training.
Techniques Used During Training Sessions
Measurement of Results
Follow-up
Error Analysis
IV
i
CONCLUSIONS AND HECOMNENDATIONS
.
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.........
Conclusions..................
................
BIBLIOGRAPHY........ ..............
Recommendations
26
28
29
31
33
35
35
36
36
45
55
58
67
68
76
76
78
81
APPENDIX A
TACHISTOSCOPIC SLIDE MATERIALS
........
84
TABLE OF CONThNTS (coNTINuED)
APPENDIX B
COPY USED IN NUMBER TIMINGS
.........
87
.........
89
.........
9!I.
APPENDIX C
COPY USED FOR LETTER TIMINGS
APPENDIX D
PHOTOGRAPH OF TACHISTOSCOPE
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE
I
II
PAGE
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XI
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Mean Scores on Gross Words Per Minute,
Correct Words Per Minute, Net Words
Per Minute and Total Errors on Two
Five-Minute Number Timings
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57
Analysis of Variance Calculations for
First Number Timing
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Timing...
Averages of the Two Groups on Follow-up
Straight-Copy Timing
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61
Average Gains of the Experimental Group
on Follow-up Timing Over Last Previous
Timing
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XIII
45
Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Letter Four
SecondNumber
XII
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X
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Letter Three
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VIII
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Le t t e r Two
VII
17
Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Le tter One
VI
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Average Scores on Gross Words Per 1inute,
Correct Words Per Minute, Net Words
Per Minute and Total Errors on Four
Five-Minute Letters.
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Straight-Copy Timing
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Averages of the Two Groips on the Final
Straight-CopyTiming
III
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Averages on Five-Minute Timings
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LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
TABLE
XIV
XV
PAGE
Average Losses of Control Group on FollowUp Timing Over Last Previous Timing.
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62
Analysis of Variance Calculations on the
Follow-Up Straight-Copy Timing
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XVI
Averages of the Two Groups on
Letter Timing.
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XVII
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Follow-Up
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65
Analysis of Variance Calculations for
Follow-Up on Letter Timing
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66
Number and Per Cent of Additions, Omissions,
Substitutions, Transpositions, and Errors
on Seventeen Straight-Copy Timings
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Mean Improvement on Minnesota Clerical Test
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for the
Minnesota Clerical Test.
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Mean Improvement on Test
Reading Test
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Analysis of Variance Calculations for the
Iowa Silent Reading Test
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XIX
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Gains on Follow-Up Over Last Previous
Timing
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XVIII
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XXIII
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Iowa Silent
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1
2
3
14
5
PA GE
Gross Words Per Minute on Seventeen
Five-Minute Straight-Copy Timings.
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38
Correct Words Per Minute On Seventeen
Five-Minute Straight-Copy Timings.
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Net Words Per Minute on Seventeen
Five-Minute Straight-Copy Timings.
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Average Number of Errors on Seventeen
Five-Minute Straight-Copy Timings
.....
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148
Results of Four Five-Minute Letter Timings
Correct Words Per Minute
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48
Results of Four Five-Minute Letter Timings
Net Words Per Minute
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Results of Four Five-Minute Letter Timings
Errors
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Results of Four Five-Minute Letter Timings
Gross words Per Minute
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14Q
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TACHISTOSCOPIC ThAINING FOR
BEGINNING TYPING STUDENTS
IN A SECONDARY SCHOOL
CHAPTER
I
INTRODUCTION
Tachistoscopic techniques, ranging from simple flash
cards to the more recent precision tachistoscopes, have
been used experimentally for over seventy-five years to
prove accuracy and scope of perception, and to reduce
im-
per-
ception time.
The tachistoscope, by definition, is an instrument for
displaying visual stimuli, which controls the time of exposure as well as the area exposed.
(12, p.l43)
The es-
sential characteristic of the tachistoscopic method is that
it provides a means of controlling a single perceptual ex-
perience; that is, it so limits the time of exposure that
not more than one fixation of the eye is possible.
(5,
p.522)
The first reported use of it in systematic classroom
instruction in this country was at the Harding School in
Erie,
Robert
Pennsylvania.
P.
This experiment was directed by Dr.
Carroll of Pennsylvania State College and was
conducted from October, 1938, until March, 1939.
The experi-
ment indicated that those pupils who were given tachistoscopic training reduced their errors and made nearly twice
as much gain as the pupils who did not have tachistoscopic
training.
(3,
p.2)
2
At the present time tachistoscopic techniques have
been used to good advantage in reading, spelling, music,
arithmetic,
art,
foreign language, and optometry.
One
medical school has found that students can be taught to
recognize various micro-organisms more rapidly by exposing
slides of them at 1/25 to 1/loo of a second.
(3,
p.61)
The tachistoscope has been used with success in industry to
improve the abilities of those who do a great deal of reading.
Persons working with numbers, such as bookkeepers and
machine operators, have been able to increase production
with greater accuracy and less fatigue.
In l949-5O, Dr.
Fred E. Winger of Oregon State College
experimented with college typewriting classes and demonstrated that
The intensive training in the quick perception
of words, phrases,
digits, and sentences provides a type of
training that leads to increased performance at all levels
in the typewriting classroom.t'
(22, p.1)
Problem
The present experiment was planned to measure the
effect of tachistoscopic training on beginning typewriting
students at the secondary level by showing the differences
between the accomplishments in speed and accuracy of three
control classes and three experimental classes.
A second
purpose was to analyze the types of errors made by both
3
groups to determine if tachistoscopic training would result
in the reduction of errors that are usually considered to be
a result of faulty reading habits.
Finally, it was the in-
tention to carry out, under similar experimental conditions,
techniques similar to those used by Winger to see if his
results,
obtained with college students, could be duplicated
on the secondary level with unselected students.
Procedures
From the 280 beginning typewriting students registered
for the fall semester at Kiamath Union High School, Kiamath
Falls, Oregon,
six classes of thirty-three each were
se-
lected for this experiment.
Students were selected for class membership by random
sampling and each was given a random order number and assigned to one of six classes.
By this method, each of the
280 students had an equal chance with every other student
of being included in the control or experimental group.
Random sampling was also used to determine which classes
would be the control group and which would comprise the ex-
perimental group.
After teaching the keyboard, the only difference in
the instructional procedures between the two groups was the
presentation of Keystone Typewriting Tachistoslides to the
experimental group for approximately ten minutes each day
for eighteen weeks.
None of the students participating in
4
the experiment had previous typewriting instruction.
Measuring Instruments Used
Measurements of reading proficiency used in this experiment were based upon the Rate and Comprehension sections
of two forms of the Iowa Silent Reading Test and the
Minnesota Clerical Test.
Both tests were administered
before tachistoscopic training was begun and again at the
conclusion of the experiment.
Other measurements used were straight-copy timed writings, number exercises,
and timings on business letters.
Statistical Method
The statistical method of analysis of variance was used
to test the significance of the difference between the con-
trol and experimental groups.
The variance ratio, or F-test
was applied to the differences between the achievements of
the two groups on the measurements of gross, correct,
and
net words per minute as well as errors made on straight-copy
writing, letter writing, and number exercises.
Methods for the analysis of variance were originally
suggested and used by R. A. Fisher in England in 1923 for
use in agricultural experiments in which control of condi-
tions could be made more exact and detailed than is usually
possible with human beings.
(8,
p.272)
The method is now
one of the standard procedures for analyzing the results of
agricultural and biological experiments.
George W. Snedecor
states that the method has led to a tremendous expansion in
the design of experiments.
says,
'TThe
(21,
p.2l11)
E. F.
Lindquist
method of analysis of variance may be used to
great advantage by research workers in education.t'
p.
iL)
The requirement that the groups used
is
(ii,
e
random samples
basic to the method of analysis of variance, but one
that is frequently very difficult to meet.
The condition
of randomization was met in this experiment.
Assumptions
Evidences of the successful use and favorable results
of tachistoscopic techniques in many subject areas, as well
as in industry,
indicated the following assumptions for
typewriting:
That rapid perception of words or word-recognition
units and the transfer of these to the typewritten copy
will be conducive to the development of speed and accuracy;
That tachistoscopic training will facilitate relaxation
of the student by allowing less time to think of how the
word is to be typed and will result in the development of
automatic responses;
That tachistoscopic training will increase the ability
to concentrate,
thereby reducing those errors due to care-
lessness and poor reading habits;
o
That tachistoscopic training in typing will increase
reading skills incidentally.
Definitions
The discussion throughout this study is as non-
technical as possible, but in order to have a unanimity of
thought and understanding,
a few words and
expressions need
some explanation and definition.
Targe t
The target is the image to be exposed or reproduced on
the screen.
Targets in typing consist of words, numbers,
phrases, and sentences.
Gross Words Per Minute
Gross words per minute represent the total number of
words written in one minute.
The figure is determined by
dividing the total number of strokes written by five and
then by the number of minutes in the timing.
Five strokes
are considered a word in typewriting computations.
This
measurement does not take into account the accuracy of the
stroking.
Correct Words Per Minute
Correct words per minute is a combination of gross
stroking rate and accuracy.
A one-word penalty is deducted
7
for each incorrectly written word and the remainder represents the number of correctly written words.
The total
number of correct words is divided by the number of minutes
in the timing to obtain the rate per minute.
Net Words Per Minute
The net words per minute rate is obtained by deducting
a penalty of ten words for each error.
The number of errors
made is multiplied by ten, and this figure is subtracted
from the gross words typed and divided by the number of
minutes in the timing.
r1(Zli
11 rr
Additions are the insertion of added letters, often
the repetition of the same letter.
Omissions are letters, words, or spaces that are left
out of the typed copy.
Substitutions
Substitutions are the typing of the wrong letters and
comprise the bulk of typing errors.
Transpositions
Transpositions are letters or words that are reversed.
CHAPTER II
CLASSROOM AND INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF
TACHISTOSCOPIC TECHNIQUES
Early Backgrounds
An accurate history of the beginnings of tachistoscopic
experiments is none too well documented.
The first crude
experiment on the number of objects that could be perceived
at a glance is generally attributed to Sir William Hamilton,
in 1859.
It was in 1871 that Jevon conducted
trolled experiment.
the first con-
A number of black beans were thrown
into a small box; the instant the beans came to rest, the
subject was to estimate their number.
The results
showed a
declining curve in perceptual span as the number of beans
increased.
(i,
p.1)
In 1895 Cattell used a tachistoscope in span and read-
ing studies.
It was the work of Cattell that was to form
the basis for experimentation and training in reading and
reading problems.
(i,
p.?)
Dodge, Whipple,
Foster,
Dallenback, and Rusk all made contributions to various
phases of the problem.
Most of these early experiments were
confined to the psychological laboratory and dealt with only
a few persons.
In 1915 Rusk suggested that a magic lantern
with a photographic shutter be used to give tachistoscopic
training to larger groups than had been practicable by
methods used up to that time.
