Vf
g/Z3
Breakdowns of Moderitzattionz*
by
S.'; Eis etadet
The Flieu-r Kaplan School of Econom ce
And qncial cience,
The iebrew Univeity,
Jerusalem, Trael
(*)
is paper was written while the siut'or was
Carneie Visaiting Professor nf Political science
at M.TT.
The author Is indebted to Professor R.11.
Bellnh,
Professor F.W. 'bye and Professor 1. Weiner for
comments on earlier parts of this paper
- -'
-W
"AC
t
I
The optimism which guided much of the concern w-ith
studies of unierdevel :ed qre-s or New Nations and whiei
ndi many of the
assumned that
these countries were advncing--even if slowly an-d inermittently-to-
wards full-fledqhed modernization and continuous grow'rh has ltely given
way to a much more cautious and even
This pessimism
.essimistic view.
has been mainly due to the fact that in many New Ntions where in tially
modern frameworks were established in different inetitutionel fields,
especially in the political one,
the progress towards modernization was
not only slow but these constitutional regrnes faltered, giving way,
in their place, to various autocratic and aut-.oritarinn or semi-
aut ori tarian regimes.
Indonesia, ?akistan, Burma, and Sudan are rer-
haps the most important recent ex-mrles of this trend.
1
1. In -ndonesia see,
"eith,
Y),
The Tecline of Const tltional nenocraey in Tndonesia,
(Ithica: foFiTldiiTverftyi
Pss,
,
The purrose of this paper is to analyzo the nature of the social
processes in these countries whcih led to these changes, to what may
be called breakdowns in the r'nolition1 o
I
o
The significant charneteristic of the develaime"t of these couni
tries is not that in these cases the "take.-off " 'rom a traditional
setting to m-xderniti did not fully materialIze.
Nepal, Saudi Arabia, where pawerimodern,
Other cases--Ethionie,
"traditional" regimes or societies
are still predominant are better ins'anees of slow or unsuccess'ul take-
off to modernity.
The reforms or attempts at modernization which are
being attempted in such countries are interwoven within the framework
1. (cont'd.) Hannah, W.A.,
Universities Field Staf ,
Karnos Indonesia,
.1)T
(New York:Americean
Pauker, G.Y., "Indonesia, internal Developments of External Expansion,"
.Asian Surve,
XIV, No. 2(eb. 1963), pp. 69-76
On B. rmas
Leach. E.R,., "Lavenir Politique De Ia Birmanie", Bull Sedeia,
Futuribles, Paris, Novo 1962
?ye, R.W., Polities, Personality and Nati'n4Bu ding, (New
Yale University Press 1%2).
iavent
of relat lve1y traditionial
more '~t
soo-,-ties arcI .oliticel ekit
1coratinv the
artc Wton i
systems rxr+Vnr vhan at cre~iting ci4~~~~
fuj-fIeiep rifdernlz tion 0
But in
nT~st all of~ the cnluntr' a d"src'Ise& !-Mre (Inoneia, .Jurri
etco) atte~1ts were male to eatfabl ish rnclr
po2l ticf% )n
80ci,11 frgwm
works and iuttt-nand many asPet W. Or -har. c'eris0
tutio1s--be th-ey lconstituti- nat nmoderr Tbueur~tti
1. (cont'4.) Walinaky, L.,, Economic De, elo
(New Corkz Twntieth O~~r
nf &.1ch InStV.
a"inistrti osr
nt ~iBlv3.
M
-1960*
ud
Ba'iv1ey, John &0, "Burms, The Nexiit of Sooialismn and Two -Political
Traittl ns,." Asan 5!!e, TTI!, no, 2 (1ftbruary 1963), p
f9-96
On Pakistans
:.8yeedg X#Bms Pakistan, The rormati~p Phase
!,''ub1isWi np Rouse'.196-)-
(Krch:aietan
Newaans K.J.,, "Ppkistan er fvpreventAv%. Aatacay nd Its W~~'-j'
Pacific A'Oairs, XY'TIT no* 1(?4arch 1959)v pp v1-14,
Sayeeds , .,, it-ollpse of ?arl lam taryi 1Nncrwoy in Paki stan,
The MlAdle East Journals XT.TI, no, 1'11159). pp,. '.eS
'
h:eler,4 P,, 'PFkstan, lew Contitution, 9ld Issues,"1 Astan
T"lT Mo ?(rob* 1963), pp. 107-116.
T~nkt-r, Hot Tw~ta sal Pakistsrio ( Ti
Willaim,S L.1?.R., "7rob~ym of
Asian Review(na.), LtITT(fJu2y
2
iv,
York: Pra~ f'ers, ICA?)
1orsi.tit'Vn
l17C
in Tjo'istan,f t
political parties,
esta lished.
