-1-
AN IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM FOR ANALYZING
FLUID SHEAR STRESSED ENDOTHELIUM
by
William Ivan Ogilvie
1-
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE
DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
AT
THE
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MAY
1981
William Ivan Ogilvie 1981
@
The author grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to
distribute copies of this thesis in whole or in part.
Signature of Author., -.
....
-
.......
......
.
Department of Electri al Engineering
Certified.....................
.................
/1C.
Forbes D qey/
Jr.
Thesis Supe vi6 r
Accepted by .......
,
...
. ... ..
.; ....
...................
Irch
RF
Professor David Adler, Chairman,
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE Departmental Committee on Theses
OF TECHNOLOGY
AUG 25 1981
UBRAUIES
,
-2-
AN IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM FOR ANALYZING
FLUID SHEAR STRESSED ENDOTHELIUM
by
WILLIAM IVAN OGILVIE
Submitted to the Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science on May 22,
1981 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science.
ABSTRACT
Vascular endothelium, when it is subjected to fluid shear stress,
adopts an elongated shape in the direction of fluid flow.
The morpho-
logical response of vascular endothelium, to shear stress, is being
studied to better understand the role that shear stress has in
arterial diseases.
This thesis describes a computer system for analysing these
effects.
A high resolution camera is used to store an image of
endothelium into computer memory, where it can be analyzed directly.
Thesis Supervisor:
Title:
C. Forbes Dewey, Jr.
Professor
-3-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To all the people who have helped me with this
project, I express my gratitude.
To my advisor,
Professor C. Forbes Dewey, I am most indebted.
His
enthusiasm and confidence in my capabilities could not
have been more motivating.
My appreciation also goes
to Steve Bussolari, Ken Kalamuck, and Judy Steciak, for
their friendly encouragement.
To Professor Berthold K.P. Horne, and other faculty
members of the Department of Electrical Engineering and
Computer Science, I offer my humble thanks for the
knowledge they have imparted to me.
And to my parents
and family, whose patience, support, and guidance have
helped me grow with each step, I am most grateful.
-4-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract .............
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List of Figures ...............
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Introduction..................
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Data Acquisition From Images..
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Hardware Components of The Sys tem
The Camera and its Interface..
17
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Software Design Issues.........
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Image Storage Considerations..
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Edge Detection................
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Miscellaneous Routines.........
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Conclusion ....................
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Pixel Addressing..............
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Bibliography..................
58
Appendix A - The Program...........................
59
-5-
LIST OF FIGURES
1.
Vascular Endothelium
7
2.
Line Drawing of Shear Stress Apparatus
9
3.
Effect of Shear Stress on Endothelium
10
4.
Apple II Graphics Screen Tables
18
5.
Pixel Addressing
31
6.
Graphics Line and Ray Pattern
40
7.
Dynamic Window Positioning
42
8.
Filling in a Gap
44
9.
Problems with Sharp Edges
45
10.
Resolving Sharp Edges
46
11.
Angular Segments
47
12.
Examples 1,2 of Edge Detection
49
13.
Examples 3,4 of Edge Detection
50
14.
Image Transformations
53
15.
Table (3) of CALLable Routines
56
16.
Table (4) of Keystroke Commands
57
-6-
INTRODUCTION
Vascular endothelial cells line the interior of
blood vessels, where they are subjected to shear stress
from the flow of blood.
The magnitude of this shear
stress is known to vary widely from one region of an
artery to another.
Since arterial diseases appear to
be most prevalent in regions of high shear stress, some
researchers have developed hypotheses that propose a
causal relationship between fluid shear stress and the
development of arterial diseases.
A consistently observed effect of fluid shear stress
on vascular endothelium is the alignment of cells with
the direction of blood flow.
When the flow changes, the
cells re-orient themselves to the new direction.
A
photomicrograph of cells that have not been subjected to
fluid shear stress is shown in Fig. 1.
This characteristic of vascular endothelium, when it
is subjected to fluid shear stress, is the subject of a
-7-
Figure 1: Vascular Endothelium
-8-
collaborative study by the Fluid Mechanics Laboratory of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
and the
Vascular Pathophysiology Laboratory of the Peter Bent
Brigham Hospital.
The purpose of this research is to
quantify the response of vascular endothelium to shear
stress.
This is done by analyzing the shapes of cells
that nave been subjected to a known, controlled shear
stress.
An apparatus for producing controlled shear stress on
in vitro tissue was developed by Bussolari (1).
As is
indicated in Fig. 2, tissue cultures are placed in the
lower plate, and the two plates are brought together,
until the fluid in the lower plate completely wets the
upper plate.
A variable speed motor is magnetically
coupled to the upper plate; which in turn drives the
fluid.
Shear stresses over the full range that are
observed in vivo can be produced with this apparatus on
in vitro specimens.
Figure 3 shows the effect of 48 Hrs.
of shear stress on a sample.
-9-
Figure 2: Line drawing of shear stress apparatus.
For testing,
the plate is raised until contact is made with the
apex of the rotating cone.
-10-
Fig. la: Pnotomicrograph of incubator control
endotielial specimen at 48h
(mag. 100X).
Fig lb: Photomicrograph of endothelial specimen
2
exposed to 8 dynes/cm
for 48h (mag. 100X)
-11-
The method used to analyze the effects of fluid
shear stress was to fit the call shapes to an ellipse.
York (2) wrote a computer program to do this calculation
on a set of data points that describe a cell's shape.
The program was written in Basic, and ran on a Tektronix
4051 computer. A plotter pen was used to trace out the
outline of a cell, with a photomicrograph as a guide.
At regular intervals, the pen's position could be
transmitted to the computer.
Qualitative measurements can be done on vascular
endothelium to investigate the effects of fluid shear
stress, by applying York's method to cells that have
been subjected to controlled shear stress in the apparatus
designed by Bussolari.
Small numbers of cells can be
analyzed from photomicrographs, but the procedure is not
suitable for collecting a large data base.
A faster,
and more direct way of acquiring position values to
describe the cell's shape is needed.
-12-
This thesis describes an alternative method of
acquiring the data points.
A video camera is used to
load an image of the cells into a computer's memory.
Image processing programs analyze each cell, and return
sets of data points to the ellipse-fit program.
This
method is fast, and it frees the operator from having
to enter each data point.
-13-
DATA ACQUISITION FROM IMAGES
The cell shape analysis program described in
York's thesis
(2) was adapted to run on the Apple II
computer that was dedicated to this project.
The
Apple is a versatile unit that, in size and appearance,
resembles a portable typewriter.
Like a typewriter, it
has a built-in keyboard that is arranged in the usual
fashion.
However, it doesn't print, and requires a
video monitor for listing programs or displaying graphics.
Programs can be written by entering statements with the
keyboard.
Basic programs, such as the cell shape analysis
program, are interpreted by a Basic interpreter program
that is stored in read only memory (ROM).
Two floppy
disk drives, for permanent storage of programs and data, a
printer, and a graphics tablet are also connected to the
Apple.
Cell shapes can be input to the program using a
graphics tablet.
By tracing out a cell outline on
-14-
this tablet with a stylus, the operator can enter a
set of coordinates about the perimeter of the cell.
The
program uses these coordinates to do an ellipse fit to
For a large number of cells, this process
the cell.
is time-consuming. A more automated and controllable
method of data input to the best-fit ellipse program is
needed.
Each photomicrograph of endothelium can contain
several cells
(e.g. Fig. 1).
With the use of a video
camera, the complete image can be stored directly in
memory.
The shape of each cell can be determined
once an image of sufficient resolution is available in
memory.
If this method is largely automatic, the data
acquisition process
will be faster and more controlled.