(19,
pp.429-431)
Nothing
seems to have been done about Husk's suggestion until
Dearborn in 1936 reported an experiment in which words and
occasional phrases were exposed tachistoscopically to small
classes of elementary school students.
(7,
pp.4-5)
The first reported use of the tachistoscope in system-
atic classroom instruction was at the Harding School in
Erie,
Pennsylvania, beginning in October, 1938, and continu-
ing until March,
Dr.
Robert
P.
1939.
This experiment was directed by
Carroll of Pennsylvania State College, who
was acting as adviser to the Keystone View Company in the
development of an instrument for practical use in schools.
(1,
p.1)
The results showed that those pupils who were
given tachistoscopic work reduced their errors far more
and made nearly twice as much gain as the pupils in the
control group who did not have tachistoscopic training.
An
excerpt from the report states:
The results of this one brief experiment, of course,
are not final and conclusive, but, by way of summary,
it may be stated that they indicate that the use of
the Flashmeter stimulates independence and selfreliance in one's work, that it helps to improve
habits of attention and concentration, reduces lipreading, reduces errors, and produces marked improve(3, p.2)
ment in reading efficiency in general.
In October,
1940,
Mr. R. E.
Green, Superintendent of
Schools of Fullerton, California, directed an experiment in
lo
Eleven pupils in
spelling at the Chapman Avenue School.
the fifth and sixth grades, who scored an average of four-
teen words correct out of a possible thirty-five, improved
to 28.7 words in a twenty-one day period.
was continued,
The experiment
resulting in further improvement.
(3,
p.2)
Naval Applications
For some years prior to
19)42 Dr.
Samuel Renshaw of
Ohio State University had been conducting various psycho-
logical experiments with the tachistoscope.
Early in 1942
Renshaw was approached by the Navy for advice on setting up
courses in aircraft-recognition.
A set of training proce-
dures was designed, and in June, 1942, under Renshaw's direction, cadets began tachistoscopic training at Preflight
The program began with numbers flashed rapidly on
Schools.
a
screen.
To these were added slides showing silhouettes
of planes and ships in different positions.
dicted,
Renshaw pre-
'When flight cadets could recognize those magic-
lantern pictures at 1/100 of a second, they would be able
to do the same thing in combat»'
(25,
p.44)
At the end of a few months the results secured were
such that tachistoscopic training was extended to ground
schools,
p.228)
combat schools, bases, and to the fleet.
(18,
The 4,000 instructors trained at Ohio State Uni-
versity subsequently trained 285,000 pre-f light cadets
throughout the country.
After early 1943 every Navy ship
:ii
leaving port included in its complement at least one recog-
nition officer, schooled in Renshaw's methods.
(25,
p.144)
The results of this program stimulated interest in
tachistoscopic training.
It attracted the attention of
educators and industry
the use and applications of
t D
ta-
chistoscopic methods.
Development of Keystone Overhead Projector
Most of the classroom adaptations in tachistoscopic
training have been made since 1944.
No doubt the develop-
ment of the Keystone Overhead Projector was an important
step in the usableness of tachistoscopic techniques.
projector was placed on the market in
19)44.
This
Previously only
one number, word, phrase, or sentence was printed on a slide.
The open slide table of the Keystone Overhead Projector
per-
mits multiple exposures; as many as forty numbers, words,
phrases, or sentences can now be printed on one slide and
each exposed individually at exactly the same position on
the screen.
(1,
p.2)
Classroom Developments Since World War II
Following World War II the use of the tachistoscope in
schools and industry increased rapidly.
Barnette,
According to
thousands of teachers have used the tachistoscope
in teaching many subjects with varying degrees of success.
12
(3,
p.3)
Business firms began to show an increased interest
in the possibilities of the use of tachistoscopic techniques
to improve efficiency.
Reading
It is in the area of reading that the tachistoscope has
been most widely used to develop reading speed and increase
comprehension.
Dr. Helen B.
Knipp of the Reading Laboratory
of the University of Pittsburgh has designed a series of
1,900 targets on forty-eight slides that can be used in
beginning reading, remedial reading, and adult developmental
reading.
After several years of research Dr. Knipp con-
cludes:
Children in the lower grades who have learned to
see quickly and accurately through tachistoscopic
training have also learned to read more easily.
Older children say that the content subjects seem
College students
clearer and take less time.
report that they are reading 'twice as fast' at
the end of the semester's training or that they
can accomplish twice as much school work as
Even graduate students who had not been
formerly.
considered poor readers have learned to read faster
and more efficiently as a result of tachistoscopic
Therefore, teaching unitary seeing and
training.
developing the span of perception with the tachistoscope usually results in establishing better reading
habits for all students.
(3, p.46)
In 1950 Dr.
Donald
L.
Cleland experimented with college
freshmen and sophomores at the University of Pittsburgh and
found that tachistoscopic training does produce an increase
in speed of reading without loss of comprehension.
He
recommends a training session of twenty minutes, the first
13
ten minutes with numbers and the second ten minutes with
English phrases and sentences.
(6,
p.65)
Experiments with several hundred first graders in
schools at Gary,
19245,
Indiana, in
192414,
and at Bexley, Ohio, in
resulted in children reading at third-grade levels,
with some approaching fourth grade marks.
(25,
p.21)
Both of these studies were supervised by Renshaw.
Spelling
After using the tachistoscope daily for fifteen minutes
at 1/loo of a second for six weeks with seventeen boys and
sixteen girls in the seventh grade at Arrow View Junior
High School, San Bernardino, California, Miss Corrine B.
Brown found a
243
per cent increase in retention of each
spelling lesson as measured weekly.
She continued the use
of the tachistoscope twice daily for the rest of the semester.
As an experiment the tachistoscope was not used
during the second semester.
The students were tested on
the retention of words learned tachistoscopically in corn-
parison with words learned more recently non-tachistascopically.
Two tests of fifty words chosen at random from
each semester's work disclosed that 28 per cent more of the
words learned with the tachistocope were spelled correctly
than those studied more recently without the tachistoscope.
Miss Brown states,
"Therefore a conclusion that the
li'.
immediate effectiveness of the instrument is obvious, as is
the permanence of the learning efficiency.
As is evidenced
by so minute an experiment, tachistoscopic usage is unlimited.t'
pp.104-105)
(4,
Art
As a result of experiments conducted in his beginning
art classes at Ohio State University,
Professor Hoyt
Sherman has written a book Drawing by Seeing.
method on the concept that,
tIf one is
L.
He based his
exposed to an object
for so short a time that his eyes cannot move, he is auto-
matically required to see with perceptual unity."
(20,
p.6)
Sherman developed the ability to see as a perceptual unit
by flashing models and images against a screen in a darkened
room.
The students could not see what they were drawing
and were forced to use their hands as the chief means of
control,
thereby coming more quickly to a necessary faith in
muscular movements as major controls in the drawing act.
(20, p.7)
He concludes that tachistoscopic techniques can
reduce the time allotted for teaching beginning drawing and
the number of students taught can be greatly increased.
Since the fall of 1943 all beginning art classes at Ohio
State University have been taught by these methods.
Arithmetic
Studies show that the tachistoscope is readily adapted
15
to the teaching of arithmetic.
From number recognition, it
is an easy step to addition,
subtraction, multiplication,
and division.
"Arithmetic can be readily
Davis states,
taught via the tachistoscope, for certainly speed of reaction
in recognizing simple addition,
subtraction, multiplication,
and division facts would lead to more effective learning in
arithmetic."
(3,
p.50)
Willey and Billington recommend that readiness slides
consisting of pictures and objects be used to develop simple
number concepts before presenting the number combinations.
(3,
p.50)
Music
The music department of Stephens College has experi-
mented with and developed a set of slides for teaching
beginning piano.
When the student is seated at the piano,
the notes are flashed, and he plays the note after the
flash.
The targets exposed progress from single notes, to
several notes, then to cords, and finally to measures.
(2L1.,
p.47)
Foreign Language
Although no experiments in foreign language have been
reported to date, Barnette points out that a number of
language teachers have used tachistoscopic techniques
successfully in Latin and Spanish classes.
(3,
p.57)
Shorthand
In the fall of 1953 Miss Dorothy Reeves,
formerly a
co-worker with Dr. Winger at Oregon State College and now
at Tobe-Coburn School for Fashion Careers, New York City,
used the tachistoscope in an experimental class in shortThose students who were failing
hand.
andbing poor work
at the end of seven weeks were given remedial work on the
tachistoscope.
They finally wrote at eighty words per
minute for five minutes in the tenth and final week.
says,
"I
She
have tried this type of remedial work before with-
out the use of the tachistoscope, and, frankly,
noted great improvement.
I
I
have never
realize, of course, that the
ordinary type of remedial work might have done something
for these particular students, but
I
doubt that it could
have accomplished the phenomenal results evident in this
case."
(17,
p.5)
Typewriting
Dr. Fred E.
Winger, Associate Professor of Secretarial
Science at Oregon State College, was the first to adapt the
tachistoscope to the teaching of typewriting.
During the fall and winter quarters of the 1949-50
school year Dr. Winger experimented with the tachistoscope
17
in beginning typewriting classes at Oregon State College.
This experiment was the basis of a doctoral dissertation
at the University of Oregon.
Use was made of one control
and one experimental class during each of the two terms,
Twenty members of each group were equated as nearly as
possible by group means and standard deviations on the
factors of mental ability, reading skill, and manual dexterity.
The slides were prepared by Winger and consisted of
digits, words, phrases, and sentences.
The Keystone Over-
head Projector and Flashmeter exposed the targets up to
1/loo of a second.
The only difference in the classroom
procedure between the control and the experimental groups
was the presentation tachistoscopic materials in the experi-
mental classes for about ten minutes each class period.
The tachistoscopic training that was provided each day
was pointed toward the development of unitary seeing.
Winger states,
'It was hoped that the concentration required
to perceive the rapid exposures would lead to a sufficient
after-image to permit the student to reproduce the natural
serial patterns quickly and with a high degree of accuracy."
(23,
p.3)45)
Measurements used for evaluation were based upon threeminute straight-copy timings, timings on number combinations
and isolated words for a period of five minutes, and five-
I'.
minute straight-copy timings.
The F-test of analysis of variance was applied to the
results of gross words per minute, correct words per minute,
and net words per minute as measured by the last timing of
each quarter.
The data of the two experiments were com-
bined to make a total of forty students in each group.
The following table shows the mean of the mean scores
for the two control and the two experimental classes com-
bined and also the F-value for each.
All F-values over
7.01 were significant.
Control
Gross words a minute
Total errors
Correct words a minute
Net words a minute
28.83
3.98
27.88
20.95
Experimental
33.60
2.62
33.02
28.30
F
7.91
8.39
9.25
14.29
Winger concluded:
Tachistoscopic training develops more rapid
stroking ability in the early stages of skill
development, followed by a normal pattern of
growth as judged by the pattern of those not receiving the training.