_r modern econorie enterprises w( re initially
0imilarly, many important indi ces o-f rmiernization-
,e they we-kening of various tralitinal frnmeworks,
literacy exroure to mass medi.-,
urbnizati&n,
some mod ernization of the occup-
atio-nal structure, the develorient of some mdem fors a?
nol.tieal
orpanization like interest peuns and part es.-could '.e found, to
some extent at least, continuonsl
exr nlding in these socIeties.2
Although large parts of these societies are still traditional in the
sense of being confined to relatively close, autarchie units yet they
have been becoring rapidly "de-traditionalised" In many important as-
pects.
Growing parts of these societies are continuously drawn into
wider, more diferentiated institutional frameworks.
And yet, in these
2. On the plural con-cepts of moderni7ation as used or irrlied in the
present analysis see:
E senst 'dt, S.I., aBureacracy and Political Development" in
La Polambara, Jo (ed).
Bureacray and Political Developnt,
Princeton, Princeton Lin, Priess (orthcomin
Misenstadt, S.N., Modernization, "iverstty an Grwth, (fortheoring)
See also: Lerner, D., The Pasing of Traditional Siciet
(*he
"
ee Press:194)0
societies all th se deivelo ments did not eive rise to the developemnt,
esT)ecially in the politieal field, of a via' le modernnstttinal
sys ten capable of absorbing' continuouty changirg di-ersafied
(and demands).
Many such institutional framework
w
in -he initial period of modernization becae disorst nise
function, giving place to the less differentiated,
cretic or authoritarian re imes.
and Perhaps Sudnn, t
In som of these
trobflmS
were established
ani unable to
usually more auto-
&eses,like Pakistan
'se "reversals" in the nolitical field did not
undermine the poss'b lities of some ed,.,onic 'rowh eni nasy have even
"acilitated It.
Tn others, Tike Indonesia, and seemingly also Burra,
the breakdown of the constititional reimes w-ns paralleled b
economic
stagnation.
ITT
dut although most of thcse societies have by nrow "reverted," as it
were, to a 'evel
o'
socinl and especially political Institutions which
can be-as we shall see-
seen as leas flexible or differentiated
than that at which they resumnbly started in their Anitial stsges of
modernization, yet in almost none of them d4 d there tnke riace a com-
plete revers-1 to truly tradit onal ty- es of cen.ral vocial institutons
This is manifeet in several interconnected ways,
Although In many
ca-es the new autoarotic or authoritarian elites beheve sq if
in the
"traditi onal" (whether colonial--as in Pakistan, or "pre-colonial"
regal-like in Burm) manner, or attempt to utilize traditional symbols
and attitudes-.they were not able or Perhaps even willing to revert
entirely to a traditonal, rremodern political structure.
* am
"external"--but still
Not only
imrortant symbols of modernity-such as
universal suf trage (even if
susoended) some
wre, officially at least,
aint!ined.
'"lernlI-gal frameworks--
What isa even m re important is
that these new rulers of elites portra ed their own lepitimation in
seculariz 4, modern, terms and! symbols--in terms or symbols of
sociel movements or of legal rationality and ef 'iciency rather th-n
in terms ofi purely trad' tonal value,;.
Thes
as true even in those cases, as thet of Pakistan, where the
emphasis on some aspects of the Tslamic tradition ha, be, n relatively
strong or where, is in Tndones' a, the search for new symbols or :deolory
was strongly coac&'ed in traditional terms.
Whatever acou- tability the new4 rulers ofT these societies evinced
towards their subjects was not usually couched in terms of the older
"religious mandate of the ruler but mainly in terms of rore nodern
values or charisma in which, in prineidle at least, the citizens Par-
ticipated or shared with the rulers.
Whatever the limitations on
politieal activities these regimes may have attemnted to establish, they
Aid not abandon the idea of the citizen as destinct from the older
4des
(traditional and colonial)
.
3.
See,
for instsancre
Ip".
II
'
-
-
of a subject. 3
ea~l
N
i
aIi ii > i pi1 4pm
,
-
a' -
-
,
">1'11
'
,
,
.
8
Sinf'larly, houever ant -estern
or anti-Caritalist the ideol"hies
of these rerimes wpre and however much they attermte ? to close off their
countries from outside influence..-they did not entirely negate modernity.
Rather, they attempted to discover or redi scover some synthesis between
uhat they thought might be the "basie,' undiluted by a
or by materialisti
dents of history
orien-atione, values and elements of both their own
tradition and that of modernity.
Truly enough such attempts or formulations may l-ave been pure utonien
expressions of pious intentions without the ability or will to pay any
institutional price demanded for their implement tins.
But however actually stagnant or inef ficient many of the institutional
frameworks of these societies may have been before or beeone after the
3. (contid) on Burmau Isach
op e cit., Badglay,
cCite,
In Pakistan sees
Jenninps, W. Ip ed., Constit tinnal Problems in~Pakisten,
(Cambridges Cambridge ITnAierrftj~PmsI, M
See the discussi-n between L.A. SherWani aid DF
"The 196
inghe
Pakistani Constitution, Two Views," A an Surel
in
11, no. 6
9
changes in their regives they have but rarely set themselves actively
against the expansion of all of the social eapects cr processes of moderni-w
sation such as education, economic
-
svelopment and ir.-dustrialization.