Once an image is in memory, it can be modified and
analyzed by programs the operator selects.
Extraneous
artifacts, which would be noise to a shape detection
program, can be removed and desireable features enhanced.
-15-
In this regard, there are two ways of performing
operations to a stored image.
The operator can,
interactively, do a series of small changes to the image,
while observing the effect on a graphics display, or he
can run a program that requires no operator input.
These
two classes of programs are, respectively, interactive
and task programs.
Many of the operations that have to be done on an
image are quite involved, and would be very time consuming
to do in Basic.
Thus it is necessary to write these
routines in the base level language of the computer.
The
speed advantage that comes from writing these programs in
assembly language comes at a cost in complexity and
difficulty of programming.
Despite these apparent
difficulties, an assembly language program once written,
can be interfaced to a Basic program quite easily.
This
is important, because Basic supports disk operations, is
a versatile supervisor program language, and is the
environment of the cell analysis program.
-16-
An assembly language program can be linked to Basic
with a CALL statement.
This statement results in a
jump to the memory location to which the operand of the
instruction points.
All information necessary for the
continuation of the Basic program is stored, and the
computer begins executing code at the call routine entry
point.
From this assembly code program, a subroutine
return instruction (RTS) will transfer control back to
the Basic program.
Because the assembly language program
can modify any area of memory, it can return data by
over-writing a Basic program data area.
This method has the advantage that two operating
environments are available to the user.
In the Basic
program, statistical, and algebraic operations can be
done on data that is extracted from images in the graphics
environment.
The assembly language image processing
routines are selectable from Basic, and always return the
user to it.
-17-
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM
The Apple II is a micro-processor based system with
several built in features.
It has circuitry for displaying
text or graphics on a video monitor, and comes with an
integral typewriter-like keyboard.
A joystick, which
can be used to move a cursor around on the screen, plugs
into the mother board inside the case.
Each of these
devices requires a minimal amount of support software.
For most applications, a monitor software package, written
in ROM, provides the necessary support.
This is particularly
true for the keyboard input and text displays on the video
monitor.
However, high-level graphics functions are not
supported.
Four memory areas are referred to as screen pages.
At any time, one of these areas is used as a storage area
for the video display.
The location, and display
characteristics of these screen pages are described in
table 1.
-18-
Figure 4: Apple II graphics screen tables.
Table 1:
Screen
Video Display Memory Ranges
Page
Text/Lo-Res
Hi-Res
Begins at:
Ends at:
Hex
Decimal
Primary
$400
1024
$ 7FF
2047
Secondary
$800
2048
$BFF
3071
Primary
$2000
8192
$3FFF
16383
Secondary
$4000
16384
$5FFF
24575
Table 2: Screen Soft Switches
Location:
Description:
Hex
Decimal
$C050
49232
-16304
Display a GRAPHICS mode
$C051
49233
-16303
Display a TEXT Mode
$C052
49234
-16302
Display all TEXT or GRAPHICS
$C053
$C054
49235
49236
-16301
-16300
Mix TEXT and a GRAPHICS mode
Display the Primary page (Page 1)
$C056
49238
-16298
Display LO-RES GRAPHICS mode
$C057
49239
-16297
Display HI-RES GRAPHICS mode
-19-
A program can switch between display modes by
addressing certain memory locations.
These addresses
are referred to as soft switches. the memory locations,
and the graphics modes that they enable are shown in
table 2.
Other devices can be incorporated into the system
by plugging an interface printed circuit board into the
I/O slots on the motherboard of the Apple.
A single
interface board powers two cable-connected floppy disk
drives, and another board drives a printer.
The interface boards each have a ROM that contains
the coding for the device drivers.
This memory area
is enabled, and is directly executed by the Apple's
microprocessor when the peripherial device is operated.
The Apple II uses a 6502 microprocessor chip, which
is manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices.
The device
has an 8 bit wide data bus, but can address 64 Kbytes
of memory.
-20-
There is one accumulator and two index registers.
The first 256 locations are referred to as the basepage. these locations are used as indirect pointers to
other locations.
The X register is used to index
through a base-page pointer table, while the Y register
can be used to index through the effective address area.
Each addressing mode has its uses, and since there are
only a few base-page locations left for user programs,
careful choices have to be made.
-21-
THE CAM4ERA AND ITS INTERFACE
The Hamamatsu camera is designed to be operated
The unit consists
under the control of a computer.
of a compact camera, connected by a thick cable to
a controller chassis.
It is interfaced to the computer
with an interface board that plugs into a slot in the
controller.
This board is connected with a cable to
an interface Doard in the Apple II.
Its best performance is in subdued lignt, and it
can be damaged if it is aimed at bright sunlight.
An
aperture adjustment on the lens, and a red warning LED
against
are the only protection
can also damage the vidicon,
anywhere near it.
this.
Photo
flashes
and should not be used
When the camera is not in use, the
lens assembly should be unscrewed, and the flat aluminium
cap screwed in its place;
to protect the vidicon from
high light levels and flying debri.
The camera's image space consists of a 1024 X 256
frame of 8 bit pixels.
With interlacing, the vertical
-22-
resolution can be increased to 512 or 1024 lines.
When this feature is selected, subsequent frames are
snifted vertically, and 1 or 3 extra horizontal lines
appear between the original, non-interlaced ones.
Although this is beyond the resolution capabilities
of most video monitors, an image processing computer
program can make full use of it.
The camera scans a complete frame in 1/60 Sec.,
Dut the analog to digital convertor (A/D) is not fast
enough to digitize each sequential pixel in the video
signal.
The video signal has a bandwidth of 15 MHz.,
while the A/D has a maximum conversion rate of 40 KHz.
A norizontal scan line intersects with a vertical sample
line at each point that a conversion is done.
The
controller can be programmed to start a conversion at
any X address.
Successive vertical conversions in either direction
can occur automatically, or by explicit computer commands
to the controller.
It responds to set-up commands that
can be used to put it in a auto-decrement or auto-increment
mode for X addressing
-23-
As each pixel in
a vertical line is
converted,
the byte is stored in a buffer, or I/O memory area.
This array of intensity bytes can be transmitted to
the host computer after the entire line has been
When the I/O transfer takes place, the
converted.
X address is automatically incremented or decremented,
if eitner auto-increment or auto-decrement were selected
by set-up commands.
Otherwise, the next sequence of
conversions are done on the same vertical line.
When interlacing is selected, two or four I/O
transfers take place before the line X address is
changed.
Thus, every second or fourth pixel intensity
value is transmitted in each array, and two or four
arrays have to be merged to obtain a correctly ordered
line.
The Hamamatsu camera interfaces to the Apple II with
an IEEE-488 interface board.
This interfacing standard
was established as a common interface protocol for
computer equipment. (3)
Several devices can be plugged
in to the common GPIB bus and controlled individually by
the computer.
In one sense, it is like an extension of
-24-
the Apple I/O bus.
Each device has a primary address,
and may have several secondary addresses that are used
for selecting a device, and a function of that device.
When the computer issues a system reset command,
a common reset line goes active, and each device is
put in an initial, known state.
This Listener state,
as it is referred to in the literature, (3,4) enables
the devices to receive valid set-up commands when
their primary addresses are sent over the bus.
Other
addresses, and invalid set-up commands are ignored.
Each set-up command is preceded by a secondary address,
and consists of a sequence of ASCII characters.
A set-up command can be sent to a device to make
The device then transmits the contents
it a Talker.
of its buffer to the computer, and reverts back to the
Listener state.
Tne advantage of this protocol is, that as much as
is
possible,
way.
all devices are handled in
a consistent
Tnis frees the programmer from having to concern
himself with hardware aspects of pripherial devices
when writing a program.