The stroking rate of the
entire class is increased rather than that of only
a small segment of each group.
1.
In spite of the faster stroking rates of those
2.
receiving the tachistoscopic training, fewer errors
were made by this group.
The ability of the classes receiving tachistoscopic training to write isolated words more rapidly
and accurately indicates ability to handle certain
letter combinations within these words with a more
natural rhythm of writing.
3.
The results of the isolated number timings
support the conclusion that tachistoscopic training
4.
provides sufficient confidence and stroking skill
19
to enable students to reproduce numbers more rapidly
and with fewer errors than is true under usual pro-
cedures.
(23, p.3247)
Business and Industrial Applications
Within the past decade a number of business organizations have been experimenting with tachistoscopic techniques as a method of increasing productivity and efficiency
of executives and office workers, especially as it concerns
developmental reading and perceptual unity.
Battelle Memorial Institute
One of the first to apply this method to industry was
the Battelle Memorial Institute of Columbus,
metallurgical-research firm.
Ohio, a large
Fifty-six men who were chem-
ists, physicists, and engineers were given two training
sessions a week for fifteen weeks.
After thirty training
periods their reading averages had gone from 262 words a
minute to 313, with several men increasing as much as 100
One man increased his original rate by 150 words.
words.
At the same time their comprehension went from 52 to 8
cent.
(25,
per
p.21)
General Electric Company
Dr.
William
C.
Schwarzbek, who had worked with Renshaw,
put 120 General Electric Company employees, ranging from
20
executives to beginning stenographers, through a twelve
weeks' course.
The average reading rate increased nearly
one-third and comprehension increased to an average of 82
per cent.
(24, p.43)
Mutual Life Insurance Company
Officials of the Mutual Life Insurance Company report
excellent results with a tachistoscopic training program.
The average reading rate at the beginning of the course was
275 words per minute.
At the end the average was 420 words
per minute, with some persons able to read at 800 words per
minute.
Comprehension improved as speed increased.
(16,
p.2)
Electronic Supply Office
Employees of the Electric Supply Office of the Navy at
Great Lakes, Illinois, had the problem of reading large
catalog numbers.
Under the direction of Mr. Quentin Guerin
tachistoscopic training was given and extremely favorable
results were attained.
(16,
p.3)
American Institute of Banking
Ninety-eight Institute students of the Los Angeles
Chapter of the American Institute of Banking, ranging from
vice-president to junior clerks, took a course in tachistoscopie training in order to see faster,
to see more
21
accurately, and to widen the span of vision.
Benefits
derived from the course were increases in reading speed,
comprehension, and accuracy, with increased efficiency on
the job.
Mr. Scott O'Leary, President
of the Los Angeles
chapter, concludes that there were intangible benefits which
cannot be measured by the usual standards but are far more
valuable than the me.asurable benefits.
'lis
Among these he says,
the development of self-confidence, which develops a
more relaxed, less irritable individual able to do his or
her work under less tension.
Since the student is able to
do better work with less eye strain, he is less fatigued
at the end of the day."
(15,
p.5)
Foundation for Better Reading
For the past four years the Foundation for Better
Reading in Chicago has had more than loo business firms,
including such major companies as Armour, Continental Can,
Hotpoint, Motorola, and Bissell Carpet Sweeper as clients.
At the beginning of the training the average reading speed
of their clients' personnel was about 250 words per minute,
with less than 75 per cent comprehension.
After twenty
hours of training which featured the tachistoscope with
digits and phrases at 1/100 of
a
second,
their speed had
doubled and comprehension had gone up an average of 9 per
cent.
(124,
p.48)
22
New York Life Insurance
In June of 1950 the actuarial department of the New
York Life Insurance Company, in conjunction with New York
University, set up an experimental group of 150 persons.
The purpose of the program was to improve the ability of
the cleriçal workers so that they could recognize quickly
and remember numbers up to and including eight digits.
Training was given these persons in two half-hour sessions
each week for five weeks.
Digits, beginning with three and
ending with eight, were used.
1/loo of a second.
Exposures ran from 1/5 to
After the five weeks' experimental
period it was felt that definite progress was experienced
and additional training was suggested.
In the next train-
ing period the length of the meeting was shortened from
thirty to twenty minutes and the number of meetings was
increased from ten to thirty.
The improvement demon-
strated that tachistoscopic training was of such definite
value that its continuance was warranted.
In the spring of 1951 the company started its own
program.
The persons selected for training were a group
of experienced machine operators.
Mr. William Macfarlane,
vice-president and chief actuary, writes,
the production records of these girls,
"After measuring
the maximum increase
in production for the group during the entire period was
17 per cent.
The girls reported almost without exception
23
that they found themselves less fatigued at the end of the
day.
In some ways this might seem to be just as important
as the increase in production»
evidence, then,
He also states,
UThere is
that perceptual training has increased one
of the skills commonly sought in the selection of new em-
ployees and has brought about an actual increase in production in a group of experienced people.-
Since April of
1952 the company has continued its visual recognition
program.
Macfarlane, William, Vice-President and Chief
New York.
Actuary, New York Life Insurance Company.
May 23, 1953.
1.
CHAPTER III
THE EXPERIMENT
Locale
This experiment was conducted during the school year
of 1952-53 in the beginning typewriting classes of Kiamath
Union High School, Klamath Falls, Oregon.
The school is a
four-year high school with an enrollment of approximately
1,300.
Typewriting classes met five days a week for fifty
minutes each day.
The writer was in charge of all classes
used in this experiment.
Selection of Students
During the summer of 1953 the pre-registration cards
of the 280 tenth, eleventh, and tweith grade students who
had previously registered for beginning typewriting were
arranged in alphabetical order and given a serial number.
From a book of random tables (10, pp.1_l!t) the first 198
different three digit numbers were selected from a series
of numbers that were less than 280, skipping any number
previously read.
The students who were assigned these
numbers made up the 198 required for the experiment.
Considerable searching in the table was necessary to find
25
three-digit numbers less than the value of 280.
Students with random order numbers
1
to 33 inclusive
were placed in period one, 34 to 66 in period two, 67 to 99
in period three,
100 to 132 in period four,
period five, and 166 to 198 in period six.
two,
133 to 165 in
Periods one,
and three met in the morning; periods four, five, and
six met in the afternoon.
Because of scheduling conflicts it was not possible for
some students to remain in the class period to which they
had been assigned.
Those with schedule conflicts were shift-
ed to other classes and disregarded in the experiment.
The
experiment was started with seventy-five students in the control group and seventy-three
in the experimental group, and
was originally planned for the first semester.
Because of
many absences due to Christmas employment, holiday trips,
and interruptions for semester reviews and final examinations, it was decided to continue the experiment for six
weeks into the second semester.
After the semester drop-
outs and transfers were completed, sixty-three students--
forty-four girls and nineteen boys--remained in the control
group, and sixty-one--forty-seven girls and fourteen boys--
remained in the experimental section.
This study is based
on the data of these 124 beginning typewriting students.
Many and varied studies have been made to predict
ability to do straight-copy typing.
Tests for motor ability,
26
reading, spelling, reaction time, eye span, and intelligence
have resulted in little or no correlation.
Because of the
lack of valid predictive criteria no attempt was made to
match the groups in the experiment.
The more dependable
method of random sampling was used in order that every one
of the 280 beginning typing students had an equal chance of
being selected for the control or experimental group.
The
statistical method of analysis of variance used in this study
assumes that the subjects of the experiment have been chosen
at random.
Determining Control and Experimental Groups
In order to continue with sampling,
six numbers repre-
senting the six classes were selected from a random table.
The first three odd numbers were designated as control
classes and the first three even numbers were designated
as experimental.
Periods one, two, and five became the con-
trol group; periods three,
four, and six became the experi-
mental group.
Objective Tests Used in the Study
Reading adequacy was determined for this study by the
use of subtest
I,
Rate and Comprehension, parts A and B, of
the Iowa Silent Reading Test, New Edition, Advanced Test,
Form Am, Revised.
The Minnesota Clerical Test was used to
measure certain aspects of clerical work, namely, speed
27
and accuracy in checking names and numbers.
Both tests
were given to the six classes selected for the experiment
three weeks after school started and before any tachistoscopic training was done.
At the conclusion of the experi-
ment the Minnesota Clerical Test was repeated and subtest
I,
parts A and B of the Iowa Silent Reading Test, Form Bm, were
given.
Subtest
Iowa Silent Reading Test
I,
Test
I
of the
Iowa Silent Reading Test is a measure of
rate of reading under comprehensive conditions.
In this test
the student is asked to read two types of prose at a rate
which, for him, is best for clear comprehension.
The Rate
score is expressed in terms of the total number of sentences
read in one minute in each of two articles.
Comprehension
scores based on the exercises for the two selections are
combined into a single score.
good validity for the test.
The authors give evidence of
They also report reliability
coefficients of .689 on the Rate test and .722 on the Comprehension test of subtest
form correlation.
(9,
I
be the odd-even method of inter-
pp.2-5)
Time allowed for subtest
is eleven minutes.
Minnesota Clerical Test
The Minnesota Clerical Test is a speed and accuracy
test of two parts, number checking and name checking.
In
I
rói
each part there are 200 items consisting or 100 identical
and 100 dissimilar pairs.
The numbers range from three to
twelve digits and the names from seven through sixteen
letters.
(2,
p.2)
Although the two tests show consider-
able relationship, quite obviously separate skills are
measured.
The name checking test is more closely related
to speed of reading,
spelling, and conventional measures of
intelligence, while the number checking test is more closely
related to verifying arithmetic computations.
(13,
p.627)
Time allowed for the names test is eight minutes; the
numbers test, seven minutes.
Textbook and Supplementary Drill Materials
The textbook used in both the control and experimental
classes was 20th Century Typewriting by D. D. Lessenberry
and T. James Crawford.
Basic
rpewriting Drills by S. J.
Wanous and Tested Timed Writings by M. Fred Tidwell and
Mary
L.
Bell were also used as sources of straight-copy
material for timings.
Both groups used the same textbook
and supplementary materials from day to day.
The only
difference in the procedure between the two groups was the
presentation of approximately ten minutes of tachistoscopic
training each day in the experimental c1asses.
This meant
that approximately ten minutes less time was spent on drills
and other class work to allow for the tachistoscopic training.
29
Equipment and Material Used in Training
The tachistoscope that was used. in this experiment was
a Keystone Overhead Projector with a leystone Flashmeter or
timing device attachment manufactured and sold by the Keystone View Company of Meadville, Pennsylvania.
Flashmeter
The Flashmeter is a shutter type timing device per-
mitting timed exposures from one second to 1/loo of a
second.
Intermediate speeds may be obtained by setting the
time control.
Slides
The Typewriting Series of Tachistoslides prepared by
Dr. Fred E. Winger of Oregon State College and manufactured
by Keystone View Company were used in this experiment.