Although some of the poleies of the new elites ;ay r esult in the return
of some parts at lenst of the more t 'editional soc,ia
structure (i.e.,
in some greater emnhasis on the intevrstion of rural communities) others
are very often eonseiusly aiming at the continuous expansion of ver4ed
aspects of modernization.
£ven in the rural communities some emphasis on
their modernisation--whether in the form of Pakistant a basic temocracies
or of comunity develovment in general can usually be found.
Thus we do not have here cases of nonw&volo -ment of wmdernization,
or a lack of "take-of"' to modernization, but rather of breakdown of some
J. (cont'd.)(Aug. 1962),
pp..
9-14
and Bzeir, L., Religion and Politics in Pakistan, (Berkeley 9 ToS Angeilest
UniversIty of California
IiiT
Ftor Indonesia seet fith, op. cit., Hannah, op. oit., and Peuker,
0
Cit.
(eenecially polItical) morn
abov
this brea klrwn tv'k fses
ns
IP inII +,hI cnas nentionedi
uos-en
pn
ret'l
reom this point o' vim the
dev
yn.
eto
mt on
i'
.p
ar
from others in the history of develonment of
rv
Pe
have be n perhaps reeently fnrrtten althinih som o
4
ev
ten-which
them did form, An
their time, foci of both rublic interest ani of' seieal
analyis.
The oase of the initial modernisation of rina, so oten used as a
neeative example in comrarison
of Jaran come
he~r
i th the rnre
immdately to mWnd.
suesesoul1 in 4 tian
S!niil1v
the lon
several latin American countries may eome into the oteture.
many of the Itin
4
moe rn-e.0
history of
Although in
American countries there devel oped over a very long time only
I.For one of the most pertinent statments of the problem, see:
Lvy, Marion J., Jr. Contrasting Motore in the Modernization of China
and Jarn in Kuan&wte, S., Moore,
.,nTpli
ii,~e~
s.~,
ECo
e Growth in Brasil, Indi, Japn,(%urhar
C0,QDuke University
res's,- 19
pp71
A recent sa rvey is O.M. Beckman's The Modniatinof Clhina and Japan,
(New York:
n
Rayr
Row, 1963)
the very minimal structural or socio-demographic features of modernization,
in other cases, is Sn Chile and esnecially in
pre-Peron Arg-entina-an
evident progress to modernizal.ion was "altei or revere.5
Lastly, the expmple of the rise of milita-i m in Japan and esoacislly
of Pascisrm and Nazism in Eurooe in the twenties and thirties should also
be mentioned here as perhaps the most important case of break-down of
4. (cont'd.)
See also: LI 6hien-Nung, The Political Histor of China,
1840-1928,ed. and trans. by Sau-yu Teg ai'~Te-F' Tris.1,"TPnIie+ton, N.J.
75.~~an"T"strand Company, Inc., 1956)
5.
On ArgentIna in the twenties and thirties see i
Pendle , G., Argentina,(Ibndons Oxford University Press, 1961), esp. Chps.
IV and V.
Alsovoletti A., La Realidad Argentina en el Si
Irs Partidos, (M4exTo
do Culture
e~
A general survey can be found also in
I, ,loLs Politica
eg7es.
os.
Argentina 193o60, ed. SUR,
Buenos Aires 1961, esp. p II
See alsov Bega, Sergio, La betructurecion Economica en Is Eta
Formative
da la Argentine ModernsIesaroUo Economico, Bueno&Tires, o . I, N2
Jul-Sept. 1961, pp. 113-129
of modern-Ization, at much more adtvancad levels of development.6
In all these cases wt- witness the breakd-wn of relatively di feren-
tiated and m, dern framworks, the establishmnt of
less d4 f'erenti-ted
framework or the developmnt of a lone series of vici- us circles of u
development, of blockages and eruptions le ad nw eften to irstit'tVonalized
stagnation and instability.
Thus all these develonmpnts took place within
the frameworks of nrocessea of modern'ati on, as parts of these proces: es.
They can be seen as its rathologies, breakdowns or as in the case of
azism
attempts at whet may be called demodernization-but not as casF'a of' simple
lack or of t'r
'y nodernIzation.
6.SEE on Japant
Scallapifo R.A., "Japan Between Tradit onalism and Democracy," in
S. Neumann, ed., Modern Political Parties, (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1i9co pUniversty
on Germany seeNeumann
S., Germsany.-ChanpIng Patternsand Lasti
-roblems.
IV'
What may be clled the "eiternal" story of all these eses ts, on
the face of it,
relatively simnln ,nn
+raightforwar
d
n very broad
outlines similar in most of these caseq despite the rreat dif ferences in
detail and se.tting.
