FORAMINIFERAL PALEOECOLOGY ACROSS THE EARLY TO MIDDLE EOCENE
TRANSITION (EMET) OF THE WESTERN CARIBBEAN
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE
MASTER OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
BY
MICHELLE A. CHEZEM
RICHARD H. FLUEGEMAN PhD
BALL STATE UNIVERSITY
MUNCIE, INDIANA
May, 2012
This Thesis is dedicated to:
I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents Roger and Phyllis Chezem, my
boy friend Mike Keller, and last but not least my advisor Dr. Rick Fluegeman. Mom and
dad thank you so much for all of your support over the past many years, without your
love and support I would not be where I am today. You both inspired me to reach for my
dreams and goals. Mike, thank you for being there for me over the past three years, you
have supported me more then you can ever know. Rick, thank you for believing in me
and allowing me the opportunity to continue with your research.
I would also like to thank all of the faculty and fellow students in the Geology
department at Ball State University. I am grateful I had the opportunity to learn from and
work with you all. I have many great memories that I will cherish. I will always feel at
home in the department.
Acknowledgments:
Dr. Rick Fluegeman
Dr. Jeff Grigsby
Dr. Kirsten Nicholson
Ball State Department of Geological Sciences
Ball State University Aspire Grant
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program
ii
Table of Contents:
Page Number
Introduction:
1
Geologic Setting:
3
Early Eocene Climate:
3
Oxygen Isotopes:
4
Calle G Section, Cuba:
5
Ocean Gateways:
6
Azolla Event:
7
Caribbean Region:
9
Cuba:
10
ODP Leg 165:
11
Site 998: Cayman Rise:
11
Site 999: Colombian Basin:
12
Caribbean Tectonics:
13
Stratigraphy of Western Caribbean Region:
38
Lithostratigraphy:
38
Chronostratigraphy:
42
Biostratigraphy:
43
Planktonic Foraminifera:
43
Calcareous Nannofossils:
44
Radiolarian:
46
Methods:
ODP Leg 165:
58
58
iii
Site 998 B:
59
Site 999 B:
59
Disaggregated Samples:
59
Thin Sectioning:
60
Analysis:
61
Results:
62
ODP Site 998 B:
62
ODP Site 999 B:
64
EMET:
75
Discussion:
79
The Presidentes Event:
79
Planktonic Foraminifera Ratios:
79
Tau:
80
The Azolla Event:
80
Gateway Closing: Beata Ridge:
81
Deductions:
83
Conclusions:
89
EMET Contact:
89
The Presidentes Event:
89
Source behind EMET:
90
iv
Figures and Tables:
Page Number
Figure 1:
17
Figure 2:
18
Figure 3:
19
Figure 4:
20
Figure 5:
21
Figure 6:
22
Figure 7:
23
Figure 8:
24
Figure 9:
25
Figure 10:
26
Figure 11:
27
Figure 12:
28
Figure 13:
29
Figure 14:
30
Figure 15:
31
Figure 16:
32
Figure 17:
33
Figure 18:
34
Figure 19:
35
Figure 20:
36
Figure 21:
37
v
Figure 22:
48
Figure 23:
49
Figure 24:
50
Figure 25:
51
Figure 26:
52
Figure 27:
53
Figure 28:
54
Figure 29:
55
Figure 30:
56
Figure 31:
57
Figure 32:
63
Figure 33:
65
Figure 34:
66
Figure 35:
67
Figure 36:
76
Figure 37:
77
Figure 38:
85
Figure 39:
86
Figure 40:
87
Figure 41:
88
Table 1:
68
Table 2:
73
Table 3:
78
vi
Introduction:
During the last 65 million years the Earth has gone through many climatic
cycles indicating a complex climate evolution. Records of these climatic
fluctuations through time have been preserved in deep sea cores by oxygen and
carbon isotope data from CaCO3 tests of foraminifera (Zachos et al., 2001, Zachos
et al., 1994, Tripati and Elderfield, 2005, and Zachos et al., 2008). Oxygen
isotopes are important in climatic events, as representing ice volume present on
the Earth at a given time and therefore a proxy for temperature (Zachos et al.,
2001). Oxygen and carbon isotope data from deep sea cores presented in
Speelman et al. (2009) show fluctuations of global deep sea temperature during
the Cenozoic (Figure 1).
This thesis will focus on an oxygen isotope anomaly event during the early
to middle Eocene transition (EMET), 48 to 50 million years ago (Ma). The oxygen
isotope anomaly was first identified in planktonic foraminifera oxygen isotope
data from the Calle G section, Avenida de los Presidentes in Cuba, Figure 2
(Fluegeman, 2007). There are three primary objectives of this project 1) to
observe changes in physical and biological paleoceanographic parameters in the
Western Caribbean, more directly in the Cayman Ridge and the Colombian Basin, by the
use of planktonic foraminifera data, 2) determine the cause of an oxygen isotope
anomaly seen in Cuba by Fluegeman (2007) and that is expected to be present in the
Western Caribbean, and 3) determine if the anomaly is a local or a more widespread
regional event.
The distribution of the oxygen isotope anomaly occurrence will be assessed from
planktonic foraminifera ratios from two different localities in the western Caribbean
Sea. Localities that are being studied include the Cayman Rise, Ocean Drilling Program
(ODP) site 998, and the Colombian Basin, ODP site 999 (Figure 3). Planktonic
foraminifera ratios will be correlated to oxygen isotope curve produced by Fluegeman,
2007, from the Calle G Section.
Conditions that may have led to this oxygen isotope anomaly include the uplift
of the Beata Ridge leading to development of an oceanic gateway changing circulation
patterns (Crowley and Kim, 1993) or the Azolla Event, periodic influx of fresh water
into the North Atlantic from the Arctic Circle causing a mixing of fresh and marine
waters and is evidenced by the presence of Azolla fern spores (Brinkhuis et al., 2006).
These two events will both disrupt ocean circulation, but differences in sea level and
temperature can lead to a more distinct cause of the anomaly.
The importance of this thesis project is to tie oceanographic and geologic
evidence to past events such as global climate transitions. The correlation of sea
surface temperatures and sea level changes during the EMET will give insights to why
2
these changes happened and will characterize occurrences of freshwater influx into the
oceans or tectonic activity and how it may affect future climate changes. These results
can be used for future references in regards to variances in global ocean circulation and
climate control.
Geologic Setting
Early Eocene Climate
Over the last 65 Myr (million years) the Earth has experienced both a
“greenhouse” climate with no polar ice present and an “icehouse” climate with large
continental ice sheets (Zachos et al., 2001 and Zachos et al., 2008). The PaleoceneEocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 55.5 Ma was a high peak in global temperatures
fueled by methane levels that resulted in a four to five degrees celsius increase in the
deep oceans and a three to four degrees celsius increase of sea surface temperature
(SST) in subtropical and tropical oceans. Movement of depleted 13C into the oceans and
the atmosphere from the oxidation of methane hydrates in ocean sediments resulted in
an increase of atmospheric temperature (Bowen and Bowen, 2008 and Tripati and
Elderfield, 2005). There was a large extinction of benthic foraminifera during the PETM
caused by a decrease in oxygen in the deep sea and a decrease in concentration of
carbonate ions in sea water (Tripati and Elderfield, 2005). After the PETM the earth had
a warm but not extreme climate. At 53.5 Ma there was a second warming trend
referred to as Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 (ETM2) and 100,000 years later it was
followed by the H2 event. H2 is one of the many hyperthermals designated A-L that
3
occurred during the early Cenozoic shown in figure 4 (Stap et al., 2010). The PETM,
ETM2, and H2 are marked by negative carbon isotope excursion seen in carbonate,
organic carbon sedimentary rock, and a distinct carbonate solution in deep water
sediments (Stap et al., 2010). These events have an impact on a global scale and are
illustrated in figures 4 and 5 by oxygen isotope data from Zachos (2008). This period
was followed by a slow transition from a “greenhouse” to an “icehouse” world with the
first development of the Antarctic Glaciation around 40 Ma (Fluegeman, 2007).
These global events were brought on by many factors one being tectonic activity
that led to the closing or opening of an oceanic gateway and another that may have
changed the characteristics of the water column such as temperature or density. The
tectonics gives insights to the possible opening or closing of oceanic gateway in the
Caribbean Sea.
Oxygen Isotope:
Oxygen isotopes are extremely useful in identifying temperature because the
ratios of isotopes represent an amount of ice volume that was present on the earth at
that given time (Brown et al. 1989 and Zachos et al. 2001). Oxygen isotopes are
recorded in the deep ocean sediments and microfossil hard parts (figure: 26) by
precipitation (Keen, 1968). Foraminifera are ideal when studying oxygen isotopes
because they are abundant, widespread, and have CaCO 3 hard parts (Brown et al.,
1989). Oxygen isotope studies rely on small changes in the ratio of 18O to 16O. The
oxygen isotopes in sea water are a mixture of 16O and 18O, the ratio of these will indicate
4
the amount of ice that was present on Earth at that time. Oxygen isotopes are
therefore a proxy for temperature. With a low percent of 18O it can be assumed that
there was a higher ice volume, because more 16O is trapped in water vapor then is
precipitated as snow and builds up to form glaciers and ice caps. The ice sheets have a
lower percent of 18O because of its greater mass then 16O. Therefore, 16O more readily
evaporated from the oceans to water vapor then 18O. A world with a higher ice volume
will preserve oxygen isotopes in foraminifera hard parts with a high percent of 18O and a
world with a lower amount of ice will have a lower percent of 18O, diagramed in figure 7
(Brown et al., 1989 and Keen, 1968).
Calle G Section, Cuba
The oxygen isotope anomaly in figure 8 was presented by Fluegeman in 2007 by
use of planktonic foraminifera oxygen isotope data. The curve shows negative excursion
of 18O isotopes ranging from -0.35 to -3.15 PDB. During the early Lutetian there is a
drastic cooling interval that drifts back to a gradual temperature fluctuation during the
Lutetian. The frequency of cycles is higher in the upper Ypresian and lower Lutetian and
decreases greatly in the upper Lutetian. The cycles are indicating cycles of warmer and
cooler temperatures. The greater the negative excursion of 18O isotopes the cooler the
temperature. Shown in figure , there are two large fluctuation in temperature during
the Ypresian and one shortly after the EMET.
There are two main suspects in the cause of the oxygen isotope anomaly that is
seen in Calle G section in Cuba observed by Fluegeman in 2007. They include either
5
oceanic gateway closure by the uplift of the Beata Ridge or an influx of fresh water into
the northern Atlantic from the Arctic Circle, the Azolla event; presented by Brinkhuis et
al. in 2006.
Oxygen isotope curve of the Calle G formation represents fluctuations in the
earth’s climate. The negative excursions of 18O represent cooling during the EMET, here
the brief periods of cooling are represented by large fluctuations that have a high
frequency of cycles, illustrated in figure 9; the cycles of oxygen isotopes are marked
showing the frequency of these warming trends.
The paleontological index Tau is ratio of the number of species to the number of
genera, was produced from the foraminifera data from the Calle G Section in Cuba,
figure 10. A rise in sea level is indicated by an increasing Tau value (Gibson). The
amount of planktonic versus benthic foraminifera allow for an assessment of sea level.
Benthic foraminifera are dominant in the near shore environment while planktonic
foraminifera are more dominant in the open ocean (Gibson, 2007). The increasing
values of Tau, hence an increase of seal level occurred during the middle Ypresian
(middle early Eocene), the EMET, and early Lutetian (early middle Eocene).
Ocean Gateways:
Ocean gateways allow for the movement of water through an area from one
ocean to another. Opening and closings of oceanic gateways affect global distribution
of heat, salt, and moisture. Changes in these parameters lead to circulation changes
and thus climatic changes (Roberts et al., 2009). The location of the continents in the
6
early Paleogene differed from where they are located in modern times delimiting ocean
currents and therefore the transport of heat. The precise timing of gateway closures
and openings are widely debated, but approximate periods are known from tectonic
and deep sea records (Thomas et al., 2006). Livermore et al., 2005, reported that the
formation of deep water gateways at the South Tasman Rise and Drake Passage possibly
led to an abrupt glaciation event recorded in the benthic foraminifera 18O record at the
Eocene / Oligocene boundary. Deep water circulation is affected by gateway
constriction and will change climate more effectively than surface waters. Tectonic
movements change gateways and may drive global change due to changes of circulation
through time.