-25-
The data transferred after each Talk command
consists of sequential intensity values from the
256 point vertical line.
The camera controller
reloads its buffer during each frame, and can transmit
it during the frame blanking interval.
(.75 mS.)
This assumes that the call routine, that is executed
by the the code stored in ROM on the interface board,
can retreive the data and store it in memory in that
amount of time.
Otherwise, the maximum throughput,
as set by the vertical line conversion, would not be
realizeable.
However, without even considering the
timing requirements of all the I/O code, it is clear
that this throughput cannot be realized; because four
cycles of the 1 MHz. processor clock are required to
load each of the 256 bytes in memory.
This is true
for both interlaced, as well as non-interlaced modes;
only the scaling factors change.
Each line transfer takes two frame periods.
ITo
transfer a complete, non-interlaced frame to the Apple
takes 31 seconds.
Not all of this information can be
-26-
used by the Apple II.
The minimum image set of
the camera is 256 Kbytes;
but the Apple only has
16 Kbytes of graphics memory.
Clearly some
pruning of information has to take place.
intelligent
This would
decrease the time required to load an image into
memory.
-27-
SOFTWARE DESIGN ISSUES
There are several issues involved in the design
of an image processing system.
Trade-offs have to
be made between image resolution and program space,
because there is never enough memory to fulfill all
the requirements of both.
Image processing
operations often consist of a few primative functions
that are done to every pixel.
To speed up iterative
programs, programmers will resort to in-line coding
techniques that expand loops into straight line
sections of code;
with no backwards jumps.
This
approach can greatly increase the memory requirements
of a program, and should be used sparingly when memory
is at a premium.
A better method is to use fast
algorithms when at all possible
-28-
IMAGE STORAGE CONSIDERATIONS
An issue of primary importance, at the outset
of this project, was how much memory to allocate
Any useful adaption of the
for memory storage.
camera to established Apple conventions requires that
part of the camera's image space be mapped to the
Apple's graphics area.
This is essentially the
only free area of memory that is large and contiguous,
and the image should be at least partly visible to
tne operator.
Two bits of pixel gray scale is
adequate for the microscope images, and there are,
conveniently, two identical high resolution graphics
screen pages.
Set-up instructions to the camera allow the user
to start a series of vertical scans at any X-coordinate
position.
The software routine which concatenates
each intensity value, and stores a two bit value in
the two screen pages, will use whatever block of 192
bytes is selected.
Effectively, this reduces the
-29-
I/O transfer by 1/4.
This means that it takes
8 Sec. to load an image in the Apple's memory.
By
convention, the primary page pixels have a weight
of 2, and the secondary page pixels a weight of 1.
This method guarantees that any part of the
camera's image space can be used to fill the 280 X 192
pixel Apple high resolution screen pages.
can only be displayed indiviaually.
The screens
However, it is
not important for the operator to be able to see
the gray scale image, because a common purpose of
most image processing operations is to simplify a
binary image.
Much information is lost in the
process, but the object is to isolate one feature
of the image.
-30-
PIXEL ADDRESSING
As shown in Fig. 5, seven pixels are packed
in each byte.
Along a horizontal line, there is
a quasi-ordering of pixels in memory.
It takes
three bytes to isolate any one pixel; two address
bytes, and a mask byte.
Along a vertical line, there is no discernable
order to the addresses.
Because of this, address
calculation involves the addition of several quantities,
depending on what vertical section, box, or line the
pixel is in.
Even with table look-ups, as is used
in the program, this is a slow calculation.
It is often possible to program entirely with
fast address squencing.
In this way, a pixel
address is continually modified as the cursor single
steps in the vertical or horizontal direction.
This
is a useful technique for single moves, but is
unworkable for general step sizes.
However, when
single step address recalculation is used most of
the time, screen operations run quickly.
-31-
Figure 5: Pixel addressing in the High resolution
graphics screen of the Apple II.
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-32-
Two routines, NEXTX and NEXTY modify the
cursor address and mask bytes.
If the accumulator
is positive, when one of these routines is entered,
then the cursor is moved one position to the right
A negative accumulator has
or one position down.
the opposite result.
The Y register returns 80 (hex)
if the operation places the cursor at a screen edge,
or tries to place the cursor past an edge.
This
convention is maintained throughout the cursor move
routines.
There are two locations for cursor addresses
in the base page, and two mask byte locations in
tne program data area.
These bytes are usually
addressed with the X register index instructions.
Tne X register is 0 or 2, depending on which set of
bytes is being accessed.
To prevent indexing errors,
the X register is not used for anything else.
This
technique allows a single routine , such as NEXTX or
NEXTY. to operate on two cursor addresses independently.
-33-
The address and mask bytes are not sufficient
description of a pixel location for all operations.
Since this representation is not monotonic with the
position of pixels, displacements can not be easily
calculated, and the joystick output does not map to
it well.
For this, and other reasons, a dual
system of position representation is used.
Besides the address and mask bytes, two
X-coordinate bytes, and one Y-coordinate byte are
used to form a position representation that is
monotonic.
Two bytes are required for the X-position
because there are 280 locations in the X direction,
and a single byte can address no more than 256.
To
facilitate fast table look-ups of actual pixel addresses,
HIGHBYTE(X) = LOWBYTE(X)
has a range of
mod 70 .
Thus, the high X byte
0 to 3, and the low X byte has a range
of 0 to 45 (hex).
In the listing, they are called
TXEXT and TXPOS, respectively.
the left edge of the screen.
They are both zero at
-34-
Similarly, the Y-coordinate byte has a
range of
0 to BF (hex),
in the listing.
and is
referred to as TYPOS
It is zero at the top of the screen.
Although this places the origin at the top left
corner of the screen, the data that is sent to Basic
is normalized to a more acceptable coordinate system
that places the origin at the lower left corner of
the screen.
The routines FINDX and FINDY are used to convert
these coordinate bytes to a set of address and mask
bytes.
Absolute moves,
such as are required to
support the joystick, are done by calculating a new
cursor address from the coordinate representation.
These three coordinate bytes
(TXEXT, TYPOS, TXPOS)
are an output from the joystick service routine,
which is called PUTPOS in the listing.
Relative moves, as required by the key-stroke
cursor commands, use two other routines: XMOVE, and
YMOVE.
The accumulator contents are added to the
respective coordinate values, when one of these routines
is called.
The two routines already mentioned, FINDX,
and FINDY, are used to calculate the actual address.
-35-
Address calculation from the monotonic
coordinate bytes a priori updates the address and
mask bytes as well.
A necessary side-effect of
address recalculation is therefore the update of
coordinate bytes.
The overall effect is an
addressing system that is optimal for speed, and
conceptually clean.
It is a good basis to build
higher level image processing routines on.
-36-
EDGE DETECTION
Microscope images of endothelium
are noisy
and show many artifacts from slide preparation.
For
example, in Fig. 1, there are missing edges, changes
in lightness along edges, and adjacent areas of
similar brightness that are not part of an edge.
The
Hamamatsu camera can be used to bit threshold an
image.
This produces a binary image that has only
two values of illumination.
Each point that was
brighter than some reference level becomes white, and
all others black.
Bit thresholding an image, such as the one in
Fig. 1, will not enhance the signal to noise level.
This can only be done by some operation that recognizes
edges.
Since it is a prerequisite to edge detection,
this enhancement, if needed, has to be done by the
operator.
processing
There are available, in the present image
software package, ways of doing this.
"brushes" can be enabled, to modify either large, or
small areas of the image; under cursor control.