One basic cher>teristic of this story is t
eveloemnt
;he
,I con-
tinuous internal war'are and conflict between dif 'erent grouns wit in
the society,
the developrent of extreme antemonism and cleasa'es
without
the -iossibility of xtindinp any contInuou
and viable
them.
sebs-be they economie, regional,
Unresolved conflicts over various
odus vivendi between
cultural or idAeological, or simple conflicts of narrow economic interests,
developed a -itinuously among the most active or vocal groups in these
societies.
These conflicts, the details of which have, of course, greatly
varied from ase to case were also usually cloely connected with continuous
econormc crives arA very often with groing uncontrollable inflat'on,
which were in their turn very often fed by these very continuous conflicts
and by the lack of consensus and any clear policy of' how to deal with them,
These processes, continuous strong conflicts and cleave -es over a
very great varie' j of
stron
4as
ps, econoric deterior ition and the lack If any
acceptable lendership which could encor-e 'lep timate authority
and remilate the se conflicts qnd problems, +oppether with +.he q rowing
corrupti-n aW ins fleiiency of the bureaucracy (whic
scope of 'traditional'
went beyond the
corruption) have been often singled out for the
explanation of the downfall of these regimes and as well of the establishment
of the new, less differentiated, autocratic or a-ithoritartan types of
regires.7
While there can he io doubt that these explanations do at least
7.
See for detailed descrioti'n of these vrocesses In some of these countriest
W7itli,
on. cit.,
Passing;.Callard,
op. cit.0
Wilcox73.
Pakstan, 'he Consolidation of a New Nation., NYWL
Columbia Un. Press, 1963
and also: Shun-hsiu Chou,The Chinese Tnfleti-on (New York s Columbia University
Press, 1Q3).
partiafly account for th ee developments in a way they do not go Par
enough.
It is,
of course, true that such conicid
develop in these countries and that the existing pol tical leadersh's.p Was
unable to denl with themn,
Blut why was it so?
no
of such conflicts or of bad economic conditons th
th
vr_2i
ience
ortnce
sof' r
Conflicts or economic problems of what may seem es inItially alarming
magnitudes did probably exist, and haive been resolved, even if
tially, in other modern or modernizing countries.
o-nly par-
Wet is therefore of
crucial imoortance is ra ,her the fact that in the couitries under consid-o
eration here these conflicts were not resolved or -egulated and that because
of this they spiralled into a contimous series of vlo tous circles which
uniermined the very stability and continuity of the emergine mriern frame-
works.
VI
In order to be able to explain why,
in the
o
d
tese conflIcts were not s lved, we might
nature of some of the major
tep
ft
nte in severa1
to; ana Iyze the
it
nituional
spiheros
in these societies.
This ana.ySIs we ll
not go, at this
a
descriptton of these de velopmnts and will not exoe
But it
an
nalytical
their caus ep.
well help, we hoe, In arttculating the problems to be exrlained.
Ist us start with develorments in the politirl
The most
general trend that developed in the political sphere in these societies
wa
a mrked discrepancy bf.tween the demands of different groups-parties,
cliques, bureaucracy, army, ref nnal grou' s,-and the responses and ab'lity
of the central rulers to deal with these demands.
The levels of these demands were both higher or much lower (i.e., more
t
or leas articulated) than Ve level of aggren"ation and policy-making within
the central institutions.8
The terms "aartculat-o
8.
In most of t'esr cases the demsnds of the most
,"
agrep' tion.,", etc. are used li re mostly As
social groups oscillated continously between politically relatively
highly articulated types of demands as manifest i
varied interest groups, of social novements wit
formantion o
th
a n
intensity on the one hand and the more Orimitive, le
level of poAitical
r
srticu.late
thypes
of demands manifest in direct pressures on the bure3a -cracy in petitioning
the local potentates (or bureaucracy) and central ruers and infrequent
mob outbreaks on the other hand.
i
The ,ower position of the various groups making these varied demands
has greatly increased as a result of the processes of' modernization and
they could no longer be supressed and neglected, but at the same time
ways of integrating them in some orderly way were found.
There developed but few middle range institutioral frameworks within
which these varied types of political demands could become regulated and
. (con.) in Almond, G. . Coleman, J. eds., The Politics of the evelopi
Areas (Princeton: Princeton University Presl,~T77 Nevarious case
Studies presented in this book contain excellnt backpround material and
analysis for the problems discussed herea
translated into concrete policy demands and policies,
The leaders'Ai
not able to
ofr the parties or of the vared xwemnts was
Mgregate these varied interests and pol -ical orient,-
tions in some relatively ordered wa
or to develop
able to deal with the different demands of the
u
policies
iajor groups and with
major problems to which these demands were related.
The formal institutions appropriate for such aggtregation and
policy formulation did exist in these societies in the form of central
executive,
administrative and legislative organs on the one hand and
of various parties on the other hand.