Azolla Event
Large quantities of free floating fresh water fern Azolla, Figure 11, flourished in
the Arctic Ocean during the middle Eocene for a period of roughly 800 thousand years
(Kyr). The presence of fossilized Azolla fern spores and other fresh water siliceous
microfossils in the Atlantic Ocean indicate episodic fresh water spilling from the Arctic
Circle into the adjacent seas, figure 12. This period is termed the Azolla event (Brinkhuis
et al., 2006). Azolla are free floating ferns that currently rank as one of the fastest
growing plants on the earth (Speelman et al., 2009). Present day Azolla require standing
fresh bodies of water such as ponds, slow flowing canals, and flooded rice paddies in
tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions. Few Azolla species can tolerate
salinity levels up to 5.5 ppm where most Azolla species cannot tolerate levels higher
7
than 1-1.66ppm Azolla fern spore fossils have been observed as far back as the
Cretaceous (Brinkhuis et al., 2006)
Azolla fossils have been observed in drilling sites in microlaminated sediments
from Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) leg 302, the Lomonosov Ridge. These
laminated sections that hold Azolla fern fossils indicate episodic events of fresh surface
water in the Arctic Basin and Nordic Sea. Assemblages of Azolla that have been
observed in the Nordic Sea represent transported assemblages from fresh water spilling
from the Arctic Ocean (Brinkhuis et al., 2006 and Speelman et al., 2009). Sediments that
have been studied in the Arctic Basin show that surface waters during the early
Paleogene were warm and brackish, allowing for the growth of fresh water fern Azolla
and other planktonic organisms (Roberts et al., 2009). In samples where Azolla is
abundant there is a mix of brackish water dinocysts, diatoms, and silicoflagolates that
show seasonality in the Arctic Ocean. The Arctic seasonalities most likely developed
from green house conditions including an intensive hydrological cycle where
precipitation exceeds evaporation at high latitudes. Early spring brackish waters bring a
bloom of phytoplankton that is followed by a late spring-summer precipitation high that
leads to stratification in the Arctic Ocean allowing rapid growth of Azolla (Brinkhuis et
al., 2006).
The laminated sediments seen in IODP leg 302 show cycles of Azolla blooms with
an occurrence of roughly 1.3 meters (m) indicating an accumulation of sediment during
the Paleogene of 1.3 centimeters per thousand years (cm/Kry). These freshening cycles
8
occur about every 100 Kry and may be related to the Earth’s eccentricity cycle (Brinkhuis
et al., 2006).
Caribbean Region
The Caribbean Sea (Figure 13) is a complex oceanic basin that is partially
enclosed by a curved fragmented mountain belt (Milsom, 2009). Geographically, the
Caribbean Sea is bounded by (from east to west) Yucatan Platform, the Gulf of Mexico,
and Florida-Bahama Platforms. The plate boundaries of the Caribbean Plate are the
Peurto Rico Trench to the North and the South American Continent to the South
(Donnely, 1994; Draper et al., 1994). The Caribbean region is composed of many
geologic provinces of basins, rises, and ridges. These provinces are the Colombian
Basin, Venezuelan Basin, Beata Ridge, and Caymen Rise (Donnely, 1994; Draper et al.,
1994).
The sea floor of the Caribbean region is in essence oceanic crust (Donnelly,
1994). The oceanic crust is anomalously thick and is much thicker than that of typical
ocean basins. Early seismic refraction studies of the Caribbean support that the crust is
twice as thick as it is in other basins (Bowland, 1988). The two major basins, Venezuelan
and Colombian, are underlain by a large basalt plateau that is atypical of ocean crust but
has homologous references elsewhere including the west Pacific Ocean (Donnelly,
1994). The plateau basalt is a large igneous province (LIP) that formed in the Pacific
Ocean during the Cretaceous (Mauffret and Leroy, 1994). The Caribbean LIP is one of
the largest phanerozoic ignous provinces in the world (Donnelly, 1994).
9
The Caribbean LIP formed between 91 and 81 Ma by a massive flood basalt. The
Caribbean LIP was identified from two ship explosive surveys and multichannel seismic
surveys (MCS) of the Caribbean Sea Floor produced multi layer thick oceanic crust. The
top layer has properties that are variable acoustic velocity but slower then that of
average ocean basins, while the second layer is more homogenous and has a high
acoustic velocity. The Caribbean LIP is characterized by smooth top and a layered
structure. The Caribbean LIP stretches from across the Colombian Basin, Venezuelan
Basin, and to the Beata Ridge where it is at its thickest point (Diebold, 2009).
The Caribbean is a geologically complex region that has a variety of boundary
types, subduction, strike slip, and sea floor spreading, Figure 7. These boundaries occur
throughout the region: subduction occurs at the plate boundaries of the Lesser Antilles
and Central America, strike slip action occurs at the northern and southern plate
boundaries, and sea floor spreading occurs in the Cayman Trough (Draper, 1994). The
region is worth studying because of the complexity of the tectonics in the Caribbean
region with the possibility of the relationship if the uplift of the Beata Ridge to the
Presedentes Event (Draper et al., 1994).
Cuba:
In 1993 an expedition to study the upper Paleocene lower Eocene stratigraphy of
western Cuba with hopes of identifying a Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
and to better define late Paleocene changes elsewhere recorded in a Caribbean land
setting. Several locations were studied in Cuba with regards to biostratigraphy,
10
magnetostratigraphy, isotope stratigraphy (Aubry and Sanfilippo, 1999).
One location of this study was the focus of this thesis, La Habana 3785-III,
because of it’s the proximity to the Calle G Section Avenida de los Presedentes, figure 2,
where the oxygen isotope anomaly was initially studied, (Fluegeman, 2007).
ODP Leg 165
Ocean Drilling Program Leg 165 studied many unresolved geologic problems of
the Caribbean region, Figure 3. These problematic phenomena include the K/T
boundary event, Caribbean Plate Tectonics, nature of the crust or basement rock,
climate and ocean history, and the opening and closing of tropical gateways, extinction
events of biota, extreme climate warming episodes, changes in deep water circulation,
and recent Caribbean climate variability. Five primary locations were focused on a 90
m.y. study range. These locations include the Cayman Rise ODP site 998, Colombian
Basin ODP site 999, Nicaraguan Rise ODP site 1000, Lower Nicaraguan Rise ODP site
1001, and Carioca Basin ODP site 1002 (Sigurdsson et al, 1.997). This study will focus on
the Cayman Rise ODP site 998 and the Colombian Basin ODP site 999.
Site 998: Cayman Rise
ODP Site 998 B is located at latitude 19˚29.378’ N and longitude 82˚ 6.160’ W in
the Cayman Rise between the Yucatan Basin, Cayman Ridge, and Cayman Trough. Site
998 B has a depth of 3190.7 mbsl. Site 998 was selected for drilling for continuous
Cenozoic recovery and its proximity to Chicxulub impact site. The core at Site 999B was
11
drilled to a depth of 904.8 mbsf with a recovery rate of 83.1%. The hole terminated in
lower Eocene sedimentary and volcaniclastic mixed sedimentary rocks. There are four
stratigraphic units in the recovered core, units three and four were studied. Unit three
is middle Miocene to lower-middle Eocene consisting of nannofossil chalks grading to
limestone with depth. Unit four represents the middle-lower Eocene made up of clayey
limestone mixed with volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks with interbeded altered volcanic
ash and volcaniclastic turbidites (Sigurdson et al., 1997).
There are more than 200 ash layers in the core (Figure 14). There are numerous
pelagic turbidites and ash fall deposits in the Miocene and thinner but frequent
volcaniclastic turbidites in the lower to middle Eocene. The Miocene ash layers were
derived from Central American silicic volcanic while the Eocene ash layers and turbidites
were derived from an island arc source in the Cayman Region. The turbidites consist of
foraminifera in a matrix of redeposited volcanic ash. Turbidite frequency is associated
with sea floor spreading in the Cayman trough and strike slip motion along the northern
boundary of the Caribbean plate (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
Site 999: Colombian Basin
Site 999 is located on the Kogi Rise, a previously unnamed bathymetiric high,
within the Colombian Basin, longitude: 12°44.597'N and latitude: 78°44.418'W. The
Colombian Basin is located in the South West Caribbean Sea North. The sea floor of the
basin is 2838 meters below sea level (mbsl) and is situated between the Nicaraguan Rise
and the Beata Ridge. The southern boundary of the Colombian basin is defined by
12
sequences of folded Quaternary and Tertiary clastics in the North Panama and the South
Caribbean deformed belt. Normal and slip oblique faults define the northern boundary
of the Colombian Basin and the uplifting Beata Ridge and Hispaniola (Bowland, 1988).
The Colombian basin has a smooth seismic reflector that is indicative of a flood basalt,
basement rock, that is twice the thickness of normal oceanic crust. The basalt plateau
here in the Colombian Basin has the same seismic reflectors as the Venezuelan Basin
(Bowland, 1988).
Site 999B was drilled on the Kogi Rise, a bathymetric high in the Colombian Basin
because of the heavy deposits of turbidic material made geophysical techniques and
drilling unfeasible. The Kogi Rise sits 1000m above the turbidite rich floor of the
Columbian Basin. The main constitutes in the Kogi Rise is mixture of biogenic ooze,
nepheloid clays, and volcanic ash (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
The recovery rate of the core was 76.1%. The segment of core that is being
studied for the EMET ranges from 888 to 920 meters below sea floor (mbsf). The rock
type at site during the EMET is rhyolite ash from volcanic activity of the Central
American Arc. Below the rhyolite ash is a clayey calcareous foraminifera and nannofossil
limestone then an inner-bedded calcareous limestone and ash layers (Sigurdsson et al.,
1997).
Caribbean Tectonics
The Caribbean Plate is a large volcanic province that is anomalously thick in
places and is believed to have formed in the Pacific Ocean during the Cretaceous. The
13
plate varies in thickness from four meters at places in the Venezuelan Basin to twelve
kilometers at the Beata Ridge (Driscoll and Diebold, 1999). Plate boundaries have been
mapped by the study of earthquake epicenter distributions, detailed bathymetric maps,
and seismic profiling of marine areas, which show that the current Caribbean Plate
boundaries are the Cayman-Puerto Rico Fault to the north, to the south by a group of
right lateral strike-slip faults, and subduction with the Lesser Antilles and Central
America to the east and west (Draper et al., 1994 and Mauffret and Leroy, 1999). At the
present time the Caribbean Plate is moving eastwards with respect to the North
American Plate (NOAM) and South American Plate (SOAM) with a rate of 1-2cm/yr
(Draper et al., 1994 and Mauffret and Leroy, 1999).
There are two tectonic evolution models for the Caribbean Sea; fixist and
mobilist views of the Caribbean views have been presented (Pendell, 1994). Fixist views
suggest the Caribbean Plate was developed in situ with little motion with reference to
the Americas (Pendell, 1994 and Driscol and Diebold, 1999). Fixist views are
overwhelmingly not entertained due to the amount of evidence of the movement of the
Caribbean Plate in respect to its present location and opening of the Caribbean Region
after the Triassic or Jurassic (Pendell, 1994), including large Cenozoic strike slip evidence
in the Cayman Trough and occurrence of island arc magnetism during the early
Cretaceous (Stanek et al., 2009). The mobilist views suggest that the Caribbean plate
developed in the Pacific during the Late Mesozoic and moved into the present location
between the NOAM and SOAM plates (Pendell, 1994 and Mauffret and Leroy, 1999).
14
There are two models for the mobilist view of the formation of the Caribbean
Plate. The first model states that the Caribbean Plate was developed by sea floor
spreading between the Yucatan Block and SOAM in the Proto-Caribbean Sea Way
representing a lithospheric arm of the Atlantic Basin (Pendell, 1994). The other more
widely accepted view considers the Caribbean Plate to have formed as a single arc and
to be of Pacific Plate origin. During the early to middle Jurassic the Appalachian and
Central Atlantic margin rift was followed by sea floor spreading of the central Atlantic
Plate. At 148 Ma seafloor spreading began, making way for the Proto Caribbean Seaway
and the Colombian Marginal Seaway. Sea floor spreading between northwest South
America from the Yucatan and Chortis Blocks continued into the early Proto-Caribbean
Seaway and Colombian Marginal Seaway during the late Jurassic, Figure 14, (Pendell,
2009). The spreading center led do a lengthened plate boundary between North and
South America connected to an east dipping subduction zone to the west of the North
and South Cordilleras, Trans American Plate Boundary (Pendell 2009). The Caribbean
crust was developed as part of the Pacific Plate in the Farallon Basin and formed before
the separation of the Americas in the Late Jurassic (Pendell, 1994 and Pendell, 2009). A
portion of the Pacific Oceanic Plate experienced an east to west displacement and
moved into the Proto-Caribbean Sea Way between NOAM and SOAM at the beginning
of the early Cretaceous, Figure 15 (Stanek et al., 2009). At 125 Ma seafloor spreading
continued, leading to southwest subduction of the Trans American Arc, currently where
Central America is today. This western dipping subduction occurred before the east to
west movement of the Proto Caribbean Seaway, Figure 16 (Pendell, 2009). During this
15
movement an island arc, Caribbean Arc, formed on the leading edge of the portion of
Pacific Plate. The Caribbean Arc started subducting the Proto Caribbean oceanic crust
during the late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous (Stanek et al., 2009). At 100 Ma there was
southwest dipping subduction beneath the Caribbean Arc, Figure 17 (Pendell, 2009).