This
set of fifty glass slides contains numbers, English words,
phrases,
and sentences.
The slides have been prepared
photographically from printed copy.
slides see appendix.
For examples of the
They are of the multiple-exposure
type, four inches by seven inches in size.
38,39, and
4O
Sentence slides
have eighteen targets, the rest thirty-six.
Slotted masks or screening devices permit movement of the
slide to the desired target.
The half slot mask was used
for exposing words, numbers, and short phrases;
the full
30
slot for long phrases, phrased sentences, and sentences.
Use of the slotted masks permitted targets to appear at a
single definite spot on the screen.
One-half of
a
Tachisto-
slide or eighteen targets was selected as sufficient for
each of the ten-minute training sessions.
Screen
A
matte-white or flat, smooth surfaced screen fifty
inches square was hung at the front of the room.
This type
of screen makes it possible to have nearly equal light
distribution and no distortion regardless of the angle from
which the target is viewed.
This cared for the students
seated at the outer edges of the room.
i
Q QYÇ'fYfl
The classroom used for the experiment was twenty feet
wide and forty feet long and contained thirty-five Royal
typewriters with lettered keyboards.
Curtains were used
to control the amount of light entering the room through
the windows and to avoid any glare on the screen.
Lights
were turned off and the room was in semi-darkness.
The size of the target is regulated by the distance of
the machine from the screen.
The tachistoscope was placed
on a table approximately twenty-five feet from the screen
in order to project a target of sufficient size to be seen
by those sitting at the back of the room.
At this distance
31
it was possible
for the teacher standing by the machine to
observe the reactions and typewriting techniques of the
students.
Some seating adjustments were necessary so that
all of the students could see the targets.
Techniques Used During Training Sessions
Tachistoscopic training was started approxintely one
month after the beginning of school.
The typewriter key-
board had been presented and the students could type simple
sentence and paragraph material at a rate of fifteen to
twenty correct words per minute.
The flash work was usually
planned for the last ten minutes of the class period.
Be-
cause of various class interruptions it was sometimes given
at the beginning or the middle of the class hour.
During the first training session the experimental
classes were asked to observe and respond orally to a
number of exposures at speeds ranging from one second to
1/50 of a second.
The target was shown at the same place
on the screen each time.
Beginning with the second session students were
instructed to type their responses to the exposed material.
Shutter speed was L/25 of a second on the second day, 1/50
of a second on the third, and from the fourth day on, 1/loo
of a second.
Once accustomed to the faster exposure,
students preferred it to the slower exposures.
The following description illustrates the procedure for
32
each of the tachistoscopic training sessions.
Students were directed to set their typewriters for a
sixty space line and assume the correct position for typing.
The Flashmeter was set on Jtimeu exposure to make the
necessary focusing adjustments so that the target would be
Four or five practice exposures were
clear and distinct.
flashed on the screen to help focus on the target area.
After the signals 'Ready" and
TNow
were given, the students
typed the exposed material as many times as they could until
the signal
s'O.
K.'
was given at which time they returned
the carriage quickly and were ready for the next target.
This procedure was repeated until one-half of a Tachistoslide
was presented.
These same targets were exposed again but in a different
manner.
Students were instructed to type each target once,
instead of repeating.
The targets were flashed rapidly
with the only signal being the word "Now."
The timing of
the interval between flashes was determined by the response
of the group.
This technique encouraged alertness and con-
centration as well as quick reaction to the flashed material.
After the exposed targets had been typed, they were read
back to the students.
This afforded each an opportunity to
check the accuracy and progress of his typing.
It also
helped the teacher to discover individual difficulties and
to provide remedial assistance.
The targets were flashed a third time.
Except for the
33
first signal "NOW," no other signal was given.
The object
of this drill was to flash the targets at a speed that
would require practically continuous typing on the part of
the student.
This encouraged serial response or pattern
typing and discouraged letter-by-letter stroking.
Targets
were again read back to the students and a show of hands was
called for those who had made few or no mistakes.
Papers
were collected each day, not for grading purposes, but to
spot those who were not achieveing acceptable results.
Students were told that they would not be graded on the
tachistoscopic work, but any improvement as a result of it
would be evident in the development of their overall typewriting skill.
Measurement of Results
The evaluation of the results of tachistoscopic train-
ing in this experiment is based on the student's ability to
reproduce copy material in a series of timed exercises.
Measurements that were used consisted of eighteen five-minute
straight-copy writings, three five-minute writings on number
combinations, and five business letters for a period of five
minutes each.
Materials used for the straight-copy writings
and the business letters were taken from the textbook and
supplementary drill books.
pared by the writer.
each week.
The number exercises were pre-
Timed writings were given about twice
Each timed writing was scored on the basis of
3k
gross words per minute, correct words per minute, net words
per minute, and total number of errors.
Straight-Copy Writings
Measurements on the five-minute straight-copy writings
were started at the end of the ninth week of school and
after five weeks of tachistoscopic training.
It was at
this time that five-minute writings were introduced in the
textbook.
Numbers
A five-minute writing on a number exercise was given
before beginning the flash training on digits.
Practice
for the control group was confined to ten-minute number
drills from the textbook.
A different test was given to
both groups after twelve practice periods.
Both number
exercises consisted of one hundred four-digit groups.
They
were scored in the same manner as the straight-copy writings.
Business Letters
During the last few weeks of the experiment measure-
ments were taken on a series of four different trpes of
business letters.
The typing of these letters involved
in addition to straight-copy writing,
such skills as tabu-
lation, number writing, and letter placement.
35
Follow-up
Two months after the experiment was concluded the
students were given another timed writing on straight-copy
material as well as a business letter.
The purpose of
these measurements was to determine whether or not the
experimental group had maintained or lost any superiority
in speed and accuracy as a result of tachistoscopic training.
Error Analysis
A detailed examination was made
in 12,855 errors made
by both the experimental and control groups in the seventeen
five-minute straight-copy writings.
This analysis was made
to determine if tachistoscopic training would result in the
reduction of errors that are usually considered to be a
result of poor reading habits, namely, omissions,
transpositions,
and substitutions.
additions,
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES
Straight-copy Typing
Table
41,
i
and Figures
1,
2,
3,
and 4, pages 37 through
indicate the progress made during the training period of
the sixty-three control and sixty-one experimental
who participated in this experiment.
students
This training period
began in October of 1952 and ended in March of 1953.
The
measurements consisted of seventeen five-minute timed
writings of gross words per minute, correct words per minute,
net words per minute, and the number of errors made.
The
tachistoscope was used ten minutes each day for five weeks
before the first five-minute timing was given.
shown in Table
i
The results
are plotted in graphs which show the
progress of the students.
Figure
I
Gross Words Per Minute
The measurement of gross words per minute represents the
number of words typed per minute.
The average superiority
of the experimental group over the control group ranged from
3.2 to 7.2 gross words per minute on the seventeen timings.
The experimental group increased from 3.2 to 7.2 gross words
per minute during the first seven timings, dropping back to
Table
I
Table of averages on five-minute timings
DATE
Nov. lO
Nov. 13
Nov. i8
Nov. 19
Dec.
4
Dec.
5
Dec.
9
Dec. 12
Dec.. 15
Dec. 31
Jan. 26
Jan. 29
Feb.
4
Feb.
9
Feb. 13
Feb. 24
Mar.
2
ST NO.
i
2
3
J4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
GROSS WORDS
PER MINUTE
EXP
CON
CORRECT WORDS
PER MINUTE
CON
EXP
25.8
28.3
25.7
27.6
29.3
30.2
31.0
28.4
28.4
29.3
31.3
32.9
34,9
33.7
36.1
36.0
39.6
2)4.2
29.0
32.2
29.3
33.0
34.6
35.3
38.2
34.0
33.8
34.3
36.4
39.1
36.5
39.3
41.7
42.4
45.9
26.7
2)4.3
26.2
27.5
28.6
29.7
27,0
27.2
27.9
29.9
31.3
33.3
32.2
34.7
34.5
38.2
NET WORDS
PER MINUTE
ERRORS
CON
EXP
CON
EXP
27.8
31.0
28.1
31.7
33.5
11.3
13.9
13.4
14.0
12.3
124.8
37.2
32.8
33.0
33.4
35.4
38.0
35.6
38.3
18.6
14.4
16.3
15.1
17.7
17.1
21.7
19.9
21.9
21.5
26.4
7.5
7.4
6.3
6.7
8.8
7,7
6.2
6.1
5.8
324.1
17.0
20.5
18.0
21.5
22.9
23.5
28.8
23.6
25.3
24.3
26.6
27.5
27.7
29.2
32.6
32.3
36.9
4o.
41.4
45.0
'7.0
6.1
7.1
6.8
7.9
6.6
6.9
7.1
7.3
6.3
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.9
4.8
5.1
4.2
4.9
4.9
5.8
4.4
5.1
4.6
5.1
4.5
-
FIG.
I
GROSS WORDS PER MINUTE
46
ON
SEVENTEEN FIVE-MINUTE STRAIGHT-COPY
44
TIMINGS
42
Control
Experimental
40
p
/
38
Q-
36
o
,
o34
'/
/
.
z
o
cr30
Ui
>
/
\
\
<28
/
R
\/
/
26
i
2
4
6
7
8
IO
II
FIVE-MINUTE TIMINGS
12
13
14
15
16
FIG. 2
-
46
CORRECT WORDS
ON
44
D
PER MINUTE
SEVENTEEN FIVE-MINUTE STRAIGHT-COPY
TIMINGS
---- Control
42
z
-
______ Experimental
P
Q-
/
o
o
4
w
-
3OE
>
< 28
y
,R
26
\'
/
,2---d'
/
/
r
/
I
24
I
I
U
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
II
FIVE-MINUTE TIMINGS
I
12
13
14
15
16
17
FIG. 3.
36-I---
NET WORDS PER MINUTE
I
34-j--I
w 30
I.-
ON
SEVENTEEN FIVE-MINUTE STRAIGHT-COPY
TIMINGS
------Control
28
w
Q-
Experimental
26
9
24
.
o
o 22
(I)
w
20
/
l8
w
/
I6
/\
/ \
/
\
PN.
/
/
14
12
/
/
N
/
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
II
FIVE-MINUTE TIMINGS
12
13
14
15
16
17
FIG. 4
AVERAGE NUMBER OF ERRORS
ON
-
9
8
¡I
6-
-\
7
CI)
Ix
o
SEVENTEEN FIVE-MINUTE STRAIGHT-COPY
TIMINGS
J
/
\\
/
/
'o-
/
,O-..
_-L)
\
A\
-
\
/
_-.o
..
'O
Ix
Ui
- - - --Control
lAi
Experimental
Ix
W
>
I
I
I
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
II
FIVE-MINUTE TIMINGS
12
13
14
15
16
17
42
a gain of 5.6 gross words per minute on the eighth timing.