Two
-37-
The little brush writes a value
location under the cursor's centre.
in the pixel
For example,
if the operator enabled this feature with a "P2"
command, the secondary page pixel will be zero'd,
and the primary page pixel will be set to one.
The big brush is similar, except that all pixels
under the cursor are modified.
These work for
both cursor placement modes.
The cursor could be used to trace out an
outline of a cell, in order to acquire points
about its
perimeter.
However,
there is
no
improvement in this method over other, earlier ones.
A much more interesting approach is to have the
program automatically search for the edge of a cell.
These edges are distinct enough, even with two bits
of gray scale, and "brush" work can be used to
eliminate unwanted artifacts, and to make edges
continuous.
-38-
One approach to edge detection would be to
place the cursor on an edge, and have it "climb
along the ridge", until it returned to the starting
point.
A sequence of evenly-spaced position values,
derived from this operation, is sufficient edge
definition.
However, there has to be a more
systematic criteria for determining where the edge is,
and how the program should follow it.
Among the problems with this first approach to
edge detection are:
1)
The edges have to be continuous
2)
Intersections cause problems
3)
Inward pointing wall fragments
conflict with any method for 2.
4)
Thick edges cause the program
to hang-up by:
i
circling within a thick region
ii unevenly spaced positions
iii not recognizing its return
-39-
These problems all result from the inability
of the program to recognize that it
a closed curve.
dealing with
is
Since cells always have edges that
are closed curves, it seems reasonable to include
this factor as an integral part of the algorithm.
The method which was used successfully to
recognize cell shapes anticipates a cell that is
oughly circular.
With the cursor in a cell's
centre, a series of radial rays are generated that
cross the cell wall at some region.
Each individual
line is produced Dy a sequence of horizontal and
vertical steps, as Fig. 6a illustrates.
These lines
are not drawn on the screen, but if they were, the
pattern would look like Fig. 6b.
As each ray is extended, the distance from the
centre is continually, and very accurately updated.
Pixel values are integrated, and a double byte
accumulation of the product of each pixel value, and
its distance from the centre, is done.
_
_____I____ 1;I
I__~r_~ 1~_ _
0
___
__~~ -~C~II~-OC
-m__--C~
00
eeo Ob
I
-40-
0
0 @0*
Y -
step =
3
X-step
=4
Figure 6a: A straight line as it is formed on the
graphics screen
Figure 6b:
Ray pattern of edge search program
__-1---
--~i~-
-41-
When the line ends, the position of greatest luminance
is calculated from these two sums.
The calculated
position is very close to the perceived location of
the cell wall.
Although the accumulated product term is two bytes,
an overflow can occur on a long ray.
This happens
when the accumulated sum exceeds 65,536.
A typical
scenerio for this is a line over 200 units long, that
passes through a bright region.
To eliminate this
problem, and to speed up the position acquisition, a
narrow tracking window is used.
length is between -W and +W.
In Fig. 7, the window
These distances, from C,
are calculated from the last ray's intersection with
the cell edge.
Since there will usually be no large
discontinuities along the edge, this method permits the
use of a small window, and tracks the edge quite well.
When no luminance is found, within the bounds of
the window, one more dot is fudged, using the centre of
window position as a good approximation.
The window
length is doubled, in anticipation of another miss, and
the next ray is
not fudged.
-42-
Figure 7:
Dynamic window positioning
-43-
Figure 8 illustrates this use of the previous
edge location to fill a gap.
Subsequent rays cannot
continue this pattern, since it would lead to inaccuracies.
It is, nevertheless, a good featurelecause it offers
a good solution to the miss problem with diffuse
edges.
Since the window is dynamically centered
about the edge,
noise averages out.
To improve the chances of locking back in on an
edge, once it has been lost, the window length is
doubled after each miss.
However, this does not
always guarantee that the edge will be found immediately.
In Fig. 9, the sharp transition at the top results in
a series of misses.
The first ray, after the apex, is
a miss; but it is filled in.
The next ray is also a
miss, despite the larger window.
This can be corrected
by placing the cursor closer to the apex.
Figure 10
illustrates how this solves the problem, by placing
the sample points closer together.
The full 360
degree sweep can't be used, because the lower sharp
edge will cause misses.
Instead, angular segments,
as shown in Fig. 11, are used.
-44-
MISSES
FUDGED
Figure 8: Filling in
a gap
ZA/
APEX
-2W1~
Figure 9: Problems with sharp edges
(D
FH-
Ti)
(D
H
(D
L-
LQ*
En.5.
#see.tea
0 D M
-il------ --i--;-;i;;-__~--=--~-
s~-
-
-s-
-- - --r~__-_
.~__-__a
--~----- 1;-m--^--- _----i~
1
-47-
Fig. Ila: Top edge-detection angular segment, used
with tne "TG" command.
Fig. llb:
Bottom segment the reverse
Side angular segments, used with "SG".
-48-
Messages are displayed, according to the
status of an operation.
After each search, a message
If most
is printed stating the number of misses.
attempts fail, another message appears telling the
operator to re-position the cursor.
When the buffer
is filled up, a message appears, offering the operator
two choices.
The buffer can be re-initialized, or
the set of position values can be written in a Basic
data area.
Each set of three coordinate bytes is
reduced to a normalized X,Y pair of bytes.
With this system, cell shapes can be acquired
and transferred to Basic very quickly.
It takes
about 5 Sec. to acquire a well-spaced set of 64
data points.
It is very accurate, with most of the
points coinciding with the perceived location of
the wall.
This is illustrated by the actual photographs
in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13.
A maximum of 255 data points
can be transferred to Basic this way.
than adequate for most purposes.
This is more
_I
_~___
_^_I ___ ~~_
_ _Ib~ _D_
__~ 4~~~__
~_~1____1_1_~ __1______~
-49-
Fig. 12a:
Fig.
12b:
Edge detected with a TG and a MG command.
Edge detected with MG command.
-50-
Fig. 13a:
Fig.
13b:
Edge detected with TG, BG, SG, and MG.
Ecige detected with several of eaclh command.
-51-
MISCELLANEOUS ROUTINES
Two task routines can De used to erase the graphics
pages.
In the listing, they are referred to as
PBLANX and SBLANX.
They run very quickly, because
there is no need to address individual pixels, and the
order that pixels are turned off doesn't matter.
Four programs are available for doing two-dimensional
smoothing.
Three, or five adjacent pixels are averaged
on a line, and the centre pi el,
at each step along
the line is assigned that average value.
has slightly different characteristics.
Each routine
They are
called SMI, SM2, SM3, and SM4.
Two programs perform a two dimensional dervative
across the screen.
zero.
Negative derivatives are set to
This program could be more useful if more gray
scale were available.
EDGEDO transforms a solid, light against dark background
image to a line image of the same scene.
It is useful
for converting images to a fcormat that the edge
detection program can use.
-52-
Each of these routines is a TASK program, that
is CALL'd from the Basic environment.
Except for
the screen blanking programs, they all use a program
for doing an ordered scan of the screen.
This
program, SCAN, will do any of four screen scan patterns,
and continually updates a set of pixel values that are
local to the current position of the cursor.
A sequence of operations can be done to an image
with these programs, to transform it to a different
type of image that might have some information more
accessable.
Such a sequence is shown in Fig. 14.
Il
3
1
I
I
-53-
Fig. 14a:
Original noisy
binary image.
Fig. 14b:
Smoothed with
SM2.
Fig. 14c:
Interiors removed
by edgedo.
I
--
-54-
CONCLUSION
The image processing software resides in a free area
of memory immediately following the screen pages.
Basic
calls to image processing routines have the following
syntax:
CALL
(exp) ; where exp is a decimal number, not
greater than 65,536,
and corresponding to an entry point.