The movement of the present Caribbean lithosphere was relatively parallel to the
Colombian – Ecuador margin. The movement of the Caribbean plate was north and east
relative to North America. Dextral shearing between North Andes and the Caribbean
plate resulted from continued sea floor spreading. The Andes back arc basin closed and
circum Caribbean metamorphism has taken place as well. Eastward migration of
transgressive terrain occurs on the northern and southern flanks of the Caribbean
(Pendell, 2009). At 84 Ma the motion of the Farallon Plate and Caribbean Plate has
rotated leading to oblique subduction at the former Panama-Costa Rica transform
boundary, Figure 18. Deep plume melts may have derived from the gap in the Proto
Caribbean Slab extended to Beata Ridge (Pendell, 2009). At 71 Ma the NOAM and
SOAM divergence ceased resulting in subduction of the Caribbean Plate beneath the
Andes Plate and suturing of the Caribbean arc along the Yucatan – Chortis Block margin,
Figure 19. At 56 Ma oblique intra arc basins open as the Caribbean spreads into the
wider opening of the Proto Caribbean Seaway, Figure 20. At 48 Ma the Caribbean Plate
stopped moving northward and the Southeast Caribbean Plate Advanced Southward,
Figure 21. At 33 Ma the Caribbean Plate moved into its place that is in presently
(Pendell, 2009). Also In either model the westward movement of the Americas over the
mantle was the cause for the eastward migration of the Caribbean Plate (Pendell, 1994).
16
Figure 1:
Deep sea oxygen and carbon isotopes from global oceans during the Cenozoic
are presented. Major events and continental positions are shown through
geologic time (Speelman et al., 2009).
17
Figure: 2
Map of the Caribbean sea showing the location where the Presidentes Event has been
observed. The location of the Calle G section Avenida de los Presidentes is indicated on
the inset map by the star (www.britannica.com/eb/article-33220/CaribbeanSea#408317.hook, Fluegeman, 2007).
18
Figure 3:
ODP study sites from Leg 165 are marked on Bathymetric map of the Caribbean Region.
Locations studied in this thesis are marked in red (Sigurdsson, Leckie, and Acton et al.,
1995).
19
Figure 4:
δ 18O graph shows the time table of climatic fluctuations during the Cenozoic on
a global scale; major thermal events are labeled in black while hyperthermals are
indicated by red arrows (modified from Zachos et al., 2008).
20
Figure 5:
Hyperthemals that are seen in Mead Stream New Zealand show that these event have a
global impact (Zachos et al., 2008).
21
Figure: 6
Diagram depicts the mechanics of how oxygen isotopes are stored in microfossil hard
parts (modified from http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/1122OxygenIsotopes1.html).
22
Figure: 7
Diagram depicts oxygen isotope composition of a non-glaciated world versus a glaciated
world (http://www.gly.uga.edu/railsback/1122OxygenIsotopes1.html).
23
Figure 8:
Planktonic foraminifera oxygen isotope curve produced from the Calle G section
Avenida de los Presidentes in Cuba (Fluegeman, 2007).
24
Figure: 9
Oxygen isotope curve from the Cuban section, the cycles of oxygen isotopes are
marked to illustrate the frequency of the fluctuations near the EMET (Modified from
Fluegeman, 2007).
25
Figure: 10
The Paleontological index Tau 0f the Calle G section. Tau is the ratio of the number of
species to the number of genera. Produced by fluegeman, 2007.
26
Figure: 11
Dispersed ash in the Colombian Basin, ODP 999 B. Depth versus percent of dispersed
ash and depth versus concentration of sulfate (SO 42-) ammonium (NH4+) and iron (Fe)
from the ash it self (Sigurdsson, Leckie, and Acton et al., 1995).
27
Figure 12:
SEM photos of Azolla megaspores (Speelman et al., 2009).
28
Figure 13:
Stars indicate sample locations where Azolla spore fossils were found (Brinkhuis et al.,
2006 and Speelman et al., 2009).
29
Figure 14:
Tectonic Map of the Caribbean Region at present time (Pendell, 2009).
30
Figure 15:
Seafloor spreading, opening of the Proto Caribbean Seaway and Colombian
Marginal Seaway (Pendell, 2009).
31
Figure 16:
Seafloor spreading, opening of the Proto Caribbean Seaway and Colombian Marginal
Seaway (Pendell, 2009).
32
Figure 17:
Eastward migration of future Caribbean begins in respect to North America (Pendell,
2009).
33
Figure 18:
The Farallon and Caribbean has rotates leading to subduction at the former Costa Rica –
Panama Tranform boundary. The gap in the Proto Caribbean slab over Beata Ridge has
developed Deep plumes (Pendell, 2009).
34
Figure 19:
North America and South America stopped diverging and head on subduction of the
Caribbean beneath the Northern Andes began (Pendell, 2009).
35
Figure 20:
As the Caribbean stretched into the wider Proto Caribbean Seaway intra arc basin
opened (Pendell, 2009).
36
Figure 21:
Norhward movement of the Caribbean ceased and the Caribbean Plate advanced
southeast until moving into its present position at 33 Ma (Pendell, 2009).
37
Stratigraphy of Western Caribbean Region
The stratigraphy of the Western Caribbean Region has been studied in
many different mediums such as lithostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, and
biostratigraphy. Here they have been compiled together for easier comparison
from shipboard reports and publications of Leg 165 of the ODP, a study of Cuba,
and this study (Aubry, 1999 and Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
ODP site 998 B and 999 B stratigraphy is described down hole. In the
Cuban section, Calle G Avenida de los Presedentes that was studied for oxygen
isotope data has not been studied in detail stratigraphically. In this study
stratigraphic data was compiled from the nearest section sampled section, San
Francisco de Paula Section in Habana, Cuba (Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999).
Lithostratigraphy:
The lithologies of the units that have been studied have been compiled
from ship board reports of ODP Leg 165, a study of Cuba, and this study. This
has been compiled in figure: 22.
ODP site 998 B unit IV is studied from cores 28 to 37, this unit is 137.3 m thick.
This unit is a thick interbedded sequence of homogeneous with some light motling of
light greenish grey calcareous limestone and calcareous limestone with clay. The
lithology changes with depth to a thick bedded calcareous mixed sedimentary rock with
fine parallel laminations and less bioturbation. As depth increases carbonate levels
decreases. The dominant lithology is interbedded with normally graded foraminiferal
limestone and altered carbonate volcanic ash. These foraminiferal limestones exhibit
graded bedding showing evidence of turbidites or reworked sediment by bottom
currents common in the upper part of the unit, cores 21-30. There is an increase of
abundance of altered carbonate volcanic ash beginning at core 30. The altered
calcareous volcanic ash layers are thin to medium bedded gradational from dark
greenish grey to greenish grey. The lighter bottom of the beds is caused by an increase
of foraminiferal content. The beds are interrupted by turbidity currents. The frequency
of these layers increases and at its peak at core 32 it returns to limestone at the base of
the unit (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
ODP site 999 B was grouped into six units, while each unit was broken into
subunits. Subunits IV D and V A were sampled for this study. Cores that make up each
of the subunits are as follows, subunit IV D: cores 40, 41, and 42 and subunit V A: cores
42, 43, 44, and 45 (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
Subunit IV D is mainly a light to dark greenish gray homogeneous well lithified
clayey calcareous thick bedded chalk with minute bioturbation. The calcareous chalk is
39
composed of nannofossils, foraminifera, clay, and silt sized carbonate fragments. Other
minor mineral constituents in the chalk include feldspars, biotite, hematite, and pyrite.
Layers of thin bedded of volcanic ash are present through out the subunit but at a lower
frequency than IV C (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
Subunit V A is mainly a light to dark greenish gray calcareous mixed sedimentary
rock that is laminated with thin light and dark greenish gray fissile and friable claystone.
The claystone is more abundant towards the bottom of the subunit and is characterized
by feldspars, quarts, and interstratified smectite. Foraminifera and radiolarian rich
layers are characterized by sandy textures. These layers range from one centimeter to
13 centimeters in thickness and their boundaries are marked by abrupt changes in grain
size. Foraminifera are more abundant than radiolarians as you go deeper in the subunit.
Very thin to medium green to gray volcanic ash layers are present (Sigurdsson et al.,
1997).
There is no abrupt change in lithology during the EMET. The main defining
characteristic is the presence of volcanic ash layers and evidence for turbidites in the
section studied. Evidence for turbidites includes large foraminifera and shell hash layers
that are present in core 44. During the late early Eocene there is a high frequency of ash
layers present through part of core 44 and all of 45. The EMET is placed in the in the
upper portion of core 44. Bowland (1993) places the EMET of the Mono Rise, close to
ODP site 999, at approximately 48 Ma with a lithologic change from hemi-pelagic clays,
40
siliceous and calcareous ooze to indurated chalk, chert, and siliceous clay and pelagic
limestone with layers of volcanic sandstone and ash (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
The San Francisco de Paula Section in Habana Cuba is made up of both the late
Paleocene Apolo Formation and the early Eocene Capdevila Formation. This section is
56 meters thick. The lower 40 meters is a marly mudstone. The Capdevila is well
bedded sandstone, claystone, and siltstone with small conglomerate clasts. The top of
the formation is composed of 3 meters of weathered soft siliceous shales (Fluegeman
and Fernandez, 1999, Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997, and Sanfilippo and Hull,
1999). This portion of the section is largely covered by vegetation. The base of the
section is massively bedded with course conglomerate limestone and coarser grained
rocks. At 43 meters above the base of the San Francisco de Paula section, the lithology
changes distinctively to a coarser grained and well indurated with graded beddings,
characteristic of storm or turbidites. Above the lithology change white marly clasts
appear in linear bands (Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999). The Universidad Group is above the
Capdevila formation and is Eocene in age (Fernandez-Rodriguezet al., 1999). The
Universidad Group is 25 meters thick and consists of planktonic foraminifera dominated
chalks, radiolarian marl, marly limestone, and sparse intervals of siltstone at the base of
the formation (Fluegeman and Fernandez, 1995, Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997,
and Fluegeman, 2007).
41
Chronostratigraphy
The magnetostratigraphy from ODP sites 998 B and 999 B have been compiled in
figure: 23.
The magnetostratigraphy for site ODP Site 998B was challenging to determine
because of the difficulty in removing the vertical overprint. Finer grained assemblages
of magnetic minerals were easier to remove the overprint and get a magnetic reading,
however, coarse magnetic minerals from high volume of ash dispersal made it difficult
to remove the vertical overprint. The magnetic stratigraphy was heavily correlated with
the Biostratigraphy of the down hole. Magnetochronozones for this locality are as
follows Chron 20r for core 27R and upper part of 28R, Chron 21n for the lower part of
28R, 29R, 30R and the upper part of 31R, Chron 21r for the lower part of core 31R,
Chron 22n for core 32R, Chron 22r lower part of core 32R and the upper part 33R, Chron
23n includes the majority of core 33R, 34R, 35R and the upper part of 36R, and Chron
23r includes the majority of core 36R and all of 37R. The EMET lies within the
lowermost portion on Chron 21r (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
Magnetostratigraphy at ODP Site 999B was difficult to determine due to the
secondary magnetization overprint, but it was possible to identify magnetochrons with
the use of biostratigraphy and discrete samples throughout each core.
Magnetochronozones present are Chron 20r for core 40R, Chron 21n for cores 41R, 42R,
and 43R, Chron 21r for the upper part of core 44R, and Chron 22n for the bottom
42
portion of core 44R and all of core 45R. The boundary of Chron 21r and 22n is
speculated to be the EMET (Sigurdsson et al., 1997)
The Cuba section did not give good results in magnetostratigraphy, the contacts
were inferred from biostratigraphy.
Biostratigraphy
Planktonic Foraminifera
The planktonic foraminiferal biostratigraphic zonation that has been used
throughout the Caribbean in previous studies, such as Cuba, Cayman Ridge, and
Colombian Basin, is the Berggren et al., 1995. This classification system is broken into P
Zones. The planktonic foraminifera biozonation used in this study for the Colombian
Basin is Berggren and Pearson, 2006. This system uses E Zones and is depicted in figure:
24, where comparisons of P and E Zones may be made (Pearson et al., 2006). The
sections studied and that of this study have been compiled in figure 25.
In the Universidad Group in western Cuba planktonic and benthic foraminifera
were collected. The portion studied by Fluegeman and Fernandez, 1995, was
determined to be P9 characterized by the presence of Subbotina inaequispira,
Planorotalites palmerae, and Acaranina bullbrooki and the absence of Hantkenina
nuttali. Benthic foraminifera present throughout this section include Siphonodosaria,
Chrysalogonium, Gyroidinoides, and Cibicidoides (Fluegeman and Fernandez, 1995 and
Fluegeman, 2009). The Capedevila formation is correlated with P7 by planktonic
43
foraminifera P. wilcoxensis, Morozovella aragonensis, and Morozovella formosa formosa
and by benthic foraminifera Nonion havanense and Nutallides truempyi (FernandezRodriguez et al., 1999 and Fluegeman, 1999).