B ut in their actual working
these institutions were not able to perform effectively these functions.
On the other hand there did exist w thin these nolitical systems
some wgans--uch as orp-na of bireaucratic edmiistration, of local
government or tradit onal caanal unit3 which were sl
to deal with
the
.v rthrow of
less articulated t-pes of demands, and 1 ter on,
!fer
these rerims, beenme very iften again (e
they often were in the
a
coIonial or even pre-coloniial tiMps) v- ry importnt fac1. of political
processes and Pggrerp tion.
But duri
the recedin
-
'iod
even their
*u ctioning was not very eff olent because they were subordinpte to the
more differentiated but ineffective agenoies, and were caught ut, as it
were, within the various uncertainties which developed within these a'en-
cies.
Hence these organs-and espeially the buroaucracy-became very often
both inWefticent and corrupted.9
Thus the most imnortant charreterietic of the poi*vtieal s, tuation in
---------- - .
--
%.OM
9.Belbti, R., "Pe flections on Rurequcr'etic Corru t
nCu2Q
Adadnstration
4'i~
at
cs;'-~'~t~"izx'c'
r~ ~
rt~"1:
~
'~'%~
rv~
~
rts~
7
V
w'
of df&L'
'emtc
-t
eastTj &bt\nt 4
.3
,K2t;~~t!
tl.
2O~%~t'4C~~:
~7~;;c'
ef
C.
fj%?j
kept inreh3cr
Cc;L.v'
tt.05
tm
,~
*~
~
V
%8lXKnzr.:
u
At t in
iycirv
ar ias trs vi ttn tYL~s
Ewlenwtc' mstPmme £ ~irA
~'iu~thit
iir,&iy
peoplce
~ttLphi of ~ap~YrosurM
wrn'te4. to
--)A~
-1rosair
1.a-qc in
l
ii~ro
rrt;zcz'
2~
* C~C >12p7til
s~: '!cV
co ;~0*
tv&tb§swr
brou1 Ait in&1-Jt
rvmk ig.
~ y.77~
~~~f
inr
~srt
v~'
.pCsca3 8116lgfi on
structure of' power and orgaiato
in these idvidunlc
l
Ad amctaiit
new, more a4tiru1mated deas
a
the
even
hsa bencreated-n
the older structure might hays broken down 0
VIT
A sirtilar pictureCt
rs
if
&
o:l:r
th
nt.oo
may be callnd eruptione and movemnts of protst
and sc2
h
o
deeyone
ha
in
t ese societtes.
In termts of the cortents iof the eymbols that-lh
een; &avelop? or
tal:en over by tteee moverents they were not neaessarily differ~at f rom the
whole range of such symbofls tat
has developed during different periods
of' stages of modernization in Eurorean,
Asian ai
African cuntries.11
They ranged from nationalistic, anti-colonial, tr-dittnalistic,
11.
See, for a g od collection of some of their ideorlies,
Sigmund, P.E., Jr., Th Ideologie of the
eln'g
ations,(N.Y.
Praeger, 1963).
See aso: Kantsky, .1.J.,
"An Essay in the PviitLon of Teve-1pment,
nderdeveloned %utzries,
Kantsky, J.H. (ed), Plitical &ha Te in
(London NY.J
il1%3?h
z~T t
in
tthic tsyrols, t 'ough i ystols o .amol"
er sonKA' c:piv
ctse$
i
ation un to vcrious syn&~c<s
terms or in
>erms of
'tios
rj
*
sedate v
of' these
nnovment.
movewaents
a
ther
ut beyond this som
and
eyrdbolhotsmn
seprteness, and serre -tion
rf
out M.
these
o
brief periods of highly intensive erupAions
chr
tm
rttr
.a
went;
ie
tts
cJsQe-e
econd as their
cy ani alteration bet
r! anlnprods of sta-gnation and
inactivity on the other hand.
Third, within man; auch sectarian and mutu&lly hostaile rmonts
there often mU+
so
2.-.I
a
*-~
she rt
t
tI:rn
sectarian nature on the on. hand and thei
ai
JLrt~
k0
-
thir protet thw. t
the intensi ty of 1'; s:.
nal.r
S tot"
oa
of difernt,
seemingly
those of tradtionalism
onflietinp' vaus
:d
economi s devel ment or of tr"dnitnalis
These differart
democricy.
c ordiwted
soer
o b
aflso t
and
ornized or
rientat'one were not ually
wAy which w 'uld m1a
of the miomentary sitati
ial oritentjtions-s4uch as
or
them meanigfUl not only
tbrm
o
S-
contrinuous
terms
AityI,
policy
formulation and implementation,
t his
yas an important indicator of the lock of prediscosIti on on the
part of these various movements to bercms incorporated or transposed
into wrider framworks, narties, or infbrmal organs of public opt-ion, and
of ?lr of alaption to such wider regalative freiwmorks,
prr disposition on the part of the
This la& of
-vments wes often matched by the lnck of
ability on the part of the ruling institutioas to absorb these various symbols
and orient-tions into taer own framwoks.