There are nine entry points to different task routines,
and one entry point to an interactive routine.
Tne reason
why they were not all combined in one large interactive
program, is to minimize the danger of accidental image
erasure.
These programs have already been discussed,
but they are summarized again in table 3.
The interactive program has several keystroke commands.
They are all described in table 4.
The image processing system is designed to make the
best use of system resources and operator interaction.
A
relatively simple algorithm is used to detect edges, but it
is quite reliable and fast.
-55-
This system was designed with a modular structure
that simplifies later expansion.
It is only necessary
for a programmer to satisfy the input requirements of
each module, and the precedence of module operations to
add other high-level operations.
The software listing
that follows (Appendix A) is thoroughly commented, and
provides a concise guide to the program's structure.
is my hope that others will find it a useful source
of knowledge of' the program and of assembly methods.
It
-56-
Table of CALLable routines
Figure 15:
CALL ADDRESS
NAME
START
24576
PURPOSE
Main interactive program,
detects edges, draws on
screens,
EDGEDO
24579
two cursor modes
Task program, removes interior
of binary image on primary
page, leaving only edge.
SM1-SM4
24582,24585,24587,24590
Task routines, do twodimensional smoothing
LAPLA1, LAPLA2
24593,24596
Task routines, do derivative
in both directions, zero neg.
derivative
PBLANX,SBLANX
24599,24602
Task routines, clear the
primary, or secondary screens
-57-
Figure 16:
Table of Key-Stroke Commands
KEY CODE
OPERATION PERFORMED
J...............enable
joystick to control cursor
H..............enable key-stroke commands to move cursor
U
............. move up
D
.............. move down
R
.............move right
L
............. move left
decimal places, if in key mode
decimal places, if in key mode
decimal places, if in key mode
decimal places, if in key mode
esc..............return
to Basic
sp sp.............return
to Basic
sp P ............. write
sp @ .......
......
write
, should be less than 4, to screen a t cursor
*cursor to screen, Big Brush
sp E..............turn off both brushes
MG .......
.......
360 degree sweep for cell edge
TG...............
270 degree sweep, centred at top
BG.................
270 degree sweep, centred at bottom
SG................ two 90 degree sweeps, on either side
$.................flush
buffer
X.................transfer buffer to Basic, and exit
Zo................ display secondary screen
zl.
............... display primary screen
-58-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Bussolari, Steven R.
An Apparatus For Subjecting Vascular
Endothelium to Controlled Fluid Shear Stress IN VITRO, S.M.
Thesis, M.I.T.,
2)
M.E.,
May , 1980.
York, David P. A Method For Quantifying Cellular Alignment
of Vascular Endothelium Subjected to Fluid Shear Stress, S.B.
Thesis, M.I.T.,M.E.,
June, 1980.
3) ANSI/IEEE, IEEE Standard Digital Interface for Programmable
Instrumentation, std 488-1978 IEEE Inc.,
345 East 47th N.Y.
4)Hamamatsu, M999-04 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) Manual.
-59-
APPENDIX A
THE PROGRAM
LISTING
-60,C.
,
I ..
T
2
EP-'Z 7
EPZ $9
EPZ $-!9
3
4
5
STAX
BUFF
61 JOYSTK
STRI NG EPPZ sG
8
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HTB
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11
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-3
6000
6003 4C0-6E
6006 42C-6E
JPi ST-ART
J.iP
i3
6009 4C:4B6E
600C
G00F
6012
6015
6018
60i8
4C626E
4C6E
4C986E
4CBr3:6E
4C2264C2769
ti,;E 60
601F GSO
6020 60
602! 60
ADeoco
8DiC:
18
6980
26
2'3
2-'
QUES
JMP SBLI4141
:..
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-DER
.L :-,
_PR 7I
aRY SCREE.
SECONDORY SCREEN BL.NOX
R i..iT UE
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YTHIS ROTL TNE POLLS
KEYBOPR-!
SCLEAR SiGN BIT
'.-
BNE FOGO
JSR TYIN
45,
7T4E
LDA 4.C:1000
STA $C0 !
CHP OxitT
.BNE
NOTOUT
JSR OUTSET
ISC
T 4 :-.-
GOTO OTHER TESTS
YES , GET PNOTE- FER: TEr
;NO,
NOT r ANOTHER s.CE!
;GOOD, SOMETHING E E
;GOOD-BYE
NOTOUT CHP ii$0
SNE NPPINT
T 7
SR PAINT
54
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6049
D006
604 4C:5860
204Ei63
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JiF-,P F'iiO
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BNE NERs-SE
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6058 60
INTERiLCTihiE POG.
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PO ;IT-O .O"STIC E..PSE PPGE PDDRESS
BASIC STRING POINTER
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STAp'RT ADDRESS gOR h~-ESS
POINTER inR HESSAGES
-CHFRACTER
279
6033 209960
6036 C900
6038 D003
6044 4C5860-.
6047 C5 .-
CURSOR ,,DRESS
:E-O,
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imp S- M12
JMP
6033 1 1i2.,5
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203362
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DO@&.
2036863
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8022
6022
6022 20 .0.
6025 60
60:26
6026
6029
602C
6020
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55
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57
59
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BNE FOO
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-61-
1
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6068 604
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6084
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GOB7 BIl0
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606B EE3772
GOBE D00F7
60C0 EE3672
60C3 4CB7660
60C6 0AD3672
60C9 1008
60CB A900
GOCD 803872
60D0 80D3772
60D3 60
60D
600D4
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
.122
133
134
135
136
1371
138
i39
140
141
GOD4
60D4
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6OD4 205980
60D7 200961
800A A980
6'0DC 804672
6ODF 8D4272
60E2 803072
60E5 A04272
6OE8 3003
60EA 4C2260
60E0 A200
60EF 207761
60F2 20386
60F5 202660
6OF8 804572
6OFB 209861
60FE AD4072
6101 10E2
6103 206863
6106 4CE560
6109
6109
8109 202E61
81OC AD0272
61OF 8519
6111 P000372
6114 851 Q
6116 AD3670
8119 85F6
6118 0AD3770
G811IE 85D07
6120 94
6122 8510
6124 A9C:0
8126 851E
*8;a;
I-.A
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804j7
6120 60
612E
612E
a-
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
15
155
156
15il
158
159
GETPOS LDA $C070
GET C:OUiNTER GOING
WHERE LOP (JOYSTK) ,Y -READ NUMEER
BED FINALE
;PALREADY ZERO ??!
iNC TEMP2
;NO,
BUMP COUNTERS
BNE
I N C WHERE
OUERFLOW?
INC TEMP1
;BUM1P NEXT BYTE
J.HP WHERE
FINALE LDA TEMPi
BPL GETRID
;NO NEGATIUE NUMBERS PLEASE
LD[4 #$0
;ZERO THE WORKS
STA TEMP1
TEMP2
RTS
iET STR
GETRID
RTS
I
START
JSR INIT
LORD#t8o
STA PSOURC.
STA OFLA
STA BLTFLG
LOPS
__~
INIT
172
173
174
175
177
17
179
180
1i81
LID
FLAPG
BPL DRAW
LOPS
.JSR
JMP LOPS
162
163
i69
170
171
STAYIN
BASIC
#$0
PLACES
XORCUR
QUES
CHMND
J'R TNPLC:
CURGOI
I
66
187
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l.-_.UIN
6MI
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STAYIN LOx
JSR
JSR
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STA
i60
!65
JSR LITE
JSR
LDP
STA
LOP
STA
LOA
STA
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STA
LOA
STA
LOP
STO
BUFSET
STi1
STAX
STi+!
STAX+!