In the Cayman Ridge the section of core studied represented Zone P11- P8 in
cores 27R to 37R. Zone P11 is marked by Globigerapsis kugleri in core 27R. The
presence of Morozovella aragonensis and Acaranina pentacamata at core 37R shows
that the bottom of the site’s core is no younger than P10 and no older than P8. First
occurrences (FO) that appear in this section are Globigerapsis kugleri, Acaranina
pentacamerata, and Morozovella aragonensis. Poor microfossil preservation at this
locale made it difficult to determine zonal markers such as P10 and P9 (Siguardsson et
al., 1997).
The ODP site studied in the Colombian Basin represents Zones P11-P10 or P7
(Figure 26). Globigerapsis kugleri represents the base of P11 and is observed in core
40R and 41R. The FO of Acaranina pentacamerata and Morozovella indicate bases of
Zones P7, P8-P10, and P9-P10. Due to the poor preservation of Zones P8, P9, and P10 a
distinction was not able to be made (Siguardsson et al., 1997).
Calcareous Nannofossil
The zonal boundaries of Okada and Bukry, 1980 were used by the ship board
scientists on ODP Leg 165 and by Bralower in his 1997 Cuba paper for calcareous
nannofossil biostratigraphy. The zones are denoted by CP and the zones range from 119 (Bralower and Iturrale-Vinent, 1997 and Sigurdsson et al., 1997). The calcareous
44
nanofossil biostratigraphy has been compiled for the three sections studied in figure:
27.
Nannofossils appear to have a continuous section throughout the Cenozoic at
ODP site 998. Nannofossils in the late middle Eocene are abundant. Middle to early
Eocene nannofossils are more deteriorated in preservation and are in lower abundance
from those in the upper middle Eocene. These nannofossils are characterized by
dissolution, overgrowth, and fragmentation. Important nannofossil markers are present
even with a striking decrease in preservation and low abundance down hole from core
32 R. The nannofossil zonal range is CP 13 B to CP 10. Nanno fossils that are noted as
important are LO Chiasmolithus gigas, LO Nannotetrina fulgens, LO Discoaster
sublodoensis, first ocurance (FO)Tribrachiatus orthostylus, and LO Discoaster lodoensis
(Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
ODP site 999 B nannofossil preservation quality decreases drastically and a
decrease of abundance of nannofossils relative to this site from in the early and middle
Eocene cores 29R to 50R. Nannofossils become rare as the lithology changes to micrite
towards the bottom of this section. Throughout this locality nannofossils have poor
preservation of assemblages, are fragmented, over grown, and moderately etched. The
base of zone CP 13 and subzone CP 9b were not accurately defined due to sporadic
occurrences of Nannotetrina fulgens and Tribrachiatus orthostylus. However,
Coccolithus crassus, a marker for zone CP 11, is not present (Sigurdsson et al., 1997).
45
The Capdevila Formation of the San Francisco de Paula is early Eocene Zone
NP11 indicated by Tribrachiatus orthotylus and absences of T. contortus and Dicoaster
lodensis. Late Paleocene is reworked in this section evidenced with Prinsius bisulcus, P.
martinii, and P. dimorphosus. A younger horizon within the Capedevila, Zone NP 12, is
shown with the occurrences of Dicoaster lodensis, Tribrachiatus orthotylus,
Campylosphaera eodela and Ellipsolithus macellus. The Universidad Group is comprised
of Zone NP 13-14 with occurrences of Dicoaster lodensis, Dicoaster quinarius, Dicoaster
Crassus, Dicoaster quinarius, Dicoasteroides kuepperi, and Masthasterites tribbrachiatus
(Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997).
Radiolarian
Radiolarian biozones in the Paleogene are designated by RP (Radiolarian
Paleogene) and the zones range from 1 to 22. These zonations were defined by Nigrini
and Sanfilippo (1998) where they standardized 39 zones for the tropical Atlantic, Pacific,
and Indian Oceans (Nigrini and Sanfilippo, 2000). The radiolarian biostratigraphy has
been compiled in figure: 28.
In ODP site 998 the Radiolarian stratigraphy zones range from RP 12 to RP 8.
Radiolarians in 998 have a low diversity during the Middle Eocene due to poor
preservation. Therefore the zoning of radiolarians was based off of nannofossil
stratigraphy. (Nigrini and Sanfilippo, 2000).
ODP site 999 radiolarian stratigraphy zones range from RP 12 to RP 9. Well
preserved assemblages of radiolarians in core 28 are characteristic of open ocean
46
conditions. There was a low diversity at this site. Important genera at low latitudes
such as Podocrytis, Thrysocrytis, and Theocotyle were sparse or absent. The middle
Eocene zone of strong dissolution in site 999 is characterized by an abundance of poorly
preserved radiolarians. Lower Eocene radiolarians are absent except for short intervals
of abundant poorly preserved radiolarians (Nigrini and Sanfilippo, 2000).
The Lower Eocene Capdevila Formation in the San Francisco de Paula Section is
zoned into the Buryella clinata according to Sanfilippo and Hull zones and the Bekoma
bidartensis zone according to Florez-Abin zones (Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999). Last
occurance (LO) radiolarian that characterize the early Eocene at this section include
Buryella clinata, LO Calocycloma castum, LO Giraffospyris lata, Helostylus sp., LO
Lamptonium fab. Fabaeforme, LO Phromocyrtis turgida, LO Podocyrtis papalis, LO
Theocotylissa auctor (Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999). According to Nigrini and Sanfilippo
(2000) the Buryella clinata zone is equivilant to RP 8.
Note:
The stratigraphy for each section that has studied has been compiled and
included in figures: 29, 30, and 31.
47
Figure 22:
Lithology of the Western Caribbean (Sigurdsson, Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997, Fluegeman
and Fernandez, 1995, Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997, and Sanfilippo and Hull,
1999).
48
Figure 23:
Chronostratigraphy of the ODP cores located in the western Caribbean Sea (Sigurdsson,
Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997).
49
Figure 24:
Time scale of the Eocene showing the different zonations for chronostratigraphy and
biostratigraphy, (Berggren and Pearson, 2005).
50
Figure 25:
Foraminifera Biostratigraphy Zonations throughout the Western Caribbean Region
(Sigurdsson, Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997, Fluegeman and Fernandez, 1995, and
Fluegeman, 2009).
51
Figure 26:
Contact of the EMET E 8 and E 7 in Core 999 B produced in this study.
52
Figure 27:
Calcareous nannofossils biostratigraphy of the Western Caribbean Region (Sigurdsson,
Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997 and Bralower and Iturrale-Vinent, 1997).
53
Figure 28:
Radiolarian Biostratigraphy of the Western Caribbean Region (Nigrini and Sanfilippo,
2000 and Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999).
54
Figure 29:
Stratigraphy of the Cayman Ridge ODP site 998 B based on the Initial Reports of the ODP
Leg 165 and post cruise publications. Zonations that are used area as follows:
Foraminifera: Berggren and other, 1995; Calcareous Nannofossils: Okada and Bukry,
1980; Radiolarian: Sanfilippo and Nigrini, 1998 (Sigurdsson, Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997
and Nigrini and Sanfilippo, 2000).
55
Figure 30:
Stratigraphy of the Colombian Basis ODP site 999 B based on the Initial Reports of the
ODP Leg 165 and post cruise publications. Zonations that are used area as follows:
Foraminifera: Berggren and other, 1995; Calcareous Nannofossils: Okada and Bukry,
1980; Radiolarian: Sanfilippo and Nigrini, 1998 (Sigurdsson, Leckie, Acton, et al., 1997
and Nigrini and Sanfilippo, 2000).
56
Figure 31:
Stratigraphy of Western Cuba based on publications of Fluegeman and Fernandez, 1995,
Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997, Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999, and Fluegeman, 2007.
Foraminifera biostratigraphy was reported by Fernandez-Rodriguez, BlancoBustamente, and Fluegeman, 1999 and Fluegeman, 1999. Calcareous nannofossil
biostratigraphy was described in Bralower and Iturralde-Vinent, 1997. Radiolarian
Biostratigraphy was reported by Sanfilippo and Hull, 1999.
57
Methods:
ODP Leg 165
Core samples were collected from two cored intervals from ODP Leg 165.
Cores were sampled at the IODP Gulf Coast Repository located on the Texas
A&M University campus in College Station, TX. The first sampled core section is
from site 998 B sampled at from 800 – 904.8 meters below sea floor (mbsf). A
total of 184 samples were collected at half meter intervals from cores 28 to 37.
The second set of samples came from site 999 B sampled at 888 to 920 mbsf.
This core was sampled every three meters in cores 40, 41, 42, 43, and 45 and
every one meter in core 44, where the EMET was expected to be found. In total
there were 49 samples that were studied. If gaps in the specified samples were
encountered, the core was sampled as close as possible to the original locality
specified. These samples were then was sent to the Biostratigraphy Laboratory
at Ball State University.
Site 998 B
These samples were sent to National Petrographic for thin sectioning. Planktonic
foraminifera were studied in thin section to establish biostratigraphic control on the
section (Fluegeman, 2007).
Site 999 B
Due to the induration of the study interval two methods were used to obtain
foraminifera data: disaggregated and thin sectioned samples.
Disaggregated Samples
Each sample was weighed and divided into roughly two equal sections. One half
of the sample was dried in a one hundred degree Celsius oven for a 24 hour period. The
sample was emerged in water and a 7% solution of hydrogen peroxide to aid in the
breakdown of the sample. Hydrogen peroxide was used to further disaggregate the
sample. After the sample had broken down it is was ran through a 63 micron wet sieve
to remove clay and break up any lumps that remained. Than the sample was
backwashed into a beaker, the water was decanted off, and finally dried. After the
second drying period the sample was dry sieved, breaking the sample into three
portions by size; greater than 250 microns, in between 250 and 150 microns, and fines
that are smaller than 150 microns. A large portion of the samples did not break down.
Here the water was decanted and the rock was dried and thin sections were made.
59
Core 44 and 45 were much harder overall then the other cores sampled they were
weighed and set aside for thin sectioning.
Samples that broke down 300 foraminifera were picked from the 250-250
microns section and then used to find the biostratigraphy of the core and planktonic
foraminifera ratios.
The SEM was used to aid in the identification of foraminifera in the samples that
broke down. The SEM gives a detailed close up image that aids in the identification
foraminifera species. The SEM that was used was a Hitachi TM-1000 Table Top SEM.
Thin Sectioning:
The samples that were too indurated to break down were thin sectioned. Cores
40, 41, 42, 43 and 44 were sent to National Petrographic for thin sectioning, while core
45 was thin sectioned at Ball State University. The samples that were sent to National
Petrographic were impregnated with epoxy to prevent the rock from shattering during
the thin sectioning process.
The majority of the core was thin sectioned and sent to National Petrographic,
but a portion of the samples were thin sectioned in the rock preparation laboratory at
Ball State University. The rocks were impregnated with a self impregnating epoxy to
prevent the sample from shattering. After the epoxy dried the sample billets were than
cut to be glued to thin section slides, polished, and glued to the thin section slides. Next
60
the thin sections were cut down to size using a two stage thin section machine. The first
stage cuts the billet down to a size 10 micron and the second polishes the rock so that
the foraminifera are distinguishable under the microscope. After the second stage is
complete and both wheels have polished the sample the sample was hand polished
using a glass plate and a small amount of six hundred grit mixed with water. The sample
was rubbed against the glass with the grit in between in figure eight motions to ensure
an even polish to the thin section.
Analysis
Planktonic foraminifera such as Morozovella and Acarnina genera were counted
from the thin sections and broken down samples to give a ratio for each sample. 300
foraminifera were counted and separated into Morozovella or non Morozovella genera,
and then a ratio of Morozovella to Acaranina planktonic foraminifera was calculated.
This was done for both the broken down and thin sectioned samples for both cores ODP
998 B and ODP 999 B (Boersma et al., 1986). Foraminifera ratios were not configured
from the Calle G Section in Cuba due to the absence of Morozovellids (Fluegeman,
2007).
Foraminifera biostratigraphy was completed on ODP site 999 B using thin section
and disaggregated samples. The biostratigraphy was completed using The Atlas of
Eocene Planktonic Foraminifera (Pearson et al., 2006) and the Biostratigraphy of
Jamaica (Wright and Robinson, 1995). Photographs were taken of the foraminifera for
different species in thin section, 45 X magnification was used on the slides.
61
Results:
ODP Site 998
The studied section of this core is comprised of off white to grey
nannofossil chalks that grade to clayey limestone at depth, calcareous
volcanoclastics mixed sedimentary rock with interbedded altered volacanics, and
turbidites. Planktonic foraminifera are prevalent throughout the core. There are
layers of shell hash, foraminifera, crystalline mud, and igneous minerals such as
muscovite, biotite, and hematite throughout the core.