As a result of these
e, te
4hnr1eterIst
rovemewi
of nrotet't nnd of
1.
of op;.osition in t ese countries oscillated between apathy, lack or vith..
drawal of the interes t of wid er Mours and strate:rom the cetrsa
institu.-
tions on the one hand and very intensW ve outburst t$whch rade extrmie de-
mands on these institutions, demmds for total, iorradSte change o the regim
or of the place of any given groups within this regire, on the other hand.
Ix
A similar picture emyges if
we analyze the charndteristic of -rocess
or struotwe of communication within t-ese societies.
One such characteristic has been the existence of different patterns of
cOxanunication among different strat--the mrP tradit 4 onal, closed natt-erns
of oewanication w thin the confines of the villages and the maie differen.
tiated, sophisticated sysi-ems of the central elites or urban grou-s.
Second,
the comunicative structure in these socities was often charec.erized b, the lack
of what has been called "communicative rrediators " or brokers betw, en there dif-
ferent levels of communicative a -tivities.13
T
hirdly, it
was char eterized by a continuous oscillation of wide groups
and strata bet- een communicat ve apathy towards the centre1 intit
tions
of the societ: on the one hand and predileet'on to mob ex'citement
n
13. See
Pge, L.W.,"Communicntion Patterns-and the Mbems of Represenative
rnion Quarterly VI,
Societies," t'ublie InI
Government In Non-is
-C
pr
Po
1956),
(spring
On the structure of traditi--al comunie-itions see:
Eisenstadt, S.l.,"Coranention Oystems antd ocial Structures An
Exbloratory lorrative Study," Piblic "Jinion -uarterly, VTY(Sumer
pp.
13-157
and: Eisenstadt, S.N.,
1055r
The Political Systems of Emoiree, (new Yorks
The Free Press, 1963)
The moyst comprehensive recent work iss
Pye, L.W. (ad.), Communication and Politi -al Developmnt, (Princetont
Primoeton University Press, 1963),an especialy the eeapters byt
Shile, E., "Demagogms and Cadres in the Political Development of
Nw States,"
p. 64-78;
Ryman, H., "Hess MHedia and Political Socialization, The Role of
Patterns of Conmunicati-on," pp. 128 -19;
arne, D., "Towards a Communication Theory of Modernization," pp. 3?7-w
351
activity and succumbance to agi
-tion on the other hand.
Fourthly, there
tended to develop in these socFeties vicious circles of over-ensitivity
to various Trass-media and the
Tack
of ability to absotb these atimuli in some
coitinaous and coherent way,
T
tus, here, as In the political sphere , thermst iportant charcer.
istic is not the mere evistence of d f erent levels crt
types of comruni-cation,
not even the relqtive weakness of some of the intermediary links between these
different levels--asita tion uhich was ch-r ecterietic of many of the tradittonvil
societies.
Rather the crucial cherneteristic of the struc ture
f cormun4 cation
in these countries was the bringing together of these different types of
communica'tve behavior
4 nto
a relat-rvely common framework,
similar or common stimuli wi.hout the developmnt
their exposure to
among them of some stable
patters of reoeptivity to these stim'.li,
The same situatinn can be, of course, found in the economic sphere
proper.
The rajor ills or econmic prblers o'
due not only to low levels of
these societies were
eveomnt of their ecnono
es, to 'ack
If
available skills of their denrletion because of e:ternal events but above
all to the discreraocies betwEen the pusW
to moenetion and the Insti-
tational ability to s staineri growth, between the coninuous diaruATon of the
traditional frameworks and the lack of possibility o:fgiing
a equte
outlets in the now modemise," frame'orks.
We see thus -.n all these inetituttral spheres a very similar aWation-
a situation of bringing together of different vrgg
o
grnowinm 9nterdependence
and mutual awareness of these dif'ferent groups but nt the same tim also the
lack of -levelopment of adequate ne'w cornon norms w-ich would be to soms
extent at least be binding on these grours and which could help to reg-
ulate their new inter-relationshipso.
x
this in
aute
develorrient of new inte'r'ative rrechanism
hs
been
manifest in sever-1 espects of institutterial nevelpment and in the sphere
f crystalliation of symbols in these so leties,
One of -1he most imnor ant indi cati rn
tuti nal aphere could be found
of this si tuati n
n the deve: l-Wment
ir all
insti tuti 'n'l
spheres but perhma-s especially in the polA teal one.--of a sharp
dissociati n between what has been called s slidarity-maikers on the one hand
and the instrumentanly tasm -oriented leaderf
and afinistrators ot
the other handllh
This distinction is not neces arily it
rtical with that between polio&
ticiane and administrators and it May well CIt !cro;ss them although, obviously,
14. Sees Feith, M., op. cit., pr. 1l3.-1'2
and EisenstAdt, 37
"'itterns
of Polit .cal leadership and Support,"
paper submitted to the In'ernati nal Con 'srence on Rerresentative
4overmnent and Natiornal Progross, Ibadan 1959
and Slila, LE.A., Political nevelor ment L, the 16n States,(The HagueiMouton
ii9( 1-si o AT viitty.