HESTPE
1TAB
MESTOB+i
HTAB+1
4464
JOYSTK
#$C0
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STA PFRG
RTS
;TURN ON THE LITES
>READY,
ACT!ON,
PROLL-EM. AND SET FLAGS
;EXIT FLG N-EGTED
;NO BRUSHES
;HAD ENOUGH?
;NO, DO MORE
;EXIT TO BASIC
;USE FIRST PIXEL ADDRESS
;GET THE CURSOR
1POSITION
;00 A CURSOR
;POLL FOR A COMMAND
;SAOUE IT FOR A RAINY DAY
;COMMAND INTERPRETER
;ANY BRUSHES ON?
;NO
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...
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SiETUIP POSITION BUFFER
;CURSOR ADDRESS -STAX
SMESSAGESPOINTERS
:SETUP JOYSTICK BASE PAig
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-63-v
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-64-
61 ;E-t
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804172 246
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247
248
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249
2090D60
202962 250
4CB261 251
252
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54
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256
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804472
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4C2262
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61C7 4CD161 265
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6109 4C 2262
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61A5
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61AF
61B2
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81B7
6186
61BD
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61DC A000
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61E1 C9D4
61E3 D0Ei3
61E5
61E8
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61EC
61EF
61F1
61F3
61FG
61F8
61FA
81FD
81FF
6201
6204
6207
620A
4C3762
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0003
4C99i62
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0003
4CBE2
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620C 000
620E 202Eb1
6211 4C22B2
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6218 4C7263
6:218 CSDA
6210
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6222
6225
6228
6229
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207760
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273
274
275
276 NOTOP
277
27.E4
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280
281
282 NOTHID
284
285
286
287
288
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6518
6510
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6522
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6532
6535
6538
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6541 AC C72
6546 C008
6548 D014
654A CE1C72
6540 CEIC72
6550 18
6551 6901
6553 2907
6555 801772
6558
6558
655E
655F
6561
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6901
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6562 290i
6564 F00E
6566 890870
6569 8010I72
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656F 8D1F72
6572 000C
6574 B91070
6577 8010D72
657A 890870
6570 801F72
6580 20965
6583
6586
6589
658C
658F
6592
6594
6596
6597
6594
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6682
6685
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6689
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66P9 ADOB72
66C 8D01472
66AF A900
6661 8DOE72
66B4 205668
6687 200965
66BA 204367
666D 203867
66C0 30F8
66C2 CD0D72
66C5 30F3
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920
921
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92.5
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66CA
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66CE
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942
943
944
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948
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6609
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660C
660F
66E2
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66E9
66EC
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66F1
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66FD
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670P
6700
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571
972
973
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6731
6734
6737
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978
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6738
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673C
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600E72
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8742 60
980
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982
983
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6743
6743
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8748 A01972
6748 200069
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6752 CEI1E72
6755 0018
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675A 8D2072
8750 AD01972
6760 2000D69
6763 C080
6765 F008
6787 P01F72
985
98G.
987
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BEQ FIRST
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JSR NE-TX
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CPY #$80
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1003
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1006
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1007
1008 YFIRST LDA YIR
1.
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1010I
676. CDi172
8780
676F
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6775
6776
6779
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20548A
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677E FOEF
1011
6780 CE2072
6783 0OE
8785 A01DD72
6788 801E72
678B
1ADIA72
678E 20546A
8791 C080
6793 FODP
8795 AD010D72
6798 C:DiF72
879B 3002
6790 0AD1172
870AO 18
67Ai 6D137,2
7A4 8D1372
67A7 AD1 272
7AA 6D1472
SG7 T1 47
102
1013
1014
1045
1016
1017
1018
140
1020
1021
1022
1023
10 24
125
1026
1027
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6788
1930
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6788
1035
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1iS-NGi
STEP
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X DIRECTION
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CPY #$80
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-77-
6788
6788
678E
67C1
67C4
67C7
67CA
67CCO
6700
6702
20376C 1036
805272
201268
B 4E72
201268
BD4A72
201268
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0005
A080
1037
1038
11039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
1045
6704 SC3E72
046
6707 B04f72 1047
SAUDOT
67FB 4P
67FC
67FF
6802
6803
6806
6808
803972
BD4E72
4
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1006
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6808 805F72
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3
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CHP REXT
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LOA TXPOSX
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BPL YBYTE
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3
6812
6812
6812 A000
BUSH
6814 9118
1075
6816 E618
1C07-6
6818 0002
681A E61C
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1177
1078
1079
68D10
6810
681D
180
080
182
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6810
6810 A000
681FPA51
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1095
1096
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SEC
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1094
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72
1073
1074
682D
6820
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107
1093
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L
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6812
6820
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STA XPOS
067
682D
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6826 8002
3
BEQ XBYTE
BPL YBYTE
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6812
6821 38
6822 E01
6824 8518
;ON THE CELL STAX
STY CFLA
1060
5
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87
JSR BUSH
LOY #$80
1061
1062
13
1064.
1065
1066
G80E 20386C 1068
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6811 60
iN1,EX"S FOR POSITION U.ILUES
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JSR BUSH
67DF 1017
1050
67E1 805E72 1051
7E4 805272 1052
67ED BD05272 1055
67F0 CD6072 1056
1057
67F3 1003
67F5 806072 1058
67F8 AD05F72 1059
OIUT
LOP TXPOS.X
LOA TYPOSX
JSR BUSH
LOA TXEXT,X
670A CD5E72 1048
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;AND MOUFES CURSOR UP
BACK
803772 1472
A8
1473
8506
1474
8D3672 1475
29CO
1476
6AD3 0010
1477
6AD5
6AD7
6A09
ADC
EADE
GEO
6AE2
F
C020
0000
A03672
293F
C928
19003
A080
6AE4 60
GP4E5
1478
1479
1480
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
03772 1486
86AE8 38
1487
6E9 E904
1488
6AEB AS
A.EC 2920
8AEE F004
1489
1490
1491
6FO 98
1492
6APF
LINEX
6PF7 18
68-.F8 691C
ADDRH!,X
TEMP2
SILE QODRESSES,
BECAUSE THEY
LO T
;WILL BE MODIFIED 1
F
ADDRLX
TEMP1
#$CO
,
LINEX
#$20
LINEX
TEMPI
#$3F
#$28
L INEX
#$80
TEMP2
-
;IRST TEST FOR LAST LINE
TOP LINE ADDRESS
GET LOT PTDRESS
-
YTOP LINE,
;i.E
CAN'T GO ANY FURTHER
IP ALINE IN A BOX
BY SUBTRACTING $4
#$4
TcY
4C1F6B 1493
6.F4 A03772 1494
LDA
STA
TPY
LDA
STA
AND
BNE
CPY
BNE
LOP
AND
CHP
BPL
LOY
RTS
LOA
SEC
SBC
BLOCK
1495
1496
AND4#$20
BEQ BLOCK
TYA
JHP BLOADS
.._ LONG AS ITS NOT LESS THAN 20
;TEST FOR SIZE
LOP TEMP2
;HOUE UP TO NEXT BOX
CLC
.
ADC #$iC
STA TEMP?