Table 1(below) shows the values of Morozovella and non-Morozovella
that have been observed out of the 300 foraminifera counted per sample in thin
section and the ratio of Morozovella in that sample. The average ratio of the
samples studied is 0.0843. The standard deviation of the entire sampled core is
0.0970. The average for the samples located in the upper section, Lutetian, has an
average of 0.0251 with a standard deviation of 0.0239. The lower section,
Ypresian, has an average of 0.1883 and a standard deviation of 0.0881.
The Morozovella: non Morozovella ratio curve Figure 32 shows down
hole percentages of Morozovella in each sampled section. Ratios fluctuate at
small amounts during the Lutetian increasing down hole with the first increasing
peak the EMET to larger ratio values with larger fluctuations during the late Ypresian.
There are three peaks of percentages presented in the Ypresian, representing periods of
higher percentages of Morozovellas to other foraminifera. The peaks of high percentages
indicate periods of warmer surface waters during the Ypresian steadily decreasing
through the Ypresian to Lutetian to cooler surface waters.
Figure 32:
Morozovella : Non Morozovella ratios for ODP site 9998 B. Sample sites are
on the x-axis and ratios are on the y-axis. Red circles indicate high
percentages of Morozovellas
63
ODP Site 999 B
This local is comprised of light grey nannofossil chalk with interbedded clayey
chalk layers and interbedded ash layers. Evidence for turbidites is found throughout the
core: benthic foraminifera, large planktonics, and shell hash pictured in figure 33. A high
amount of muscovite flakes are common throughout the core. The highest concentrations
of igneous minerals and shell hash are present in Core 44 R 03 W Interval 90.0-91.3 m at
a depth of 905.01 mbsf just above the EMET. There is a high amount of overgrowth and
recrystalization throughout this site.
64
Slide A
Slide B
Slides from ODP 999 B
A: Large foraminifera:
Discoyclina weaveri
B: Shell hash layer
C: High concentration of
Slide C
igneous minerals
Figure 33:
Evidence for turbiditic activity present in ODP 999 B.
Morozovella percentages in the Colombian Basin, ODP 999 B (Figure 34) fluctuate at a
steady rate during the Lutetian increasing to a stronger fluctuation pattern heading down
section through the EMET to the Ypresian. Flucuations show a warmer periods through
the Ypresian and shortly after the EMET shifting to cooler surface waters during the
Lutetian.
65
Figure 34:
Morozovella : Non Morozovella ratios for ODP site 999 B. Sample sites
are on the x-axis and ratios are on the y-axis. Peaks of Morozovella
percentages are highlighted in red.
The graphs produced from the Morozovella : non Morozovella Ratios correlate
with one another and also to the oxygen isotope curve presented from the Cuban
Section (Figure 8). The percent of Morozovella is at its peak when the 18O has the most
negative excursion. While the Morozovella percent is lower during the high 18O negative
excursions. The two Morozovella : non Morozovella ratio graphs follow the same trend
of higher percent Morozovella following the EMET contact with large fluctuations
66
following this initial trend. The correlation of these curves is shown in Figure 35. All
three curves show warmer periods of climate or surface waters during the Ypresian and
shortly after the EMET in the Early Lutetian.
Figure 35:
Correlation of Morozovella : Nonmorozovella Ratios of ODP 998 B and 999 B to the
oxygen isotope curve produced in the Calle G section, Cuba by Fluegeman (2007).
67
Table 1
Sample Attributes for ODP 998 B
Core
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
28 R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
29R
30R
30R
Section
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
CC
1
1
Interval
(m)
000-003
050-053
091-102
000-003
051-054
000-003
049-051
098-100
000-003
054-057
100-103
000-003
054-056
100-103
000-001
023-026
002-005
052-055
103-106
000-003
049-052
100-103
000-003
047-050
103-106
000-003
050-053
100-103
000-004
049-052
096-098
010-013
000-004
049-052
Depth
(mbsf)
810
810.5
810.9
811.5
812.05
813
813.5
813.9
814.5
815
815.5
816
816.5
817
817.5
817.9
818.22
818.72
819.22
819.7
820.19
820.7
821.2
821.67
822.23
822.7
823.2
823.7
824.2
824.69
825.19
825.6
827.8
828.29
Morozovella
7
7
4
4
7
4
0
4
6
3
4
2
4
3
3
4
3
4
7
6
7
4
4
3
0
9
3
2
2
2
7
2
3
4
Non-Morozovella
293
293
296
296
293
296
3
296
294
297
296
298
296
297
297
296
297
296
293
294
293
296
296
297
234
291
297
298
298
298
293
298
297
296
m/nm ratio
0.0239
0.0239
0.0135
0.0135
0.0239
0.0135
0.0000
0.0135
0.0204
0.0101
0.0135
0.0067
0.0135
0.0101
0.0101
0.0135
0.0101
0.0135
0.0239
0.0204
0.0239
0.0135
0.0135
0.0101
0.0000
0.0309
0.0101
0.0067
0.0067
0.0067
0.0239
0.0067
0.0101
0.0135
68
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
30R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
31R
32R
32R
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
CC
1
1
097-100
000-004
049-052
100-104
000-003
050-053
100-103
00-003
049-052
104-107
002-005
050-053
101-104
000-003
049-053
101-104
000-002
050-052
000-002
000-003
050-053
100-103
000-003
050-053
100-103
000-004
050-052
100-103
000-003
050-053
098-101
000-003
049-052
100-102
000-002
049-051
099-101
000-002
048-050
003-005
056-058
829.79
829.3
829.79
830.3
830.8
831.3
831.8
832.3
832.79
833.31
833.8
834.3
834.8
835.3
835.79
836.3
836.8
837.3
387.4
387.5
838
838.5
839
839.5
840
840.5
841
841.5
842
842.5
842.98
843.5
843.99
844.5
845
845.5
845.99
846.5
847
847.1
847.66
3
2
3
5
5
3
3
4
1
0
1
1
5
4
3
0
6
0
3
3
0
0
1
2
5
5
7
5
4
3
5
3
2
2
2
0
3
1
0
8
10
297
298
297
295
295
297
297
296
79
102
299
299
295
296
279
146
296
300
197
297
270
208
299
298
295
295
293
295
296
297
295
297
298
298
214
85
297
107
149
292
290
0.0101
0.0067
0.0101
0.0169
0.0169
0.0101
0.0101
0.0135
0.0127
0.0000
0.0033
0.0033
0.0169
0.0135
0.0108
0.0000
0.0203
0.0000
0.0152
0.0101
0.0000
0.0000
0.0033
0.0067
0.0169
0.0169
0.0239
0.0169
0.0135
0.0101
0.0169
0.0101
0.0067
0.0067
0.0093
0.0000
0.0101
0.0093
0.0000
0.0274
0.0345
69
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
32R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
33R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
CC
1
1
1
2
2
099-102
000-002
047-049
102-105
005-007
048-051
100-102
002-004
050-052
099-101
000-002
049-051
100-102
000-003
050-052
101-103
000-002
014-016
000-002
048-050
098-100
005-007
049-051
099-102
000-003
052-054
100-102
000-002
050-052
096-099
000-003
050-053
101-103
000-002
050-053
004-006
000-003
050-052
098-100
000-002
051-053
848.09
848.6
849.09
849.6
850.1
850.64
851.1
851.6
852.1
852.59
853.1
853.59
854.1
854.6
855.1
855.6
856.1
856.51
856.7
857.19
857.69
858.2
858.69
859.19
859.7
850.2
860.7
861.2
861.7
862.19
862.7
863.2
863,7
864.2
864.7
866.2
866.3
866.8
867.29
867.8
868.3
5
6
4
3
8
10
6
5
6
11
2
9
9
6
9
7
10
10
3
16
11
9
15
12
16
10
21
9
12
20
22
19
22
24
19
16
22
19
22
23
32
295
294
296
297
292
290
294
295
294
289
108
291
291
294
291
293
290
290
178
284
189
291
285
288
284
176
280
139
288
280
278
281
278
276
281
284
278
281
278
277
268
0.0169
0.0204
0.0135
0.0101
0.0274
0.0345
0.0204
0.0169
0.0204
0.0381
0.0185
0.0309
0.0309
0.0204
0.0309
0.0239
0.0345
0.0345
0.0169
0.0563
0.0582
0.0309
0.0526
0.0417
0.0563
0.0568
0.0750
0.0647
0.0417
0.0714
0.0791
0.0676
0.0791
0.0870
0.0676
0.0563
0.0791
0.0676
0.0791
0.0830
0.1194
70
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
34R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
35R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
100-102
000-002
050-053
100-102
000-002
050-052
100-102
003-005
048-050
101-104
000-004
051-054
100-102
012-014
000-003
050-052
101-103
000-003
050-053
105-108
000-002
048-051
100-103
000-003
049-052
100-102
000-003
049-053
101-103
000-003
050-053
100-102
014-016
000-004
049-052
100-103
000-003
050-053
101-104
000-002
052-055
868.8
869.3
869.8
870.3
870.8
871.3
871.8
872.3
872.79
873.3
873.8
874.3
874.8
875.3
875.9
876.4
876.9
877.4
877.9
878.4
878.9
879.39
879.9
880.4
880.9
881.4
881.9
882.4
882.9
883.4
883.9
884.3
884.9
885.5
885.99
886.5
887
887.5
888.01
888.5
889
17
19
23
39
43
44
66
30
18
48
34
40
34
9
25
12
32
48
27
25
60
38
33
73
30
19
69
32
38
25
19
44
34
31
38
39
40
30
29
46
46
283
281
277
261
157
256
234
270
282
252
266
260
266
150
275
288
268
152
273
275
240
268
267
227
270
281
231
268
262
275
281
256
266
269
262
261
260
270
271
254
254
0.0601
0.0676
0.0830
0.1494
0.2739
0.1719
0.2821
0.1111
0.0638
0.1905
0.1278
0.1538
0.1278
0.0600
0.0909
0.0417
0.1194
0.3158
0.0989
0.0909
0.2500
0.1418
0.1236
0.3216
0.1111
0.0676
0.2987
0.1194
0.1450
0.0909
0.0676
0.1719
0.1278
0.1152
0.1450
0.1494
0.1538
0.1111
0.1070
0.1811
0.1811
71
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
36R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
37R
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
CC
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
CC
105-107
000-003
049-053
099-102
000-003
050-054
100-103
000-003
050-052
008-010
002-004
049-052
097-102
000-003
050-053
099-103
000-004
049-052
098-101
000-004
049-051
100-103
000-003
051-054
102-105
003-005
009-012
889.5
890
890.49
890.99
891.5
891.99
892.5
893
893.5
893.7
895.1
895.59
896.09
896.6
897.1
897.59
898.1
898.59
899.09
899.6
900.09
900.6
901.1
901.6
902.1
902.6
903.2
48
32
48
48
27
75
67
58
88
55
46
74
67
81
61
59
66
66
58
65
53
67
50
66
69
48
70
252
268
252
252
273
225
233
242
212
245
254
226
233
219
239
241
234
234
242
235
247
233
250
234
231
252
230
0.1905
0.1194
0.1905
0.1905
0.0989
0.3333
0.2876
0.2397
0.4151
0.2245
0.1811
0.3274
0.2876
0.3699
0.2552
0.2448
0.2821
0.2821
0.2397
0.2766
0.2146
0.2876
0.2000
0.2821
0.2987
0.1905
0.3043
72
Table 2
Sample Attributes of ODP 999 B
Core
40R
40R
41R
41R
42R
43R
43R
43R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
Section
3
6
1
1
2
1
3
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
Interval (m)
90.0-91.0
0.0-2.0
44.0-46.0
49.0-50.0
2.0-4.0
2.0-4.0
0.0-2.0
57.0-59.0
5.0-6.0
21.0-22.0
57.0-59.0
70.0-72.0
96.5-97.5
145.0-146.0
7.0-8.0
28.0-30.0
52.5-53.5
70.0-72.0
97.0-99.0
110.0-112.0
141.0-142.0
0.0-2.0
24.0-25.0
51.0-53.0
74.0-76.0
91.0-91.3
111.0-113.0
145.0-147.0
4.0-5.0
21.0-22.0
53.0-55.0
79.0-80.0
95.0-97.0
110.0-111.0
Depth mbsf
876.1
879.7
882.34
885.4
888
891.5
894.5
897.5
901.1
901.3
901.6
901.8
902.06
902.5
902.67
902.88
903.1
903.3
903.5
903.7
904.01
904.1
904.3
904.6
904.84
905.01
905.2
905.5
905.6
905.8
906.1
906.3
906.5
906.7
Morozovella
8
7
8
9
10
13
5
3
4
5
9
9
14
12
7
14
13
11
3
9
5
17
22
15
19
21
27
30
32
18
13
18
17
11
Non-Morozovella
292
293
292
291
290
287
295
297
296
295
291
291
286
288
293
286
287
289
297
291
295
283
278
285
281
279
273
270
268
282
287
282
283
289
m/nm
Ratio
0.0274
0.0239
0.0274
0.0309
0.0345
0.0453
0.0169
0.0101
0.0135
0.0169
0.0309
0.0309
0.0490
0.0417
0.0239
0.0490
0.0453
0.0381
0.0101
0.0309
0.0169
0.0601
0.0791
0.0526
0.0676
0.0753
0.0989
0.1111
0.1194
0.0638
0.0453
0.0638
0.0601
0.0381
73
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
44R
45R
45R
45R
45R
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
CC
1
3
4
6
142.0-144.0
0.0-2.0
27.0-29.0
51.0-53.0
74.0-76.0
93.0-94.0
116.0-117.0
139.0-141.0
1.0-3.0
20.0-22.0
57.0-59.0
74.0-76.0
90.0-92.0
8.0-10.0
8.0-10.0
7.0-9.0
92.0-94.0
97.0-98.0
907.02
907.1
907.3
907.6
907.8
908
908.26
908.4
908.6
908.8
909.1
909.3
909.5
909.6
910.7
913.7
916.7
919.7
12
9
2
18
16
23
23
8
27
19
15
12
1
16
33
33
13
2
288
291
115
282
284
277
277
153
273
281
285
288
43
284
267
267
287
136
0.0417
0.0309
0.0174
0.0638
0.0563
0.0830
0.0830
0.0523
0.0989
0.0676
0.0526
0.0417
0.0233
0.0563
0.1236
0.1236
0.0453
0.0147
Table: 2 shows the individual sample values for Morozovella, non Morozovella,
and the respective ratio. Figure 34 shows the ratio values down hole of ODP site 999 B.