From the eighth timing on, the improvement of the experimental group was consistent except on the thirteenth writing
when the gain was but 1.6 gross words per minute.
The net
gain of the experimental group in stroking rate on the last
measurement was 6.3 gross words per minute as compared with
3.2 gross words per minute on the first timing, or practi-
cally twice the increase.
The total increase for the experi-
mental group was 16.9 gross words per minute and for the
control classes it was 13.8.
Figure 2
Correct Words Per Minute
The measurement of correct words per minute represents
the number of correctly written words typed per minute.
results shown in Figure
2
The
indicate growth patterns similar
to those in the gross words per minute measurement except
that the gains of the experimental group increased slightly
because of the fewer errors made by this group.
Figure
3
Net Words Per Minute
Net words per minute represents a rate after a penalty
of ten words has been assessed for each incorrectly written
word.
The superiority of the experimental group ranged from
4.6 net words per minute to 10.8 net words per minute.
The
net gain for the experimental group on the last timing was
10.5 net words per minute as compared with 5.7 net words per
43
minute on the first timing.
The total increase for the ex-
perimental section was 19.9 net words per minute and for the
control group it was 15.1 net words per minute.
The values
of tachistoscopic training are evident in the marked superi-
ority of the experimental group on net words per minute.
Errors
Figure 4
In all of the seventeen timings the experimental group
averaged fewer errors than those of the control group.
The
control group averaged 7.5 errors on the first timing and
6.3 on the last, a reduction in errors of 1.2.
The experi-
mental classes averaged 6.1 errors on the first writing
on the last, a reduction of 1.6.
and 4.
The range of
errors for the control section was 6.1 to 8.8.
mental group ranged from 4.2 to 6.1.
The experi-
On the first writing
the experimental section made 1.4 fewer errors than the
control group, on the last timing, 1.8 less errors.
Statistical Methods Used
The analysis of variance method was used in this experi-
ment to test the effect of tachistoscopic training by
separating the variance due to the difference in teaching
method from that due to the difference between classes and
individual differences of students within the classes.
5
and
1
per cent levels of confidence are reported.
Both
With
either of these there is a possibility that what is shown
to be statistically significant is but a chance happening.
When it is shown that tachistoscopic training has a significant effect there is a small probability of error.
probability of making such a small error is
5
This
per cent when
the 5 per cent level of confidence is used and 1 per cent
when the
1
per cent level of confidence is used.
Therefore,
since this probability is so small, it can be safely assumed
that the statistically significant results obtained show a
real difference which is due to the tachistoscopic method
of instruction.
The 5 and 1 per cent points for the distribution of F
were 3.9)4 and 6.90 respectively for the control versus
experimental group.
An F-value which exceeds these values
indicates that the differences were significant.
at the 5 and
1
F-values
per cent levels among the periods within the
groups which do not exceed 2»46 and 3.51 indicate that the
differences are not significant.
Comparison of Methods for Straight-Copy Typing
The average scores of the last test of the two groups
are shown in Table II on the following page.
the experimental group has done better.
In every case
The method of
analysis of variance was used to test the significanòe of the
difference between the two averages in each of the four
measurements.
The larger the difference,
the larger will be
the F-value shown in the analysis of variance table.
)45
Table II
Averages of the two groups on the final
straight-copy timing
Gross words per minute
Correct words per minute
Net words per minute
Errors
Exp
Con
)45.9
39.6
38.2
26.4
6.3
145.0
36.9
1L5
Analysis of Variance
The 5 and
page 46.
1
per cent F-values are given in Table III,
In each case the F-value for the control versus
experimental far exceeds even the
1
per cent value, and the
F-values for the periods within the groups are less than the
5
and
1
per cent F-values.
Therefore,
the difference among
the periods within the groups is not significant and that
between the groups is significant.
The randomization has
achieved its purpose which is to make the average abilities
of the students in various periods the same.
It is con-
cluded that the difference between the two groups is induced
by the difference in the methods of teaching.
Letter Writing
Four five-minute timings on four different styles of
business letters were administered, one each week during
February, 1953.
Table IV, page 47, and Figures
5,
6,
7,
8,
Table III
Analysis of variance calculations for last straight-copy timing
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
SQUARES
1,212.6
372.0
6,468.6
8,053.2
ll4
119
1,37)4.6
1
359.9
6,489.3
8,223.8
4
114
119
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental 3,309.7
684.3
Among Periods
11,149.6
Within Periods
Total
15,143.6
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
DEGREES
FREEDOM
103.0
37.8
726.7
867.5
1
4
1
4
114
119
1
4
114
119
MEAN
SQUARE
1,212.6
93.0
56.7
-
1,374.6
90.0
56.9
-
3,309.7
171.1
97.8
-
103.0
9.5
6.4
-
F
5% F
1% F
21.39
3.924
l.6J4
2»46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
24.16
1.58
-
-
33.84
1.75
16.09
1.48
-
47
page 48, reveal the results in terms of gross words per
minute, correct words per minute, net words per minute, and
Tables V, VI, VII, and VIII, pages 51 through 54,
errors.
show the significance of the difference between the groups
as measured by the analysis of variance.
Table IV
Average scores on gross words per minute,
correct words per minute,
net words per minute,
and
total errors on four five-minute letters
Con
29.7
22.0
29.9
27.4
1
2
3
4
Figure
5
NWPM
CWPM
GWPM
LETTER
Exp
33.9
24.7
33.8
30.6
Con
28.2
20.8
28.4
26.1
32.8
23.8
32.7
29.6
Con
15.5
9.5
15.6
14.7
ERRORS
Exp
24.1
15.0
23.1
20.2
Con
7.2
6.5
7.1
6.3
Exp
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.1
Gross Words Per Minute
The averages of the experimental group over the control
group on gross words per minute was greatest on the first of
the four letter writings.
Both groups made a sharp decrease
in gross words per minute on the second letter.
The second
letter was written two days after tachistoscopic training on
numbers was started.
The rates of both groups on the third
letter were almost identical to those made on the first
letter.
On the fourth letter the experimental group dropped
back 3.2 gross words per minute as compared with a decrease
RESULTS OF FOUR FIVE-MINUTE LETTER
TIMINGS
----Control
Experimental
34
32
32
CI)
(I)
w
i-30
4
28
28
/2NN
NO
o
24
GROSS WORDS
PER MINUTE
22
20
:: i\\
22
-
20
2
3
4
I
I
LETTER
'CORRECT
'WORDS PER
g MINUTE
i
2
i
3
LETTER
(FIG. 6)
(FIG. 5)
24
22
U)20
w
16
o
/
o
I4
I
1'
I
2
a:
o
/
a:
a:
/
/
U)
w
NET WORDS
PER MINUTE
3
LETTER
(FIG. 7)
LETTER
(FIG. 8)
I
4
49
of 9.2 gross words per minute on the second letter.
The
control classes decreased 2.5 gross words per minute on
letter four as compared with 7.7 gross words per minute on
letter two.
This smaller reduction in gross words per
minute may be the result of the two weeks training that both
groups received in number writing.
The progress of both
groups in gross words per minute was quite uniform.
Figure 6
Correct Words Per Minute
The results of this measurement indicate about the same
pattern of development as that for gross words per minute.
The lower error averages of the experimental group increased
the superiority figures by .40 correct word per minute on
the first and third letters, and .30 correct word per minute
on the second and fourth letters.
Figure 7
Net Words Per Minute
The added penalty for inaccurate stroking resulted in
the experimental group surpassing the control group by 8.6,
5.5, 7.5,
and 5.5 net words per minute on the four letters.
Figure 8
Errors
The accuracy pattern of the experimental group was
rather constant with 4.4, 4.8, 5.2, and 5.1 errors.
The
control classes showed a sharper variation with 7.2, 6.5,
7.1, and 6.3 errors.
50
Analysis of Variance
The F-values at the 5 and i per cent levels for the
four measurements of gross, correct, and net words per minute, the errors on letter number one are given in Table V,
page 51, and show a significant difference between the
control and experimental classes and no significant difference among the periods within the group.
The results obtained on the second letter timing as
shown in Table VI, page 52, indicate that there was no significant difference between the groups on the factors of gross
and correct words per minute.
The F-scores show a signifi-
cant difference among the periods within the groups on the
measurements of gross and correct words per minute.
On the
net words per minute and error factors the F-values show a
significant difference between the control and experimental
groups and no significant difference among the periods within the groups at both the 5 and i per cent levels.
F-values for the third letter timing shown in Table VII,
page 53, indicate a significant difference between the groups
on the measurements of gross and correct words per minute at
the 5 per cent level but no significance when carried to the
i
per cent level.
There was a significance difference among
the periods within the groups on both gross and correct words
per minute.
F-scores on net words per minute and errors show
a significant difference at the 5 and 1 per cent levels
Table V
Analysis of variance calculations for letter one
VARIATION
DUE TO:
SUM OF
SQUARES
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
525.87
358.67
4,730.93
5,615.47
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
649.24
341.04
4,749.71
5,739.99
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
2,193.80
356.60
8,682.80
11,233.20
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
233.50
19.11
1,127.71
1,380.32
DEGREES
FREEDOM
1
4
1l4
119
1
4
114
119
1
4
114
119
1
4
114
119
MEAN
SQUARE
525.87
89.67
41.50
-
649.24
85.26
41.66
-
2,193.80
89.15
76.16
-
233.50
4.78
9.89
-
F
5% F
1% F
12.67
2.16
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
--
-
-
15.58
2.05
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
28.81
1.17
23.61
.48
Table VI
Analysis of variance calculations for letter two
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
SQUARES
DEGREES
FREEDOM
221.93
1
3'4l.69
4
2,LI)43.65
117
122
3,007.27
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
272.50
317.31
2,385.85
2,975.66
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
916.53
258.11
5,388.43
6,563.07
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
89.31
49.40
1,206.96
1,3)45,67
1
14
117
122
MEAN
SQUARE
221.93
85.42
20.89
-
272.50
79.33
20.39
-
1
916.53
4
6)4.53
117
122
46.05
1
89.31
12.35
10.32
4
117
122
-
-
5% F
1% F
4.09
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3»44
3.89
3.94
2».6
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.9)4
6.90
3.51
F
2.60
19.90
1.40
2.46
-
-
-
-
-
-
8.65
1.20
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
Table VII
Analysis of variance calculations for letter three
VARIATION
DUE TO:
SUM OF
SQUARES
DEGREES
FREEDOM
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
1457.53
399.024
1
2,827.95
3,684.52
112
117
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
539.80
410.37
2,896.91
3,847.08
1
112
117
1,659.14)4
1
183.07
6,634.89
8,477.40
4
New words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
106.33
69.99
1,140.54
1,316.86
4
14
112
117
1
4
112
117
MEAN
SQUARE
457.53
99.76
25.25
-
539.80
102.59
25.87
-
1,659.44
45.77
59.24
-
106.33
17.50
10.18
-
F
5% F
1% F
4.59
3.95
3.9)4
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
5.26
3.97
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
28.01
.77
-
10.44
1.72
2.46
-
-
Table VIII
Analysis of variance calculations for letter four
VARIATION
DUE TO:
SUM OF
SQUARES
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
315.22
310.22
2,712.56
3,338.00
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
373.25
235.01
2,777.77
3,386.03
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
923.67
47.69
6,235.30
7,206.66
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
45.97
92.32
746.17
884.46
DEGREES
FREEDOM
1
k
116
121
1
k
116
121
1
k
116
121
1
k
112
121
MEAN
SQUARE
F
315.22
77.56
23.38
3.32
-
373.25
58.75
23.95
-
923.67
11.92
53.75
-
45.97
23.08
6.66
-
F
lo F
3.9k
2.k6
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.9k
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
1.99
3.47
3.9)4
-
-
4.O6
-
15.58
2.45
-
17.18
.22
5
-
2.46
-
6.90
3.51
-
55
between the groups and no significant difference among the
periods within the groups.