6AFA 803772 1497
; MOVE 1S DONE
OERTUE NEXT BOX AODRESS
JS90~E
IT
T
LOA TEMPI
AF1D AD3672 1498
6800 38
6B01 E980
8803 803772
6806 0AD3772
88 9 E900
6808803772
1499
1500
1501
1502
1503
1504
GBBE C93B
6818 0018
1505
1506
6812
6815
6817
6B18
A33672
100B
38
E928
1507
1508
1522
1510
LDA TEMPI
BPL BLOADO
SEC
B1A
E13
GBIF
6622
6B25
6627
1E21
GB2C
882F
6832
6B35
6837
6B38
803672
ASI3F
803772
A03772
9507
A03672
En1
20376C
DE4E72
20386C
000
60
1511
1512
1513
1514
1515
1516
!517
15if
1519
1520
1521
1522
1523
STA TEMP1I
LDA 4$3P
BLOADS STA TEMP2
SEC
SBC
STA
LOA
SBC
STA
CHP
01!X L1
#$80
.TEMP1
TEMP2
#$0
TEMP2
#$38
BNE BLr D
SBC #$28
BLOAO
STORE NEW @DRESS
DRT
OF
EVERESS
;IT CHANGES BY $e@ OUER
;EPCH BOX
;8ORROW FROM4
LOW BYTE
;USED UP TwIS
OX?
;NO. GOOD ADDRESSES
F
;GO TO NEXT SECTION
;NE HiGH OPDRESS
LOA TEMP2
STA ADDRH1,X
LOA TEHMPi
;S4:UIE PODIRESSES
4104 ADDRL1,14
JSR KID i
FEC TYPOS.X
JSR XMUL
UPDATE POSITION WORD
LOY #$0
;.iJUST IN CASE
RTS
F
-85I I -
8B38
-838
6838
GB38
683E
8841
6844
G848
6848
B4A
684D
GB4F
8852
8854
6B57
8859
6858
203F6C
8D3072
202068
AD3072
C904
1011
A9FO
8RD2872
AS0F
802C72
A900
802072
FOll
P9900
8D2872
685E Ae9FE
6860
8863
6865
668
6B6P
686B
6B6E
8870
6873
8B78
6879
6B7A
687C
6B7E
6880
6882
8D272
A901
8D2D72
A904
18
CD3072
F0@E
2E272
2E2C72
2E2072
18
6901
00fEC
C93
F029
1015
6884 A qF 9
6B8G
6889
6BSE
888
6880
8890
6893
6896
204360
C080
- :
FO!E
20826C
A02872
20EGR66
4CAB8B
6899 R907
6B9B
689E
6800
6E 2
6BA5
6A
BAB
6E2PE
6BBI1
6884
6896
w --
.
1525
20436D
CeBQ
F0O09
20826C
AD2072
20E668
205668
1526
1527
1528
1529
15z"''9
1530
1531
1532
1533
1534
1535
1536
1537
XORCUR JSR LOCFTE
STA
JSR
LOA
CMP
BPL
LOA
iiF
SECOND
4t0
THIRD
60O.0
FIRST
i.FE
SECOND
#$1
THIRD
#$4
REM
BED FIN
1549
ROL FI R.ST
159w'
FIN
5E
15
1559
1560
1561
15b*--2"
1563
158365
1566 DONT
1567 NXWRD
19~
1568
159~
REM
PSAUFE
REM
#$4
BIGGER
#$Fe
STA FIRST
LOA
STA
LOP
STA
BED
1
5 3-1 BIGGER LOA
1538
1539
1540
STA
LDA
1541
STA
1542
LOA
1543
1544
STP
1545
LOA
1546 GOAHD CLC
CMP
1547
1551
1552
1553
1554
155
I C..C,
1556
1557
ROL
ROL
C:LC
ADrC
BNE
CHP
BEQ
BPL
LD
.JSR
CPY
BEQ
JSR
1573
PAD2C72
1574
20E66B 1575
A90!
1576
8D2-72 1577
T CURSOR LOC.
;GET ADDRESSES FROM POSITION BYTES
;SAVE REMAINDER FOR MPS* DERIUATN
;SAVE ADDRESSES ANDO POSITION BYTES
SLDA
JSR
JMP
LOA
JSR
.yN
CPY
BEQ
JSR
JSR
NOMOU JSR
LDA
JSR
YSTUFF LDAP
STA
TIO TABLE LOOXI UIPS
ET -OR'ING WORDS FOR HORIZONTAL
;PART OF CURSOR
;G0 AND SHIFT THEM, CCORDNG T REM
;OTHER SET OF XOR'INGi WOROS
;CLEAR CARRY BIT SO IT DOESN'T GET
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#$I1
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;jUMP AL4AYS
±$3
NOMOk
NWRO
#$F9
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:a80
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FIRST
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#$7
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#$S80
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;AHERE IS
THE
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IN
RELPTION
;TO A PIXEL IN A BYTE?
S
;MOUE SEUEN POSITIONS TO THE LEFT
;HiT EDGE OF SCREEN?
,GET ADDRESSES, POSITION BYTES
DIDDLED
;WERE
ORIZONTAL PRT I CURSOR
;O LEFT
;NO NEED TO RECALCULATE AORESSES
;HMOVE TO RIGHT SEUEN POSITIONS
;00 RIGHT PART O
CURSOR FIRST
IORWRD
PEEK
SECOND
MOR RO
41
UECTOR
STA t.-ECTOR
JSR UERT
JSR PRESTO
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QLWAYS ZERO
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;O THE IMMEDIATE PIXELS AROUN
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;NOW FOR THE UERTI CAL PART
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PGOPING
eEC1 8D2A72 1581
68C4 20CB68 1582
8BC7 206588 1583
68CA R0
1584
TN
;COUNTEi UiP TO REH // SHIFT COUNT/
;SHIFT THEN ALL TOGETER
SECOND
THIRD
iDA THITRD
157
I572
CiU;
+ O ES TH;
O CU
;BY MOR'ING A. CROSS
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GBCB
1585
1586
8BCB
66CB
1587
1588
8BCB
1589
6BCB
GBCD
6B00
GB03
GBD606
G8808
GBDA
GD800
6BE0
6BE3
68E5
88E8
68E8
6BEG
A9FD
8D6172
A02A72
20546A
C080
FOOB
05672
20E889
EE6172
00E
60
$
S
1590 UERT
1591
1592 YCURS
1593
1594
1595
1596
1597
15986
1599
1600 FINCUR
1801
1602 F
1603 XORWRD
297F
6BE8 803672 1604
RBEB AD3D72 1605
6BEE 3003
1606AR
GBFO 4C046C 1607
E8F3 B507
1608
GBF5 803772 1809
6BF8 4960
CONT.
LOP 4$FO
STA COUNT
;NEGATIUE TNHREPP
LOPDA UECTOR
JSR NEXTY
;k-ECTOFR iTS EITHER POS. OR NEG.
;DEPENDING ON DIRECTION
;OUT OF BOUNDS?
CPY #$480
BEG FINCUR
LOA MASKrX
JSR
;o
ORWRO
INC COUNT
W
PIEL
;BUMP COUNTER
PNE
pYCURS
RTS
AND #$7F
;NO SIGN BITS PLEASE, WE HAUE NO
LSA BLTFL
;CI:
O
STA TEMP!
BmI CONT.
JHP BLTWRD
LDA PDDRHiXI
iUR Ti.u
F~DOIN BLOITTO?
JUST
BORING CURSOR
;YEAH, LETS ORA4w SOME PORNO
-RE
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LE
;DO BOTH SCREENS
STA TEMP2
XOR
110
$60
JSR xORIT
GBFA 201886C 1611
6BFD A0377f2 1612
GC00 201BGC 1613
LODA TEMP2
>GET SECOND PAGE AODRESS
;DO CURSOR PART
;GT PRMIRY
PAGE ADDRESS
JSR XORIT
RTS
;D0 THAT CURSOR
6C04 A03872 1617
LDA BRUSH
6C07
;WHAT COMBINATION OF SCREENfS?