The graph shows moderate fluctuations throughout the sample with larger fluctuations in
the ratio values as you proceed down through the section and into the Ypresian. The
mean for the entire section is 0.0505 and the standard deviation is 0.0297. The mean for
the Lutetian is 0.0306 and the standard deviation is 0.0137. The mean for the Ypresian is
0.0645 and the standard deviation is 0.0300.
In this study ODP site 999 B had a similar zonation, using Berggren and Pearson’s
(2005) E Zone 8 and 7, figure: 24, coordinated to the contact proposed by the ODP Leg
165 ship board scientists. The contact of these zones is marked by the last occurrence
(LO) of Globigerinatheka subconglobata and Morozovella Coronatus in Zone E 8 and by
74
the FO of Acaranina coalingensis and Acaranina pentercamerata. The foraminifera were
poorly preserved and heavily recrystalized.
EMET:
Table 3 lists sample number and planktonic foraminifera that have been
identified respectively, allowing for easy identification of the EMET. Foraminifera that
were used as markers are pictured in Figure 36. Formainifera biostratigraphy shows the
contact of E8 and E7, the EMET, of ODP site 999 B lies at 905.2 mbsf. The contact of
these zones are marked by the last occurrence (LO) of Globigerinatheka subconglobata
and Morozovella Coronatus in Zone E 8 and by the FO of Acaranina coalingensis and
Acaranina pentercamerata. The foraminifer in the studied section were poorly
preserved and heavily recrystalized. Figure 37, shows the stratigraphic range for the
different foraminifera species that were observed in the section of ODP site 999 B.
75
Slide D
Slide E
Slide F
Slide G
Figure 36:
Slide D: Globigerinatheka subconglobata, Slide E: Morozovelloides coronatus, Slide F:
Acaranina coalingensis, and Slide G: Acaranina pentercamerata.
76
Figure 37:
Planktonic foraminifera biostratigraphy of ODP Site 999 B. E Zones based on Berggren
and Pearson, (2005).
Table 3
Foraminifera Present in Samples from ODP 999 B (Next Page).
77
78
Discussion
The Presidentes Event:
The Presedentes Event refers to the oxygen isotope anomaly that was
identified by Fluegeman (2007) during the EMET in the Calle G section Avenida
de los Presidentes, Cuba, as to condense the name.
Planktonic Foraminifera Ratios
Planktonic foraminifera generas, Morozovella and Acaranina, inhabited
the warm mixed shallow layer in tropical and subtropical oceans from the late
Paleocene to the middle Eocene. These genera are extensively used as
biostratiraphic and paleoceanographic markers because they dominate
planktonic foraminifera assemblages (Pearson, et al., 2006). These genera also
had symbiotic relationship with algae. The exact cause of Morozovella’s
extinction is not yet known but it is believed to have been abrupt (Wade, 2004).
Wade, 2004, presented that the cause of the extinction may be correlated to the
eutrophication of surface waters and thus a demise in their symbiotic
relationship.
Periods of episodic warming occurred during the Lutetian, through the EMET
and, the into early Ypresian occur in tandem across the western Caribbean Sea,
observed from foraminifera ratios and the oxygen isotope curve. These warming
periods may be a regional hyperthermal event if not globally event occurring.
Tau
Increases of sea level indicate a lower amount of ice volume present at that
time, connected to temperature. Increasing values of Tau indicate episodic rising sea
level during, the Lutetian, through the EMET, and the Ypresian. Tau may be used as a
proxy for temperature and support of an event occurring during the EMET. Tau has
been presented in correlation with the Presidentes indicating that there is a local event.
Tau and the planktonic foraminifera ratio graphs, correlate showing a similar curve to
the oxygen isotope curve from the Call G Section (Figure 39). Presenting these findings
with the planktonic foraminifera ratios that have been presented show a warming event
a throughout the Western Caribbean during the EMET.
The Azolla Event
During the early Paleocene, from 65-45 Ma, the exchange of sea water from the
Arctic Ocean to the world ocean occurred through narrow and shallow seas such as the
Greenland-Norway Sea, the Tungai Strait, and the Fram Strait. These water ways
provided outlets for the spilling of water from the shallow and nearly enclosed Arctic
Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean (Roberts et al., 2009, Speelman et al., 2009, and Brinkhuis
et al., 2006). The restriction of seaways allowed for the freshening of the Arctic Ocean
80
surface waters and warming sea surface temperatures (Roberts et al., 2009). Polar sea
surface temperatures and global deep water temperatures were more than ten to
twelve degrees Celsius warmer than at present time (Thomas et al., 2006). Other
evidence for a warm Arctic climate is vertebrate fossils including the tortoise Grochelone
and the alligator Allognathosuchus (Speelman et al., 2009). Causes of these warm
climates and episodic fresh water influxes from the Arctic Ocean include the variability
of the Earth’s orbit and an increase of atmospheric CO 2 concentration to 1000-4000
ppm (Thomas et al., 2006). With the termination of the Azolla interval there was an
increase in temperature of the adjacent oceans to the Arctic Ocean from ten to thirteen
degrees Celsius (Brinkhuis et al., 2006). Global temperatures began to cool at 46.5 Ma in
deep waters at high latitudes. (Brinkhuis et al., 2006 and Thomas et al., 2006). This
cooling coincides with Azolla interval, a deep sea cooling with heavier 13C and a
transition to lower atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide. The episodic Azolla
Interval shows that the blooms of Azolla in the Arctic Ocean, a major anoxic ocean
basin, augment lower carbon dioxide in the atmosphere (Speelman et al., 2009).
Gateway Closing: Beata Ridge
Beata Ridge is a fan shaped structural high that is located between the
Colombian Basin and the Venezuelan Basin, figure 39. At Beata Ridge’s northern narrow
bathymetric peak stands twenty-three kilometers extending four hundred kilometers to
the wide and deep southern end (Diebold, 1994, Draper et al., 1994, and James, 2009).
81
The ridge is comprised of subsidiary ridges that trail off to the southern end where it
meets the Southern Caribbean Deformed Belt (Draper et al., 1994).
Beata Ridge has been observed as a trench-trench-transform hinge fault and a
ridge-trench transform fault from the subduction of the Venezuelan microplate and the
Nicaraguan Rise beneath the Colombian microplate (James, 2009). Beata Ridge uplifted
6.8 m beginning in the Late Cretaceous. The tectonic uplift of Beata Ridge cut off bottom
water flow through the central Caribbean. Evidence that the ridge is shallow during this
time has been presented from ocean cores (James, 2009 and Mauffet and Leroy, 1999).
The uplift coincided with structural and tectonic events that affected the Colombian
Basin and the Hess Escarpment (James, 2009). These tectonic events led to tilting of
Beata Ridge and deformation along its southern ridge (Draper et al., 1994). Seismic
Crustal velocities show that the ridge is similar to that of the Nicaragua Rise. Gravity
anomalies indicate that the ridge’s crust is not oceanic. Seismic evidence of
compressional structures discovered during submersible studies has uncovered
hypabyssal intrusive rocks such as gabbros and dolerites alternating with sedimentary
rocks in tectonic contacts. Cores recovered from Beata Ridge show shallow water
carbonates during the middle Eocene (James, 2009). The shallow carbonates that have
been observed and seismic activity that has been documented give evidence that the
Beata Ridge uplifted prior to and during the middle Eocene cutting off of deep water
circulation.
82
Evidence of turbidites being active in the Colombian Basin during this interval are
observed in the presence of large foraminifera, Discocyclina barkeri (Cole, 1969), shell
hash, and volcanic material. Eustatic changes in the ocean crust appear to have caused
volcanism and leading to turbidity currents. Large foraminifera such as Discocyclina
barkeri are indicative of shallow environments (Cole, 1969), for this to be present in
deep ocean sediments turbidites must have occurred at some period. Turbidite
sedimentation is the product of a complex interplay of tectonics, sea level, climate, and
biogenic productivity (Gawanda et al., 1997 and Piper and Normark, 2009). Two types
of turbidites that are supported by the absence of sand and presence of carbonate mud
include rapid retrogressive failure and transformation and prolonged plume fallout
turbidity currents. The difference of these currents is the type of morphology of the
canyon produced. Retrogressive failure and transformation produces a steep canyon
where plume fallout produces a badlands effect. Seismic activity is reported to be in
part responsible for failure turbidites (Piper and Normark, 2009).
Deductions
The Azolla event may have led to changes in the shallow mixed layer in the
ocean leading to a decrease in Morozovella abundance. The Azolla event may have led
to changes of ocean circulation related to the thermodynamics of ocean currents. Kelly
et al., (1996) suggest that changes in the thermal gradient may affect diversity of
foraminifera. Planktonic foraminifera ratios increase and decrease with the changes in
thermal gradient. The Azolla event may have led to the fluctuations of the Calle G Tau
83
Graph with the diversity of planktonic versus benthic foraminifera with a change in sea
level.
The uplift of the Beata Ridge causing a gateway closure may also play a key role
in the changing of ocean circulation from the obstruction of bottom currents through
the western Caribbean. The mechanism of tectonic activity that is present in the
Western Caribbean led to the uplift of the Beata Ridge. This may be related to the
abundance of turbidites and volcanic carbonate rock.
Presence of carbonate mud and absence of sand in ODP 999 and ODP 998
supports retrogressive failure and transformation turbidite activity. Failure turbidites
are also supported in the western Caribbean due to the tectonic nature of the region,
supported by the high percentage of volcanic ash present in both cores. Also there is an
extensive amount of turbidites that were documented by the ODP during Leg 165 in the
Colombian Basin giving more evidence of a tectonically active region.
84
Figure 38:
The Presidentes Event: planktonic foraminifera oxygen isotope Curve produced from the
Calle G section Avenida de los Presidentes in Cuba (Fluegeman, 2007).
85
Figure: 39
Correlation of 18O isotopes from the Presedentes Event and planktonic foraminifera
ratios of ODP site 998 B and ODP site 999 B (Oxygen isotope curve: Fluegeman, 2007).
86
Figure 40:
The Presedentes Event is compared to the Calle G section Tau graph and the planktonic
foraminifera ratio graphs for ODP 998 B and ODP 999 B. The fluctuation negative
excursions of 18O are similar to the higher Tau values of the Calle G Section and the
fluctuation of the ratio of planktonic foraminifera ratios for ODP 998 site B and ODP 999
site B, (Oxygen isotope curve and Tau curve: Fluegeman, 2007).
87
Figure 41:
Beata Ridge Is the fan shaped feature colored blue (Modified from: Mauffret and Leroy,
1999).
88
Conclusions:
EMET Contact:

The contact of E 7 and E 8 at ODP 999 B, Colombian Basin, lies at
905.2 mbsf and is marked by the LO of Globigerinatheka
subconglobata and Morozovella Coronatus and the FO of Acaranina
coalingensis and Acaranina pentercamerata.
The Presidentes Event:

The Presidentes event that has been observed in the Calle G section
Avenida de los Presidentes in Cuba by Fluegeman, 1997, is a regional
event, not a localized event. The event is observed in Morozovella:
Non Morozovella ratios at ODP 998 B, Cayman Ridge, and ODP 999 B,
Colombian Basin. The event is also observed in Tau values from the
Calle G section, Habana, Cuba.
Source behind EMET:

The presence of turbidites and volcanic limestones
support the uplift of the Beata Ridge as an oceanic
gateway closure.