e s ene
te
& Co, 1962), aj
i
the politi-cimns may be .omc prone t!.1 100coi
t-ie 7nvernrnent or--'cial na, be
inherent
rn' r.Dn to an
ally political (md sr'& n1) Systi'
Ir
vary In their e'act struct~za& 'oc-At o
The 0
rOvelolmsent nf such a
lrmr
em
tW
of
T<
a'hy~y
nlitic 3 tJ:tde
in lif er n
' 4ns--ociaV~ion ii,,
Indoriesim butt car, also be rf)u-A -2.-~
-re
S; 01' i
twn barc 'srr
R.athewr it ar-oWi-es t
1 -der,
"soli nr.I y makers" wl&iie
fui
4410_
rie,7:ribed by
-tr
c,
'eith
o
turY e
for
here.15
D'1.1.1
Tr.Ay enou'h., in some of' t -e '1ew z'tates one ol! Vnee tyrae.;
the rel.htively ro-iern, f- -Pf-eiPnt, rdmnistatr-mir-lt linve been -71rost
enti rely lar'4A'4,
but in ri-'st of the ca,7cs thie-m 411A
Al. 'erei 4 endres
tjevre,1
o' relht~vely skilled "neoplip wt.'o wre able to nrv--nize var 4 ous ar*'kinlistr~tve
afrences,
1 crvelo-
ne- econom:*c enterprises and sorp. mechani sm.
or~ii~v onl ctvLty ai
on t ese r-_les,
.1
7
to
or orrmans of
ate~ to cstqbi is>9 so- e -olleces bpsed
"any suc7i 7.roa-,s or cadres~r
oon~
dnn
A
A
M)
.
0
.
A~
ft"Inc
Y~-lc
or~r
5'.~:'K
-7;
rei
g
Af~.E
d~~id.
'Ali~r
o
%.
Cr'4i b-.7
0r~lm
l ier6 C4' gVt")i1J$
t~p
Col
~vc ~t~ :
41",-tt-ez StudiI
c
0i
V
*1
v.
MI7ile
SIc
M e~ere~Thi13 dtfcempaney vtid
ln
-,Tie
31W
iseaetov1 prcbabi;
v
-
.
tine0
ihV1c
nuhe'
Th~l 10 mrn4!rt:#&i.Ltve u~wt dit' "rcntv
ea.
~cCv~cre~
or'S:
nvt;~xt Y;
-J"r
.-
4
-yr
be foui
~n all the
ndnesA we ftind thnt t'to
w
in
~
i,~v~;:g~- Ae
3C
1
i
2'
4*aniold pr~;obl o~v~cf
modernidztion but
gate
and sigmitcnwe sIthough at the sames
body politisx
Vn
develo'ed by
ThzN especit11;, after the Iira
witb any bt
* te :
the
Bum
i
7
.in Fak-flcn the consttt iona
in general and the TItic
solution of the many
Fannh
Butwelt I,
16, Sees
Su
der
1
The ~
tbv
,
SerkIyant
PI
Tht
2i1
vjot
gr.
c
Li
plticl
of
deal.
colitical
tt
help the
p
tdn
acon6
'rvemIershIp,"
Asian
"'te 4haniw Tternr of Yeligron and N'ritics in
.R
In
K
rature
state in particular t
cutc adminitruV;e, *crs
aderi
t4i e-a'e
n
settige; Burnes
n w7
, op.
i
"The duT~ilures of U Nute
I nio.,
(Mar&b i"2), ppa31
burn," Studies
w 'era setttng to
thi;m andK a
this Sthate In the first t-hgs of I
besett In
\'cn
debate
ixtenc
mi ze gre
uttuir of sy icla
argInal of cLnret
t
a
A
the
See also Kitarw
p vut 9
.. I no. :
17See B3inder, gct
.
akai, ed., (ttaivsity of Nebraska Press,
t
I 'ace 0of.,. f]e
U luW
1:.s1
,
&dhtst taeial is
"Budd~is and2 Asi '
\ p A m.
ays
dtnro
infB
ne
in Burxna's
Pclities," Asian Surrey.
t
:2..uomit.r.:,: tez~ vterciteuz
orientati on
of 2 Ay trMW~t
which did not oder.:1rgo an internal .1 rde
onal
z
Con)9fuiona
ra
t
gave rise to a mixture of itrrditionalst" OrVaWVtixtens ard tWmibo7L more
extremist ant' mdeArna or anti-Western symbols-aibe o
provide adecqute guidane
to many of the net p-
h
Ea atteandant o
the
deeWopaent of moderization 3
4 he
situa ion i
sorm o
the Ytiln A-rOica
Argentina in 4 1e thirtiem-1Ale
New 5ta's
T here
dtferit
the olde'
See, for
qevkl sailr charectrtsties 0
oligarchic elites were able on"'y io
w th the new economic and political problcs
18.