STA TEMP3
6C03 60
GCO4
GC04
1614
1615
116
83872 -8--
COA 8507
1619
LOR ADDRH!,X
6COC 8 303772 1620
6COF 4960
1621
6C11 20256C 1622
-p
GC14 AD-3772 1823
6C17 20256C 1624
CIA 860
1825
6Ci
GCIB
1626
1827
6CIB
CD10
6C1F
6C22
9507
1628
A108
1629
403672 1s3
8108
R1631
6C24
0
6C25
MOR
JSR
LDA
JSR
RTS
#$60
BLITZ
TEMP2
BLITZ
LDP
XTCi
MOR
STA
RTS
(ADDRLi .' ;GET PIXEL
O ITS NEIGHBORS
TFI-HP
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;XOR WITH CURSOR PART
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MSTORE HIGH PART OF ADDRESS
163
1-34
6C25 9507
l1635
6C27 A106
1636
1-
6C29 0D3872 1w37
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IC3i 4D3672 16,
6C34 8106
6C36 60
8C37
6C37
SC37
SAE SORT OF 'nDRESS MANIPULATION
STA TEP2
1841
1642
1643
1644
1.845
STORE H GH PART OF ADDRESS
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3S ,RI........
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RTS
-87-
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6C37
6C37
6C37 8A
6C38 44P
6C39 AP
6C3A 6 0
6C38B
6C38 8A
6C30 OR
AR
6C3D
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6C3E
GC3F
6C3F
BC3F
1646
1647
3
.3
1649
1650
1651
!652
1653.
1654
1655
1656
1657
i658
1659
XOIU
TXA
LSR
TAX
RTS
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XMHUL
TM
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QSL
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TX
RTS
i66 1662
LOCATE
LOCATE
6C3F 20E466C
6C42 20826C 1663
JSR XF
RTS
6C45 60
1664
6C48
1665
6C46
1666
1676C46
6C4
1666 3
6C46
17i
6C4G.
1670
6C46
3I
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1672
TAY
6C48 Q8
1673
174
6C49 A420
1875
SLODP #$20
1876
GC46 9507
STA ADDRH1X
I
6C40 894E72 1677
LDPA TYPOS,Y
6C50 18
1678
CLCLL
6C51 2P
ROAI
1679
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6C52 2A.
6C53 803672
STA TEMP1
1680
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6C56 2
1685
6C57 2903
HND #$3
TAY
6C59 A8
LOR TENP1
6C5A AD3672
ROL
6C50 244
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6C5E 2E3772
I E,P"7
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6C61 2A.
ROL TEMP2
6C62 2E3772
4$80
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6C65 2980
11689
697
6C67 192870 I685
ORA YSTRL,Y
1790
STA XTEP X
6CG6. 905772 1692
6C60D A03772
LOA TEMP2
1694
I1780
84
6C70 2903
AND #$3
1695
6C72 18
C:LC
!696
AD.F ADDRHi! :
GC73 75A7
1697
6C75 9507
1697
STA A DRH1 .?
1688
6C77 AD03672 1698
LOA TEMPI
11699
-E-.17
6C7A 291C
AND #$1C
1700
6C7C 18
CLC
_
6C82 9507
6082
6C82
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1704
1705
1706
STA ADD :HI,.::
RTS
;GET AODRESSES FROM BOTH CALCULATN
;ROUTINESHAUE TO P' CALLED N
;THIS ORDER, OR THERES TROUBLE
;BECAUSE XTEHPX ISN'T PASSED
;+- YFIND-DOES A PARTIAL TABLE **
;-*
LOO*-UP OF ADDRESSES, USING
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;THIS SHOULD BE A CALL TO XDIU
3
,;PRIMARY PAGE IS BASE CURSOR AODDR.
3
;ROTATE TO GET SECTION
, O.1.3
3
Q.=iui
TLESP ROL'S,
;THIS IS S
PCT.
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C-' _..
HERE IT IS
;PUT SECTION # IN Y REGISTER
;GET BOX ANO LINE IN BOX
F
>TH
IS
1.
n CDiRpSS
PODD X POSITION
ASE PART- O
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;DIUIDEO BY 7 TO GET LOW ADDRESS
3
;LINE NUMBER COMING UP
3
3
;SSPUE ADDRESS
;BOX NUMBER NOG
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3
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171
6C85 B95272
SRC
20D:rC I 71-
6CSB 8D3672
6C8E
6C91
6C93
6C94
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2903
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PD3172
6C97 18
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4
1725
1726
1727
172-
$3
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1729
;-~-~-
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PART OF THE ADDRESS,
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IDE
N
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;USED FOR
P
TABLE GRAD
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NO1,
NOT NECESSARY0
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792B70
1730
7D5772 172
9506
AC3672 172
B92F70
6CA6 9D5672 172
i *i:-'"
172
GCA9 AD3672 1736
6CAC 60
1731
1732
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GCAD
173
GCAD
1735
1736
GCAD
1737
1738
!739
6CAD
6098
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6C9E
6AO
6CA3
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,
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6CAD
6CAD
1 74:7
1744
6CAD
1746
1745
-747
_w*w
1748
6CAD
6CBO
CB3
6CB5
6CB7
6CBA
6CBD
6CBF
6CC1
6CC2
6CC5
6CC7
_D3372
PD3372
F019
P900
8C3072
AC3072
FOOF
A008
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2E3372
9004
18
61CE EYE,
6CCC
iF3
6CCE 60
6CCF
6CCF
GCCF
1749
1750
1751
i752
1753
175
1755
1756
1757
175E
1759
1760
17-;i
1762
1767
1764
1765
1766
1767
MULT
STA 4OD
DULT
P4.S a-
8 MULTIPLY
;ABOUT AS FAST AS YOU CAN DO
IT
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BE-a--HONE
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STY REr
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LD Y # :ASL
ROL
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SET UP PPOPETERS FIRST,
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EXITS TIdi.
;ON LY 8 SHIFTS, THATS WHY !TS FAST
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;WE'LL RtEALLY BE GOING LTER!
,THATS IT
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6CCF
SCCF
GCCF
1766
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1770
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;CCF
6CCF 8C3572
6CD2 4CE 16C
6CD5 803572
6OD8 P9OP
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S
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177
1775
1776
1777
6CDC 803572 1779
1780
6CDF P907
RCEI 803272 1781
6CE4 803472 1782
6CE7 0E3472 1783
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T
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DIUO10
ST
6CF4 Af3572 1788
1789
GDOA
6DC
G600F
6010
6013
6O15
38
1805
1806
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13
602F 8n !72
6032
l03472
6035 CO3272
6038 10E7
ID 1ik1
811
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1813
r 181
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1815
1820
821
160
3
1823
124
P043
1825
6043
1826
6043
6043
1827
1828
;RESLIT IS USED TL!CE HERE
ETERFS
;SECT UP PR
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I UT IT WOR
PE.RHPS SOIWEO E CON
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;'PST EXIT
ST BIT S T
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;SM.LL N UMBERS DIUTOE
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M
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AFTER EPCH SUBTRCT
7EROP
S
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i,
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p
BD43
6D43
UI
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1
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603P 6E3272 I
6030 4E3372 1817
6043
6D43
6042
IUI DE
.OE 7 OECIiPL DIUIDE
;IS IT NEGrTIUE OR ZERO?
ASL MOD
P03172 1809
7
$4 = 10 DECI:L, IF YOU FORGOT
SJUMP TO
STA HOD
LODA NUMBER
ASL RESLT
QSL DSR
1802
1803
1804
ED3272 1807
80D472 1'O
602B
6
D2:'' 18
6D2LC
SHFT
1801
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7206 00
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301
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303
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305
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307
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310
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7210 00
311
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7212
7213
7214
7215
7216
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312
313
314
315
316
317
318
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