The Azolla Event may have led to oceanographic parameters to
change in the surface waters affecting 18O, planktonic foraminifera
ratios, and Tau.

A combination of both the uplift of the Beata Ridge
and the Azolla Event, may have led to a change ocean
parameters leading to the EMET.
90
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99
Appendix A
Systematic Paleontology Plates
of ODP 999,
Western Colombian Basin
Systematic Paleontology of ODP 999, Western Colombian Basin
Genus: Acaranina
The genera Acaranina are dominant during the Early and Middle Eocene. Included in
this section are eight species of Acaranina. They frequent the middle and tropical
latitudes, and have been observed at high latitudes. Acaranina are mixed layer dwellers
that have photosymbiotic relationship with algae.
During the upper early Eocene Acaranina gave way for Morozovelloides.
Species: Acaranina bullbrooki (Bolli, 1957)
Plate: 1, Slides: A-D
Globorotalia crassata (Cushman and Barkdale, 1930), Acaranina densa (Cushman
and Bermudez, 1949; Berggren, 1977), Globigerina decepta (Passagno, 1960),
Globorotalia decepta (Blow, 1979), Globorotalia spinuloiflata (Bandy, 1964; Jenkins
1971), Globorotalia crassaformis ((Subbotina, 1953), Globorotalia bullbrooki (Bolli,
1975; Blow, 1979), Globorotalia psuedopsilensis (Blow, 1979), Globorotalia matthewsae
(Blow, 1979), Acaranina mathewasae (Huber 1991), Acaranina bullbrooki (Huber, 1991)
Biostratigraphic Range: E7 to E11
Geographic Range: Cosmopolitan Species
101
Description: Thick wall structure, highly muricated at margins of test, non spinose, tests
are normally perforated. Test morphology: Surbquadrate embracing elongated
subangular to rounded chambers.
Species: Acaranina coalingensis (Cushman and Hanna, 1927)
Plate: 1, Slides: E-H
Globogerina Coalengensis (Cushman and Hanna)
Biostratigraphic Range: P4c to E7
Geographic Range: Tropical and mid latitudes, Caribbean and New Zealand
Description: Triangular-subquadrate test, globular chambers progressing in size,
nonspinose, highly murcated at the umbilical of the test, umbilical coiled moderately
tight.
Species: Acaranina cuneicamerata (Blow, 1997)
Plate: 2, Slides: A-D
Globorotalia Berwaliana (Mohan and Soodan, 1969), Globorotalia
cuniecamerata (Blow, 1979), Globorotalia decepta (Blow, 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 to E9
102
Geographic Range: Reported in Equatorial Atlantic, Tethyan, and Egypt.
Description: Subquadrate to wedge shaped test, more wedge shaped then A.
coalengensis, lunate chambers, develop laterally with more peripheral symmetry then
A. coalengensis, densely muricated open umbilicus, spiral side weakly muritcated.
Species: Acaranina pentacamerata (Subbotina, 1947)
Plate: 2, Slides: E-H
Biostratigraphic Range: E5 to E7
Geographic Range: Reported globally during early Eocene.
Globoratalia crassa (Subbotine, 19636), Globoratalia pentacamerata (Subbotina,
1937), Turborotalia pentacamerata (Pokorny, 1960), Globorotalia pentacamerata
(Hillebrandt, 1962), Acaranina pentacamerata (Khalilov, 1956), Globigerina soldadoensis
(Bolli, 1957), Globigerina mckannai (Berggren, 1960), Globorotalia camerata (Blow,
1979)
Description: five rounded inflated chambers in final whirl, iten to twelve chambers in
total, tightly coiled two and a half whorls, first chambers elevated above final whorl, low
muricated over both sides of test, globular to lunate shape of chambers.
103
Species: Acaranina primitiva (Finlay, 1947)
Plate: 3, Slides: A-B
Globoquadrina primitive (Finlay, 1947), Globigerina primitive (Bronniman, 1952),
Psuedogloboguadrina primitive (Jenkins, 1965), Globorotalia primitive (Blow, 1979),
Globorotalia primitive (Stott and Kennett, 1990)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 to E13
Geographic Range: Primarily found at high latitudes, reported in the Caribbean, Atlantic,
and Indo-Pacific but not as common.
Description: Nonspinose, highly muricated on umbilical side, some low amount of
muricate on test, compact subquadrate chambers that sit ninety degrees from one
another, chambers more rounded then A. coalengensis and morphology of chambers
not as straight.
Species: Acaranina psuedosubspherica (Pearson and Berggren, New Species)
Muricoglobigerina esnehensis (Pearson and others, 1993), Acaranina aquiensis
(Lu and Keller, 1995), Acaranina subsphaerica (Pearson and others, 2004)
Plate: 3, Slides: C-D
Biostratigraphic Range: E7 to E10
104
Geographic Range: Distributed widely throughout tropical and mid latitudes.
Description: Nonspinose, weakly to moderate muricated tests, globular subquadrate
chamber shape, chambers in final whorl laterally compressed, open umbilicus
sometimes covered by final chamber.
Species: Acaranina punctocarinina (Fleisher, 1974)
Plate: 3, Slides: E-F
Globorotalia crassaformis (Subbotina, 1953), Acaranina punctocarinata (Fliesher,
1974)
Biostratigraphic Range: Upper E7 to E11
Geographic Range: Global distribution
Description: Strongly muricated on both sides of the test, normally perforated test,
chmbers are wedge shaped, four chambers in final whorl, moderately to tightly coiled
whorls with an open umbilicus, similar to A. bullbrooki except for the elongation of the
chambers.
Species: Acaranina praetopsilensis (Blow, 1979)
Plate: 3, Slides: G-H
105
Globorotalia topilensis (Blow, 1979), Acaranina praetopsilensis (Blow, 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: Upper E7 to E12
Geographic Range: Widespread throughout the Southern most Latitudes
Description: Strongly muricated normal perforated nonpinose tests, Low trochospiral,
sutures between inflated - globular chambers, mixed chamber structure same specimen,
umbilicus wide and deep.
Genus: Morozovella
First appearance and diversification of Morozovella occurred in the Paleocene. During
the early Eocene the group split into two different classification groups by morphology.
One characterized by high murcate at the adumbilical and the second is characterized by
the fin murcate and the absence of a keel.
Species: Morozovella aragonesis (Nutall, 1930)
Plate: 4, Slides: A-D
Globorotalia aragonensis (Nuttall, 1930; Glaessner, 1937; Tourmakrine, 1975;
Cefelli and Belford, 1977; Cushman and Bermudez, 1949; Blow 1979),
Pseudogloborotalian aragonensis (Bermudez, 1961), Morozvoella aragonensis
aragonensis Fleisher, 1974; Bergren, 1977), Globorotalia marksi (Martin, 1943),
Globorotalia naussi (Martin, 1943)
106
Biostratigraphic Range: E4 to E9
Geographic Range: Tropical to sub tropical areas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and
the Mediterranean Sea.
Description: Nonspinose, normal perforate, medium muricate on umbilical side of test
low muricate on spiral side of test, chambers triangular to subquadrate with small lip on
spiral half of body, last chamber larger and steeper sloping walls then others opens
toward tightly coiled chambers, circular in ventral or dorsal view.
Species: Morozovella caucasica (Glauessner, 1937)
Plate: 4, Slides: E-H
Globorotalia aragonensis (Glaessner, 1937), Truncorotalia caucasica (Reiss,
1957), Globorotalia caucasica (von Hillebrandt, 1962; Luterbacher, 1964), Globorotalia
crater (Jenkins, 1971), Morozovella aragongensis caucasica (Fliesher, 1974),
Globorotalia velascoensis (Subbotina, 1953)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 to E9
Geographic Range: Common in tropical to subtropical, tethyan, Indo Pacific
Description: Normal perforate, nonspinose, high to medium muricate on most of test,
subcircular outline of test, planoconvex, chambers are subquadrate to triangular,
107
chambers are stongly muricated at sutures on umbilical side, large umbilicus separating
chambers, but not as deep as M. aragonensis.
Species: Morozovella crater (Hornibrook, 1958)
Plate: 5, Slides: A-D
Globorotalia crater (Finlay, 1939; Jenkins, 1971), Globorotalia aragonensis
(Mallory, 1985), Globorotalia gorrondatxensis (Etxebarria, 1985)
Biostratigraphic Range: E4 – E9
Geographic Range: Abundant in sub/ tropical areas of the Atlantic, Pacific,
Mediterranean, Tethyan, and Austral regions.
Description: Nonspinose, normally perforate, slightly to medium muricated tests,
planoconvex test, ornamented with muricate on umbilical side of test, chambers
globular wedge shaped, tightly coiled initial whorls within final whorl, umbilicus deep
and wide.
Genus: Morozovelloides
Species of Morozovella that derived in the Paleocene with keels were grouped with the
genera Morozovelloides. They are descendants of Acaranina during the late Paleocene
to early Eocene.
108
Species: Morozovelloides Bandyi (Fleisher, 1974)
Plate: 5, Slides: E-H
Globorotalia crassata (Cushman and Barksdale, 1930), Morozovella crassata
(Shackleton and Hall, 1993), Globorotalia spinulosa (Beckmann, 1953)
Biostratigraphic Range: Present throughout E7- E10, but abundant in E8 and E9
Geographic Range: Cosmopolitan
Description: Muricate, normal perforate with smooth areas on spiral side, planoconvex
to lenticular test, moderately coiled at low trochospiral below centerline.
Species: Morozovelloides coronatus (Blow, 1979)
Plate: 6, Slides: A-D
Globorotal spinulosa (Bolli, 1957), Globorotalia lehneri (Bolli, 1957; Blow, 1969),
Morozovella coronata (Fliesher, 1974), Globorotalia coronate (Blow 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: E8 – E12
Geographic Range: Common in sub/ tropical regions such as the Caribbean and IndoPacific.
Description: High concentration of muricate on peripheral and shoulders of chambers,
normal perforate test, low trochospiral, elongated triangular to wedge chambers, wide
109
umbilicus, distinguished from M. crassatus by high amount of muricate surrounding the
umbilicus creating a “crown”.
Species: Morozovelloides crassatus (Cushman, 1925)
Plate: 6, Slides: E-F
Pulvinulina crassata (Cushman, 1925), Globorotalia crassata (Cole, 1927),
Pulvinulina crassata (Cushman, 1925), Globorotalia spinulosa (Cushman, 1927),
Psuedogloborotalia spinulosa (Bermudez, 1961), Morozovella spinulosa (Poore and
Bybell, 1988), Globorotalia hadii (Aubert, 1963) Globigerina spinulosa (Blow, 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: E8 – E13
Geographic Range: Commonly found throughout sub/ tropical regions
Description: Nonspinose, somewhat heavily muricate around periphery or umbilicus,
smooth on dorsal and ventral sides, wedge to triangle semi-globular shaped chambers,
lip on spiral side of chambers, small umbilicus opening.
Genus: Subbotina
A member of the family Globigerinidae, Subbotina originated in the early Danian
and characterized by canellate spinose wall structure. There test is tightly coiled in a
110
tripartite structure, an umbilical to slightly extraumbilical aperture, and a cancellate wall
structure.
Species: Subbotina crociapertura (Blow, 1979)
Plate: 6, Slides: G-H
Subbotina crociapertura (Blow, 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: E7-E12
Geographic Range: Low Latitudes
Description: Spinose, normal perforate, cancellate, bulloides wall structure, oval
outline, chambers are globular with thick wall cancellate, chambers are progressively
larger, slightly embracing.
Species: Subbotina corpulenta (Subbotina, 1953)
Plate: 7, Slides: A
Globigerina bulloides (Glaessner, 1937), Globigerina cryptomphala (Tourmarkine,
1975), Globigerina pseudoeocena (Subbotina, 1953), Globigerina inflata (Subbotina,
1953), Globigerina protoreticulata (Hofker, 1956), Globigerinita pera (Blow and Banner
(1962), Catapsydrax pera (Charollais and others, 1980), Globigerina eocaena (Poore and
Brabb, 1977)
111
Biostratigraphic Range: E7- O1
Geographic Range: Global in low to mid-latitudes
Description: Spinose, normal perforate, thick cancellate lobate test, initial elvated spire,
globular chambers, final chamber lobate in shape much larger then initial chambers,
final chamber covers umbilicus.
Species: Subbotina senni (Beckmann, 1953)
Plate: 7, Slides: B-D
Globigerina orbiformis (Cole, 1927), Sphaeroidenella senni (Beckmann, 1953),
Globigerina senni (Bolli, 1957), Globigerintheka senni (Fleisher, 1974), Muricoglobigerina
senni (Blow, 1979), Globigernoides subconconglobatus (Shutskaya, 1958), Subbotina
kiersteadae (Fleisher, 1974)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 – E13
Geographic Range: Global in low to mid latitudes
Description: Spinose, normal perforate, thick cancellate lobate test, thick calcite crust
covering test and filling in pores and covering spines, outline is oval to circular,
chambers itself are oval, in final whorl spiral view four chambers of similar size slightly
embracing, key distinguishing feature is the thick calcite crust built up on the wall.