The results obtained on the fourth letter are shown in
Table VIII, page 54.
F-values at the 5 per cent level show
a significant difference between the control and experimental
classes as well as among the periods within the groups.
When carried to the
the groups and among
significant.
i
per cent level the difference between
the periods within the groups is not
F-scores at both the
5
and
1
per cent levels
for correct and net words per minute show a significant
difference between the groups and no significant difference
among the periods within the group.
There was no signifi-
cant difference between the groups on the error measurement.
F-values indicate a significant difference at the
5
per cent
level but no significant difference when carried to the
i
per
cent level for the error measurement among the periods within
the groups.
Number Writing
Table IX, page 57, shows the means of the control and
experimental classes on the two five-minute number exercises.
The second number timing was given after each group had
twelve ten-minute practice sessions in writing numbers.
The
practice materials for the experimental groups consisted of
a series of numbers exposed tachistoscopically while for the
control classes selected number drills from the textbook and
56
supplementary drill books were used.
Tables X and XI, pages
on
59 and 60, show the analysis of variance calculations
the two number timings.
The average superiority of the experimental over the
control group on gross words per minute on the second number
writing was 5.07 as compared with 1.98 on the first number
writing.
The superiority of the experimental over the con-
trol group on correct words per minute was 5.21 to 2.29.
The
superiority of the experimental group over the control on net
words per minute was 4.43 to .54.
The superiority of the
experimental classes in accuracy was reduced from 1.43 on
the first number timing to .62 on the second.
The increased stroking rate of the experimental classes
on the second number writing showed an average gain of 4.8o
gross words per minute, 5.26 correct words per minute, and
5.67 net words per minute.
The control group averaged gains
of 1.71 gross words per minute, 2.34 correct words per
minute, and 1.78 net words per minute on the second timing.
The net word factor on this timing was especially favorable
to the experimental classes.
Both groups made substantial
reductions in errors of the second number timing.
57
Table IX
Mean scores on gross words per minute, correct
words per minute, net words per minute,
and total errors on two fiveminute number timings
GWPM
CWPM
Exp
Con
Number
Writing 11.30
NWPM
Con
13.28
9»46
11.75
2.3L1.
18.08
11.80
17.01
14.12
ERRORS
Exp
Con
Exp
2.88
8.8)4
7.141
5.82
5.20
One
Number
Writing 13.01
Two
Analysis of Variance
Table X, page 59, shows the analysis of variance calcu-
lations for the first number timing before any tachistoscopic
training had been given on the typing of numbers.
F-values
at the 5 per cent level on gross words per minute show a
significant difference between the control
and.
experimental
groups as well as among the periods within the groups.
significant difference was found when carried to the
cent level.
5
and
1
per cent
The differences among the periods within the groups
were significant at the
cent level.
word.s
per
Significant differences were found between the
groups on correct words per minute at both
levels.
1
No
5
per cent level but not at the
1
per
No significant differences were found on the net
per minute and error measurements.
The 5 and 1 per cent F-values for the second number
timing are given in Table XI, page 60.
The F-values on the
measurements of gross, correct, and net words per minute
for the control versus experimental groups far exceed even
the 1 per cent level, indicating that there is a significant
difference between the groups.
The differences among the
periods within the groups on these timings were not significant.
F-values for the error measurement indicated no sig-
nificant difference between the groups as well as among the
periods within the groups.
Lasting Effect of Method
Follow-up on Straight-copy Typing
On May 6, or approximately two months after tachisto-
scopic training was concluded, a five-minute straight-copy
writing was administered.
This follow-up timing was given
to determine whether the experimental group had maintained,
gained, or lost any superiority in speed and accuracy.
XII, page 61,
Table
shows the results of the experimental and-con-
trol groups on the measurements of gross words per minute,
correct words per minute, net words per minute, and errors.
Table XIII, page 61, shows the average gains of the experi-
mental classes on the follow-up test over the last timing
about two months previous.
Table XIV, page 62, shows the
average losses of the control group during the same period.
Table XV, page 63, shows the calculation of the analysis of
Table X
Analysis of variance calculations for first number timing
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
SQUARES
120.70
121.22
1,06)4.23
1,306.15
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
161.12
92.72
1,026.18
1,280.32
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
8.77
17.75
1,454.75
1,481.27
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
62.37
313.26
5,193.74
5,569.37
DEGREES
FREEDOM
1
4
117
122
1
4
117
122
1
4
117
122
1
4
117
122
MEAN
SQUARE
120.70
30.31
9.10
-
161.12
23.18
8.77
-
8.77
4.44
12.43
-
62.37
78.32
44.39
-
5$ F
1% F
3.98
3.33
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
6.95
2.64
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.41
1.76
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
F
.71
.36
-
'D
Table XI
Analysis of variance calculations for second number timing
VARIATION
DUE TO:
SUM OF
SQUARES
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periodsq
Total
776.67
150.35
1,831.21
2,758.23
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
820.76
119.12
1,805.54
2,745.42
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
593.37
27.86
3,417.65
4,038.88
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
11.59
87.93
i,6i4.68
1,714.20
DEGREES
FREEDOM
1
4
115
120
1
4
115
120
1
4
115
120
1
4
115
120
MEAN
SQUARE
776.67
37.59
15.92
-
820.76
29.78
15.70
-
593.37
6.97
29.72
-
11.59
21.98
14.04
-
5% F
1% F
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
1.57
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
F
48.79
2.36
-
52.28
1.90
19.97
.23
-
-
.83
-
o
61
variance.
Table XII
Averages of the two group on followup straight-copy timing
Con
37.9
36.4
23.9
7.0
Gross words per minute
Correct words per minute
Net words per minute
Errors
Ex
145
45.7
38.5
3.9
The figures in Table XII show the marked superiority of
the experimental group over the control group to be 8.5 gross
words per minute, 9.3 correct words per minute, l4.6 net
words per minute, and 3.1 fewer errors.
The more accurate
typing of the experimental group is especially significant
on the measurement of net words per minute.
Table XIII
Average gains of the experimental group
on follow-up timing over last
previous timing
May
6
Mar. 2
Gain
GWPM
CWPM
NWPM
46.4
45.9
45.7
45.0
.5
.7
38.5
36.9
1.6
ERRORS
3.9
4.5
.6
62
Table XIV
Average losses of the control group
on follow-up timing over
last previous timing
May 6
Mar. 2
Loss
GWPM
CWPM
NWPM
37.9
39.6
36»4
38.2
1.8
23.9
26»4
2.5
1.7
ERRORS
7.0
6.3
.7
The figures in the above tables indicate that the group
receiving tachistoscopic training not only maintained a
superiority from the previous timing, and after tachistoscopic training had ceased, but made slight gains while the
control classes lost on each of the measurements.
Analysis of Variance
The analysis of variance calculations in Table XV, page
63, represent the test of significance of the differences
between the means of the control versus the experimental
groups on the measurements for gross, correct, and net words
per minute and errors made on the follow-up straight-copy
timing.
i
In each case the F-values far exceed both the 5 and
per cent levels.
The results indicate a significant
difference between the groups.
The differences among the
periods within the groups were not significant.
Table XV
Analysis of variance calculations on the follow-up straight-copy timing
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
S1JARES
2,187.17
DEGREES
FREEDOM
1
1462.147
14
6,789.36
9,448.00
115
120
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
2,617.51
437.86
6,995.24
10,050.61
1
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
6,478.56
329.38
11,348.39
18,156.33
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
281.24
37.04
847.80
1,166.08
4
115
120
1
4
115
120
1
4
115
120
MEAN
SQUARE
2,187.17
115.62
59.12
-
2,617.51
109.47
60.83
-
6,478.56
82.35
98.68
-
281.24
9.26
7.37
-
5% F
1% F
37.00
3.9)4
1.96
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
F
43.03
1.80
-
65.65
.83
-
38.16
1.26
-
-
Follow-up on Letter Writing
The follow-up timing on a business letter was given on
May 14, two and one-half months after tachistoscopic trainIng had been stopped.
The purpose of this timing was the
same as that of the straight-copy timings, namely, to test
Table XVI
the lasting effect of tachistoscopic training.
shows the results of the measurements on gross words per
minute, correct words per minute, net words per minute, and
errors for both the control and experimental groups.
Table
XVII, page 65, compares the two groups on the follow-up
letter of May 14 with the last previous letter writing on
Table XVIII, page 66, shows the analysis of
variance calculation.
Table XVI
Averages of the two groups on
follow-up letter timing
Gross words per minute
Correct words per minute
Net words per minute
Errors
Con
Exp
33.6
32.1
18.7
7.5
37.9
37.0
29.4
4.2
The experimental group was superior to the control group
on all measurements.
The stroking rate and accuracy superior-
ity of the experimental group over the control group was evident in increases of
)4.3
gross words per minute,
24.9
correct
65
words per minute, 10.7 net words per minute, and in 3.3
fewer errors.
Table XVII
Gains on follow-up over last previous timing
Experimental
May l4
Feb. 26
Gain
Control
May 14
Feb.
26
Gain
GWPM
CWPM
NWPM
ERRORS
37.9
30.6
7.3
37.0
29.6
4.2
5.1
7.24
29»4
20.2
9.2
33.6
27.4
6.2
32.1
26.1
6.0
18.7
14.7
4.0
7.5
6.3
1.2
.9
Both groups made substantial gains on the letter written
on May 14 over the letter of February 26.
The gains of the
experimental group were greater on each of the four measurements.
On this letter the experimental classes made an aver-
age net gain over the control group of 1.1 gross words per
minute, 1.4 correct words per minute, 5.2 net words per minute, and made
.3
fewer errors.
Analysis of Variance
The F-values in Table XVIII, page 66,
for the follow-
up letter show the difference between the control and experi-
mental groups to be significant on all four measurements.
No significant difference was found among periods within the
groups.