112
Species: Subbotina eocena (Guembel, 1868)
Plate: 7, Slides: E-H
Globigerina pseudoeocaena (Guembel, 1868), Globigerina eocenica (Hagn and
Lindenberg, 1969), Subbotina eocaenica (Terquem, 1882), Globigerina bakeri (Cole,
1927), Globigerina bulloides (Subbotina, 1953), Globigerina subtriloculinoides (Khalilov,
1956)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 – O1
Geographic Range: Global in mid to low latitudes
Description: Spinose, cancellate, normal perforate, ruber/ sacculifer wall structure,
globular, oval outline, 3 ½ - 4 chambers in last whorl, increasing rapidly in size till last
whorl where they are nearly the same size, embracing globular chambers, walls not as
incrusted as S. senni.
Species: Subbotina hagni (Gohrbandt, 1967)
Plate: 8, Slides: A-C
Globigerina eocaena (Subbotina, 1953), Globigerina hagni (Gohrbandt, 1967)
Biostratigraphic Range: E7 – Zone 16
Geographic Range: Global in low to mid latitudes
113
Description: Spinose, cancellate, normal perforate, ruber/ sacculifer wall structure,
quadrate to oval in outline, four to four 1/2 globular chambers moderately increasing in
size in the final whorl.
Species: Subbotina patigonica (Todd and Kniker, 1952)
Plate: 8, Slides: D-F
Globigerina patigonica (Todd and Kniker, 1952), Globigerina linaperta (Bolli, 1957)
Biostratigraphic Range: P4 -E8
Geographic Range: Low to Mid latitudes, rarely found in high latitudes of the southern
hemisphere.
Description: Spinose, normal perforate, sacculifer wall type, heavily cancellate, globular
chambers, 3 to 3 ½ chambers in final whorl the last chamber increased in size, final
chamber nearly double the size of the pervious chambers.
Genus: Igorina
Igorina originated in the upper Paleocene spanning into the middle Eocene,
characterized by nonspinose, biconvez, and coarse cancellate tests.
114
Species: Igorina broedermanni (Cushman and Bermudez, 1949)
Plate: 8, Slides: G-H
Globorotalia broedermanni (Cushman and Bermudez, 1949), Pseudogloborotalia
broedermanni (Bolli, 1957), Globorotalia broedermanni broedermanni (Blow, 1979),
Acaranina broedermann (Snyder and Waters, 1985), Morozovella broedermanni
(Pearson and others, 1993), Globorotalia mattseensis (Gohrbandt, 1967), Globorotalia
wartsteinsis (Gohrbandt, 1967), Acaranina planodorsalis (Fleisher, 1974)
Biostratigraphic Range: Late E1 – Late E9
Geographic Range: Widely distributed in the Caribbean, Atlantic, Indo-Pacific, and
Tehtys. Abundantly found in Cuba, Trinadad, Italy, and Egypt. Also reported in Pacific
region and sparsely in the high southern latitude.
Description: Nonspinose, normal perforate, muricate wall structure, lobate outline, ,
rounded periphery, planoconvex to biconvex, 10 to 12 chambers in 2 ½ whorls, tightly
coiled, chambers increase in size, narrow umbilicus.
Genus: Globigerinatheka
Globigerinatheka were flourishing globular planktonic foraminifera during the
middle and upper Eocene. They lived in the mixed layer- dwelling species and believed
115
to have symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates. After their lifecycle was complete
they sank into the water covering their clomn cancellate spinose wall structure with a
calcite crust. They are believed to be decended from Subbotina senni or
Guembelitrioides nuttalli.
Species: Globigerinatheka subconglobata (Shutskaya, 1958)
Plate: 9, Slides: A-D
Globigerapsis index (Bolli, 1957), Globigerintheka index index (Bolli, 1957),
Globgerintheka index (Stainforth and others, 1975), Globigerinoides subconglobatus
(Toumarkine, 1971), Globigerapsis subconglobata (Bolli, 1972), Globgerintheka
mexicana Mexicana (Toumarkine, 1978)
Biostratigraphic Range: Mid E8 – E13
Geographic Range: Cosmopolitan
Description: Spinose, heavily cancellate, thick pores, recrystalized, spherical to globular
test, 3 whorls, 4 chambers in the last whorl, chambers are globular to oval in shape, key
feature nearly spherical outline heavily cancillate test with heavy recrystalization.
Genus: Praemurica
Enigmatic taxon, because it appears in the lower Eocene with out a known
ancestor. Praemurica have a nonspinose, smooth, cancellated wall structure.
116
Species: Praemurica lozanoi (Colom, 1954)
Plate 9, Slides: E-F
Globigerina prolata (Bolli, 1957; Warraich and Ogasawara, 2001), Globigerina
lozanoi (Blow, 1979; Colom, 1947), Subbotina lozanoi (Nocchi and others, 1991)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6 – E10
Geographic Range: Cosmopolitan, commonly found at low latitudes
Description: Nonspinose, cancellate, smooth wall structure, globular chambers, initial
whorls tightly coiled spire as whorls continue becomes more evolute, chambers increase
in size as whorls continue out from center, subcircular periphery, deep and somewhat
wide umbilicus.
Genus: Planoglobonomalina
Originate in the Eocene from Globanomalina planoconica span into the
Oligocene
Species: Planoglobonomalina psuedoalgerina
Plate: 10, Slides: A-B
117
Pseudohastigerina micra (Hillebrandt, 1979), Pseudohastigerina danvillensis
(Blow 1979)
Biostratigraphic Range: E6-E8
Geographic Range: Widespread in low to mid latitudes, have been recorded in
southeastern Spain, Tanzania, North Atlantic, Western North Pacific Ocean.
Description: Smooth and normal perforate wall structure, low trochospiral,
compressed, tightly coiled in initial whorls evolutes as the whorls expand outwards, in
umbilical view there are 6 to 7 chambers, the chambers increase in size in the final
whorl, the final chamber can have a detached appearance.
Genus: Globorotaloides
Genera descended in the Paleocene from Parasubbotina varianta extending to
the Oligocene-Miocene strata. Hantkeninidae is believed to be a descendant of this
genera.
Species: Globorotaloides quadrocamerata (McKeel and Lipps, 1972)
Plate: 10, Slides: A-B
Globigerina sp.
Biostratigraphic Range: P12 – E16
118
Geographic Range: Found in tropical to high latitude sites.
Description: Spinose, normal perforate, thickly cancellate, ruber/ sacculifer wall
structure, globular chambers, 4 globular to lunate chambers in spiral view increase in
size rapidly, chambers slightly embracing.
Genus: Planorotalia
Small compressed, keeled, biconvex tests with postulate surface. Genus
decended in the late Paleocene and survived until the late middle Eocene. Believed to
be descended from the genera Morozovelloides.
Species: Planorotalia capdevilensis
Plate: 10, Slides: A-B
Globalrotalia capdevilensis (Cushman and Bermudez, 1949), Planorotalites
capdevilensis (Pearson and others 2004), Globorotalia renzi (Bolli, 1957), Planorotalites
renzi (Tourmarkine and Luterbacher, 1985), Planorotalites pseudoscitula (Poore and
Brabb, 1977), Globanomalina psuedoscitula (Fleisher, 1974)
Biostratigraphic Range: E7 – E13
Geographic Range: Found in tropical to subtropical locations such as the Caribbean and
Tethys.
119
Description: Nonspinose, normal perforate, strongly muricate, biconvex test, circular to
sub circular outline, keeled test, depressed chambers, shallow appature, narrow
umbilicus, convex on umbilicus side, flat to concave on spiral side.
Genus: Parasubbotina
Genera derived from Parasubbotina variant during the Paleocene and
characterized by a spinose cancellate wall structure.
Species: Parasubbotina psuedowilsoni
Plate: 11, Slides: A
Turborotalia wilsoni (Toumarkine and Luterbacher, 1985)
Biostratigraphic Range: Late E7 – E11
Geographic Range: Prevelant in low to mid latitudes
Description: Spinose, cancellate, normal perforate wall structure, globular to lobate in
outline, chambers globular, 2 ½ whorls chambers progress on size.
Genus: Hanthkenina
Eocene species with club to olvate shaped chambers with distinctive spines or
holes lie on each chamber forming a peak at the center peripherial of each chmber.
120
Hanthkenina is wide spread through out the Eocene initially living in the deep
subthermocline habitiat to the warm shallow surface mixed layer. This genera last till
the late Eocene or Eocene – Oligocene boundary.
Species: Hanthkenina mexicana
Plate: 11, Slides: B
Hanthkenina Mexicana (Cushman, 1924), Hanthkenina (Aragonela) Mexicana
(Bronnimann, 1950), Hanthkenina aragonensis (Cushman and Blow, 1979; Thalmann,
1942; and Thalmann, 1942, Subbotina, 191953), Hanthkenina lehneri (Ramsay, 1962),
Hanthkenina nattalli (Toumarkine, 1981)
Biostratigraphic Range: Base E8-E9
Geographic Range: Worldwide at low latitudes, not common in open ocean.
Description: Most likely nonspinose, smooth and normally perforate wall structure,
planispiral, laterally compressed, chambers compressed globular diamond shape, spine
present or broken off at the center point on the peripheral edge, distinctive stellate
outline. Partial one presented in plates
Genus: Guembelitroides
Genera characterized by a spinose cancellate wall structure and derived from
Parasubbotina varianta during the Paleocene.
121
Species: Guembelitroides nuttalli
Plate: 11, Slides: C and D
Globigerinoides nuttalli (Hamilton, 1953), Guembelitroides nuttalli
(Pearson and others, 2004), Globigerinoides higginsi (Bolli, 1956; Tourmarkine, 1975 &
1983; Samanta, 1970; Stainforth and others, 1975; Blow 1979; Pearson and others 1993)
Biostratigraphic Range: Base E8 – Top E10
Geographic Range: Mid to low latitudes
Description: Cancellate, sacculifer type, spinose wall structure, initially high spired,
chambers globular to lunate, chambers increase in size as they progress, supplementary
apertures.
Genus: Chiloguembelina
Species: Chiloguembelina crinata (Glaessner, 1937)
Genus: Pellatisperlla
Species: Pellatisperlla matleyi (Vaughn, 1929)
Biostratigraphic Range: E8 – E16
Description: Large foraminifera, thick wall structure, 2 – 2 ½ whorls.
122
Genus: Discocyclina
Species: Discocyclina barkeri (Vaughn and Col1, 1941)
Biostratigraphic Range: Eocene
Description: Multiple rings, chamber walls circular shape to more of a diamond shape
as progressing out, curved corners
Genus: Lepisdyclina
Species: Lepisdyclina chaperi (Lourmine and Douville, 1904)
Biostratigraphic Range: E14-E16
Description: Multiple rings, chamber walls circular shape to more of a diamond shape
as progressing out, as going out the walls on concave pointing outwards.
123
Appendix B
Systematic Paleontology Plates of
ODP 999,
Western Colombian Basin
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate 1:
Acaranina bullbrookii (Slides A-D), Acaranina coalengensis (Slides E-H)
125
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate 2:
Acaranina cuniecamerata (Slides A-D), Acaranina pentacamerata (Slides E-H)
126
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate 3:
Acaranina primitiva (Slides A-B), Acaranina psuedosubspherica (Slides C -D),
Acaranina punctocarinina (Slide E-F), Acaranina praetopsilensis (Slide G-H)
127
A
C
B
D
E
G
F
H
Plate: 4
Morozovella aragonesis (Slides A-D), Morozovella caucasica (Slides E-H)
128
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate 5:
Morozovella crater (Slides A-D), Morozovelloides Bandyi (Slides E-H)
129
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 6
Morozovelloides coronatus (Slides A-D),
Morozovelloides crassatus, (Slides E-F), Subbotina crociapertura (G-H)
130
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 7
Sunbotina copulenta (Slide A), Subbotina senni (Slides A-D),
Subbotina eocena (Slides E –G)
131
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 8
Subbotina hagni (Slides A-C), Subbotina patigonia (Slides D-F),
Igorina broedermanni (Slides G and H)
132
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 10
Globigerinatheka subconglobata (Slides A-D)
Praemurica lozanoi (Slides D-F)
133
A
C
B
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 10
Planoglobonomalina psuedoalgerina (Slides A-B) Globorotaloides quadrocamerata (Slides C-E) Planorotalia capdevilensis (Slides F-H)
134
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 11
Parasubbotina psuedowilsoni (Slides A), Hanthkenina mexicana (Slides B),
Guembelitroides nuttalli (Slide C, D) Chiloguembelina crinata (E-G),
Discocyclina barkeri (Slide H)
135
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Plate: 12
Pellatisperlla matleyi (Slides A-D), Lepisdyclina chaperi (Slides E-H)
136