While the F-scores on the follow-up letter were not
Table XVIII
Analysis of variance calculations for follow-up on letter timing
VARIATION
DUE TO:
SUM OF
SQUARES
DEGREES
FREEDOM
Gross words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
)484.58
1
125.37
2,602.87
3,212.82
14
Correct words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
634.80
106.14
2,609.70
3,350.64
Net words per minute
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
3,088.17
173.74
7,066.39
10,328.30
Errors
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
281.08
67.27
l,093.42
1,446.77
101
106
1
4
101
106
1
4
101
106
1
4
101
106
MEAN
SQUARE
484.58
31.34
25.77
-
634.80
26.54
25.84
-
3,088.17
43.44
69.96
-
281.08
16.82
10.88
-
5% F
1% F
3.914
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
F
18.80
1.22
-
24.57
1.03
44.14
.62
25.83
1.55
quite as large as those of the follow-up on the straightcopy timing they were still highly significant and far
exceeded the F-values at both the
5
and
1
per cent levels.
Error Analysis
An analysis was made of 12,855 errors that were made by
both the control and experimental groups on the seventeen
five-minute straight-copy timings.
lation, shifting,
Errors in spacing, tabu-
and alignment were eliminated from the
total since they were not considered to be reading errors.
Of the total number of errors made,
11,396 consisted of
additions, omissions, substitutions, and transpositions.
The average number of students in the control group who took
the
seventeen timings was 62.111,
experimental section was 60.05.
the average number in the
Table XIX, page 69 and 70,
shows the number and per cent of errors made by each group
in the four classifications.
The experimental group made 1,852 fewer errors in the
four classifications than did the control group.
Of this
number the experimental group made 300 fewer additions, 265
fewer omissions, 1,212 fewer substitutions, and seventy-five
fewer transpositions.
cent additions,
The experimental group made 5.30 per
4.74 per cent omissions, 81.71 per cent
substitutions, and 8.25 per cent transpositions.
The control
group made 8.35 per cent additions, 7.41 per cent omissions,
77.16 per cent substitutions, and 7.08 per cent transpositLons.
L1]
Percentage-wise the control group made fewer substitutions
and transpositions than the experimental group.
This may
be explained by the fewer number of errors made by the
experimental group.
It is often difficult to differentiate and say that an
error belongs to one particular classification.
This is
particularly true of the substitution type of error.
The
distinction made in substitution errors is not as clear-cut
as it is for errors of addition, omission, and transposition.
In this study all mis-stroking errors
that were not
ad-
ditions, omissions, or transpositions were arbitrarily as-
signed to the substitution classification.
While substi-
tution errors may be caused by poor recognition of letter
sequences, they also may be the result of lapse of attention,
poor techniques, pushing for speed, or lack of control.
Effect on Test Items Other Than Typing
Minnesota Clerical Test
The Minnesota Clerical Test,
consisting of 200 numbers
and 200 names, was administered to both groups before tachistoscopic training was started.
Table XX, page 71,
shows
the mean improvement of both groups on the two sections of
the test.
Table XIX
Number and per cent of additions, omissions,
substitutions, transpositions and errors
on seventeen straight copy timings
Test
Group
of
Students
No.
Additions
Omissions
Substitutions
Transpositions
Total
i
Con
Exp
63
59
45
15
28
15
324
249
25
26
422
305
2
Con
Exp
63
61
45
20
28
332
252
18
5
423
354
Con
Exp
63
61
22
15
17
263
13
9
264
124
394
302
Con
Exp
63
8
27
14
19
7
294
254
19
22
359
334
5
Con
Exp
63
60
28
15
30
15
376
222
32
12
466
262
6
Con
Exp
62
58
25
15
24
355
317
23
18
427
362
Con
Exp
62
58
38
24
16
9
282
207
21
16
365
248
Con
Exp
63
61
i8
16
7
9
321
249
26
16
381
281
Con
Exp
62
59
27
25
7
7
273
199
31
22
356
235
Con
Exp
63
61
23
25
22
322
229
36
26
403
289
3
4
7
8
9
10
12
9
8
70
Table XIX (Continued)
Number and per cent of additions, omissions,
substitutions, transpositions and errors
on seventeen straight copy timings
Test
Group
No. of
Students
Addi-.
tions
Omissions
Substitutions
Transpositions
Total
385
267
36
19
288
195
30
38
38
46
15
325
252
32
12
4l
320
61
61
2414
36
12
251
202
28
22
359
248
Con
Exp
62
61
30
20
34
276
206
46
12
33
386
271
Con
Exp
62
61
39
16
29
27
322
192
21
20
255
16
Con
Exp
62
61
50
13
34
25
284
219
37
35
405
292
17
Con
Exp
61
59
23
18
43
19
223
191
31
25
320
253
Total errors
Control
Per cent
553
8.35
491
7.41
5111
77.16
469
7.08
662k
Total errors
Experimental
Per Cent
253
5.30
226
4.74
3899
81.71
394
8.25
4772
11
Con
Exp
63
60
31
15
12
Con
Exp
63
61
Con
Exp
13
14
15
12
4l1
100.
100.
71
Table XX
Mean Improvement on Minnesota Clerical Test
Exp
Number Checking
Name Checking
6.30
11.60
14.29
16.72
The above figures show that the scores of the experi-
mental group averaged 7.99 more than the control classes on
the numbers section of the test at the conclusion of the
training period.
The improvement scores were determined by
subtracting the scores of the first test from the scores of
the second test.
On the names section of the test the mean improvement
of the experimental over the control was 5.12.
Analysis of Variance
The F-values at the 5 per cent level of the analysis of
variance, Table XXI, page 72, show significant differences
between the control and experimental groups and no significant difference among the periods within the groups.
The
F-scores for control versus experimental on the numbers
section is over two and one-half times larger than the Fscore on the names section.
Iowa Silent Reading Test
Test
I
of the Iowa Silent Reading Test, Form Am, was
Table XXI
Analysis of variance calculations for the Minnesota Clerical Test
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Words
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
Numbers
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
SQUARES
DEGREES
FREEDOM
811.85
1
2439.50
4
24,l35.84
25,387.19
1,980.26
1,309.79
22,278.17
25,568.22
MEAN
SQUARE
F
811.85
109.88
3.97
118
123
204.5)4
-
1
1,980.26
327.45
188.80
4
118
123
-
-
.Li.
10.149
5% F
l
3.94
2»46
6.90
3.51
-
-
F
1.73
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
f')
73
given to the control and experimental groups at the start
of the experiment.
the training period.
Form
was administered at the end of
Bin
Test
I
of both forms consists of two
parts, rate of reading and comprehension.
Table XXII shows
the mean improvement of both groups on Rate and Comprehension.
Table XXII
Mean Improvement on Test I
Iowa Silent Reading Test
Con
Rate
Comprehension
-5.85
.81
6.37
9.42
The figures in Table XXII indicate that the control
group not only failed to improve on the rate section of the
second test but actually made an average minus score of
5.85.
The experimental classes increased their reading rate
by a score of 6.37.
The results on the comprehension section show that the
control classes made a slight average gain of .81 while the
experimental group increased their average comprehension
score by 9.42.
Scores of the experimental group show gains in rate as
well as comprehension while the control classes decreased in
reading rate and made but slight gain in comprehension.
As
a result of the scores made on the Rate and Comprehension
section of the Iowa Silent Reading Test it may be concluded
7L.
that the benefits of tachistoscopic training in typing
result in improved reading habits.
Analysis of Variance
The
5
and
i
per cent F-values are given in Table XXIII,
page 75, and show that the difference between the groups is
significant and the difference among the periods within the
groups is not significant.
the i per cent level.
In both cases the F-score exceeds
The F-score of the experimental versus
control group on the rate test is more than three times the
F-score of the comprehension test.
Table XXIII
Analysis of variance calculations for the Iowa Silent Reading Test
VARIATION
DUE TO:
Rate
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
Comprehension
Control vs Experimental
Among Periods
Within Periods
Total
SUM OF
SQUARES
DEGREES
FREEDOM
MEAN
SQUARE
4,1482.52
1
4,2482.52
680.58
17,314.89
22,477.99
4
170.14
151.88
ll4
119
2,220.27
1,966.92
1
28,0414.51
114
119
32,231.70
4
-
2,220.27
491.73
246.00
-
5% F
1% F
3.94
2.46
6.90
3.51
-
-
-
-
-
-
9.03
2.00
3.9)4
6.90
3.51
-
-
F
29.51
1.12
-
2.46
-
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Conclusions
The conclusions are presented by sections through which
the various measurements of the experiment have been devel-
These are:
oped.
1.
2.
3.
-L
5.
6.
Straight-copy timings
Business letter timings
Number timings
Lasting effects of the method
Error analysis
Effect on tests other than typing
Straight-copy Timings
Tachistoscopic training developed more rapid and accurate stroking on straight-copy writing throughout all stages
of the experiment.
During the final five-minute timing, on
the measurement of net words per minute, which takes into
account accuracy of stroking as well as rate of stroking, the
experimental group wrote 10.5 words faster than the control
group.
In a similar experiment with college students, Winger
found that those receiving tachistoscopic training averaged
7.35 net words per minute faster than those who did not receive the training.
On the basis of the results obtained in
this experimnt, tachistoscopic training is conducive to the
development of speed and accuracy in typewriting.
77
Letter Writing
When the abilities of those who have received tachistoscopic
training in words and numbers are combined into
production-type activities such as business letters, they
continue to write with superiority.
Number Timings
The all-around superiority of the experimental group
supports a conclusion that tachistoscopic training in the
writing of numbers enables the student to reproduce numbers
more rapidly and with fewer errors than is true under tradi-
tional methods.
Lasting Effects of the Method
The results of the follow-up on straight-copy and
letter timings two months after tachistoscopic training was
concluded indicate that the gains in speed and accuracy of
the experimental group were of a permanent nature and not
subject to decline as
a
result of the cessation of the train-
ing.
Error Analysis
The analysis of a large number of errors shows that the
tachistoscopically trained group had developed sufficient
skills in word recognition to enable them to reproduce copy
with fewer additions, omissions, substitutions, and transpositions.
Effect on Test Items other than Typing
Tachistoscopic training does produce a significant gain
in reading skills as measured by the Minnesota Clerical Test
and Test
I
of the Iowa Silent Reading Test.
Marked gains in
improvement scores were made by the experimental group on
both the numbers and names section of the Minnesota Clerical
Test.
Tachistoscopic training does have merit in improving
skills necessary in the recognition of numbers and names.
Significant gains were also noted on both the rate and comprehension sections of the Iowa Silent Reading Test.
Recommendations
As a result of this study the following recommendations
are made:
Regardless of the cause, poor typists are slow and/or
inaccurate.
Further experiments should be conducted in
remedial typing to determine the value of tachistoscopic
training in correcting poor typing habits.
Many better than average typists reach a level of typing
which appears to be their peak of performance.
Further
experiments should be conducted with the tachistoscope to
ascertain the effectiveness of this method in raising their
performance levels.
79
All reported experiments with the tachistoscope in
typing have been with beginning students.
Tachistoscopic
training should be extended to advanced typewriting
students and pointed toward the development of superior
production skills.
Standards should be established and
measured by production tests.
Because many typing rooms are not equipped with
curtains for darkening the room, techniques should be
developed for use under normal classroom illumination.
This will necessitate the development of a type of screen
that is more suited to daylight use.
This is especially
important since the trend in school building design makes
use of a wide expanse of windows.
It is important in any tachistoscopic program that
every student be able to see without visual strain or
tension.
Students who have visual difficulties cannot be
expected to achieve as well as those who can see with ease.
Further tachistoscope experiments in typing should be preceded by a vision testing program to detect those who have
eye difficulties.
Finally,
it
is recommended that teachers using
this
method in typing experiment with procedures that are
best adapted in their situations.
This experimentation
should include such things as the size of the target,
placement of the screen, exposure time, type of signal,
amount of time devoted to the drill, and the part of the
class hour best for presentation.
L!P!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The reading
teachers' mailbox (Meadville, Pennsylvania, The
Keystone View company) Vol 2, No. 1, March 3,
1952.
8p.
1.
A brief history of the tachistoscope.
2.
Manual
Andrew, Dorothy M. and Donald G. Paterson.
New York, The
(for the) Minnesota clerical test.
12p.
Psychological Corporation, 1946.
3.
Barnette, Gaspar Cisneros. Learning Through Seeing.
Dubuque, Iowa, William C. Brown Company, 1951.
l45p.
4.
Teaching spelling with a tachistoBrown, Corinne B.
1951.
English journal 40:104-105.
scope.
5.
Perceptual research and methods of
Buswell, Guy T.
1947.
The scientific monthly 64:521-6.
learning.
6.
7.
8.
9.
An experimental study of tachistoCleland, Donald L.
scopic training as it relates to speed and comprehension in reading. Ph. D. Thesis. Pittsburg,
83 numb. leaves.
University of Pittsburg, 1950.
The use of the tachistoscope in
Dearborn, Walter F.
Psychological
diagnostic and remedial reading.
1936.
monographs 74:1-19.
Goodenough, Florence L. Mental testing.
609p.
Rinehart and Company, 1949.
New York,
Greene, H. A., A. N. Jorgensen and V. H. Kelley.
Advanced test, manual of directions (for the) Iowa
New York, World Book Company,
silent reading tests.
l6p.
1943.
10.
Table of
Kendall, Maurice G. and B. Babington Smith.
random sampling numbers. London, Cambridge
(Tracts for computers,
university press, 1946. 60p.
ed. by E. S. Pearson No. 24).
11.
Statistical analysis in educational
Lindquist, E. F.
New York, Houghton Mifflin Company,
research.
1940.
266p.
12.
Maclatchy, Josephine H. Bexley reading study. Educational research bulletin 25:141-70. 1946.
13.
(comment by) R. B. Selover.
Minnesota clerical test.
The third mental measurered]
In Oscar K. Buros,
ments yearbook. New Brunswick, N. J.: Rutgers
university press, 1949. pp.635-636.
l4.
Newsweek 43:48.
15.
The
O'Leary, Scott, Better seeing for better living.
Pennsylvania.
reading teachers' mailbox (Meadville,
Vol 2, No. 2,
The Keystone View company)
8p.
September 15, 1952.
16.
The reading teachers'
Reading and business efficiency.
mailbox (Meadville, Pennsylvania, The Keystone View
Company) No. 4, March 16, 1953. 9p.
17.
The tachistoscope in teaching shortReeves, Dorothy.
teachers' mailbox (Meadville,
reading
The
hand.
No. 5,
The Keystone View Company)
Pennsylvania.
January 15, 1954. 8p.
18.
The visual perception and reproduction
Renshaw, Samuel.
The journal of
of forms by tachistoscopic methods.
1945.
psychology 20:217-232.
19.
A tachistoscope for class experiments
Rusk, Robert R.
The journal of eduand demonstration purposes.
1915.
cational psychology 6:429-31.
20.
Sherman, Hoyt L. Drawing by Seeing.
77p.
Hayden and Eldredge, 1947.
21.
Ames, Iowa,
Statistical methods.
Snedecor, George W.
485p.
Iowa state college press, 1946.
22.
Winger, Fred E. Manual of instructions for adaptation
of the Keystone tachistoscope to typewriting inMeadville, Pennsylvania, Keystone
struction.
View Company, 1952. 14p.
23.
_____________.
January 11, 1954.
New York, Hinds,
Tachistoscopic training for beginning
The balance sheet 32:342instruction.
typewriting
347.
1951.
L!P
The determination of the significance
of tachistoscopic training in word perception as
Ed. D.
applied to beginning typing instruction.
thesis. Eugene, University of Oregon, 1951.
166 numb, leaves.
24.
_____________.
25.
Wittels, David G. You're not as smart as you could be.
The Saturday evening post 220:20-21, 2l452.
April 17, 1948.
APPENDIX A
THE KEYSTONE TACHISTOSCOPE
1746 Exposures
-
TYPEWRITING SERIES
Useful as an aid in teaching speed and accuracy in typewriting.
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APPENDIX B
±71
Number Writing One
2916
)4835
2704
1968
14137
91146
3520
6387
1401
4697
6327
3862
4791
2093
8504
1537
1487
2289
2005
3183
8756
7877
1026
6733
4759
9531
7579
9138
5265
1752
3057
6321
2536
5240
1865
4748
3152
6821
2645
1550
91465
1752
6843
2516
7271
5629
1301
6020
1114
3564
3202
77140
8251
3111
5219
4446
9146
8864
3141
4861
1235
8597
9520
2557
1365
2004
5301
7394
2271
6380
9273
1624
5720
3123
1000
2136
4341
3663
8379
5565
8002
3065
5261
6884
2287
1955
9621
5159
1429
2262
5827
7295
6374
23)45
6789
3031
4841
8530
3562
1927
Number Wrfting Two
4181
3065
1125
76245
6139
8423
1673
8866
3355
2956
6747
2682
7275
3724
5789
3745
2192
5080
3803
4327
9432
4627
1875
5301
4262
7493
0123
8410
6796
1887
1035
5358
2100
24999
7223
1953
61478
4518
5564
2625
7)432
2585
32024
1127
3028
8225
9273
6175
4785
5748
3926
1407
1215
3871
5562
7201
4326
7528
8371
1495
2000
6319
5972
4257
7787
0340
6129
3122
5250
1615
1545
24428
3113
1225
3799
8843
4194
6633
2287
7924
8264
2924
4167
3201
5786
23245
7416
2536
1962
2468
9854
7347
6711
858
2114
5992
6492
1035
3856
5003
APPENDIX
C
Letter Number One
February
6,
1953
Mr. Warren Brown
Ellsworth & Brown Company
978 Michigan Avenue
Chicago )4, Illinois
Dear Mr. Brown:
First impressions are important impressions!
The reader will judge a letter first of all by its
form.
For this reason, you have a strike against
you in getting your message across to the reader if
the letter is not attractively placed on the page
and neatly typed.
We are sending you and Mr. Parish, the head of
your Stenographic Bureau, copies of our illustrated
booklet showing letter styles.
This booklet offers
various suggestions for achieveing a well-balanced
and harmonious letter arrangement.
Now, let us assume that your letter is set up
in good form.
The next test of a business letter
is its content.
Does it bring the desired action
from the reader? This is where our correspondence
consultants are ready to help you get better letter-
writing results.
Your signature on the enclosed card will bring
you complete information about our letter-writing
program for your company.
Very truly yours,
BETThR LETTERS, INC.
James Newman, President
bk
Enclosure
Letter Number Two
February 12, 1953
Mr. R. J. McKillips, Manager
Television-Radio Division
General Electronics, Inc.
Newark 6, New Jersey
Dear Mr. McKillips:
What is the retail price of a Model S7-30 CLEARVU
custom-built console in mahogany veneer with two
full length doors and with a 20-inch screen?
We have Model S6-29, which has the 17-inch screen,
but our customer wants the larger screen and a
console in mahogany veneer.
How soon can delivery be made of Model 37-30?
Yours very truly,
James
mo s
C.
Baxter, President
91
Letter Number Three
February 17, 1953
Mr. Ford G. McClinttc
Princeton
Ohio
Dear Mr. McClintic
It has occurred to me that some of your friends
may be glad to know of a place where they can take
their radios with full assurance that repair work
Won't you
will be done carefully and expertly.
SHOP?
the
SERVICE
RADIO
tell them of
A great many people do not know that the SERVICE
SHOP has a force of expert servicemen on duty at
Your friends will thank you for giving
information, for they can call for serthem
vice day or night and be sure of prompt and efficiall times.
ent work.
As we have had the pleasure of taking care of all
your radio repairs during the past three years, we
hope you will tell your friends about our work.
Thanks ahead of time for anything you can do to
make the SERVICE SHOP known to your friends.
Thanks, too, for the business you have given us.
Sincerely yours
Thomas O. Powell
Manage r
jb
92
Letter Number Four
February 26, 1953
Charles H. McConnell
Manager, Harding Motor Co.
108 Stockton Street
Zanesville, Ohio
Mr.
Dear Mr. McConnell
You were formerly a customer of ours, but for some
reason you have not ordered Treadwear tires during
This we regret, for you were
the past six months.
we
need you as much as we are
and
a good customer,
tires.
our
sure you need
miles, tires flex at least 1,500,000
Our gum-dipping process increases the flexThis means service
ing life of tires 58 per cent.
to tire users.
a
times.
You sold the last shipment of Treadwear tires in a
Why not put in another supply of these
short time.
tires that move quickly? This will mean money to
you and to us.
Yours very truly
TREADWEAR TIRE COMPANY
B. Harman
Sales Manager
J.
ESL
93
Follow-up Letter
May l4, 1953
Mr. T. C. Wright
1259 North Sixth Street
New York
5,
New York
Dear Mr. Wright:
One of our salesmen, Mr. H. T. Harmsworth, has sent
We thank you for this
us a first order from you.
order, and we hope that our business relations will
be satisfactory.
We should like very much to grant you credit, but
we have a disturbing report on your credit rating
which states that some firms are doing business
We know that credit rewith you for cash only.
ports are sometimes in error; so we wish you would
let us have the name of your local bank and other
firms with whom you have had credit. We can then
ask them for a complete report on your credit
standing.
As soon as we establish a favorable rating for you,
Unwe can make shipments to you on open account.
til we can do this, may we ship your order on cash
terms to avoid delay?
Very truly yours,
E.
EHB:LC
H.
Brown, Credit Manager
APPENDIX D
Keystone Overhead Projector with Flashmeter