et
lImited extent to deal
dan
lon acntiuYous moerniza.-
rsteances
Genralisaaimo Chisng Kai-Shek
Reeistarc
Dejs'ot During
.Sx & mi0''w
3hir
Chiang Kai-Shek, chinaa
notei and cmnti7
and
from that in t e
in osrUie
discussed nuove did yet exhibIt
in
:Cutresepacilly
Clao,
7saacF
C
t
Reconstruction,
er B Ythre),.
Sj t riy & Chinese Economie History (with
7jPlOp a
;tC
, The Traredy cf th
(tRem ed.) (Stanfea Str
ad
TRY'V
'7T
iee
cri~I r.
ais re, 194f).
Revoluti on
~ T")
.
4
W aitedz a& llty of thirc and the± continfuously growing polit-~
net a:X
.zations f
1e bro-ler site
cillation bet 'een
repressve
of the( society gnve rAi
di etars
to tse d& rerent types of solidary
common was tN
economi,
ndr demagoons,
pymbols.
But
os eS conti nuous os-
Each of these tried
n : they usually Tnd in
d ssciati "r of thesen synbols fro-m the vartous srete
ertnistrrative and political problemE which were tavelopirng tith
conti uOus irrir
a
coonzatn 4o,
and eonorie deloprent.19
Tor Argentina wAthin the setup of Latin Aerica seer
Germani, G4 Politica f bociedad en Una boca tie Tranaieion (%enos Airest
Ed Paidos, 19),ep
~part 1
Also: zilvert, K ,"Lidertzgo ?olitoco y BAobt dac Insttatitonal de -1
Argentina," _Desarollo Eonomico, Buenos Atre 4 T, no. 3 (Oct.-Dec.,~. )
pp. 155-1821 and also sravia J.Mo ".-rgentra s 959," Estuio Sociolocico,
Buenos Air a, 1959.
For broader aspects of latin Amsrican social strctures rlevant for the
present dtscuasion, seet lermani, C., o, cit. , Vrt 1I; Silvert, K.,
Th Conflict Societ", Reaction ani Revfut=on'in Tatin Amerin (New Orleans:
i;ii
; -siTrri7l, 1t"r.,d., Social
'N.
uiser
Aspecta of Zoo ie Develo
t in Latin America (Parisi UNECO, 1963),sp.
!.;P1 Economic and S6eial
ert,' equ
nrivlfa or
the paper 97."Ti
Developmten t, op. 5047; also: Vekemans, R.,, & segdio, J.L. ,"Esay of a
Social Focomic T rpoloTy of the Tatin Amrioan kountries, pp. 6.9h;
Ahumada, t
- Economie levelnpment and Problems of Social Change i, latin
Ameries," pp. 115-18; Fernaandes, f,
"Patte-rn en d Rate of Tevelopment
in Latin A&erica,"
1. 1,17-211 and also: Germani, Go, and Silvert, K.,
"Politics, Social Stutture and Military Intervent
. in Latin America,"
EEuro an JourI
of S .01o1o
,12, no. h(1961), pp. 62-82.
For
Y i:p
eipera
e dats sees
D4 Talla, T. "Tensionee Sociales de In Paines de l
Peri±errte,"
Revista de l UniverMdad do duenos Airsa,la Epoca, Ana V1, n. 1 (1961),
Writ
vc WCdI
T"n Sod i no Braatl (Sao Paulot Difusao
Euronea do Libro, 106t
K eI. ioil~5re A Wudanga Social
10 Brasil," RBEP, no. 15 31963), pp. 31-79; Vtdo,
C1, A Pre9eoiuao
Br:asileira (1rtr'de Janefirt Editcre Thr& dei Liltura, l963).
AWGiTe,"1o
yrtheses for the Diasnoisf a Si;uetion of Social Changet
tacaei
tE7Th9F
The Case - Vet
P7j~I$,
mltrly,
Japan in the la to twenties and early t'irties the
vatrous conservative elitews-be they the remnants of the older me:1i oli-
garchy or sow of the conservative ciroles and newt military groupe tried to
uphold, in fac
of growing problems attendert on industrielizato
of the older gearral symbols of patriotism,
om
aid imperial lmlty, which
were not adeouste to deal with these new roblem
a.ttndant on ontinuous
industrializat on and modernization.20
The rift between the different elites 'tout the attitudes to modernity
and industrialization in pre-Fascist Italy and pre-iazi Germany is too well
known to need any further elaboration or illvstrat on here.
XI
These devel.opmnts were closmly parallele
by soM aspects of the
20. See Soallapino, -n. cit.; Bokman,
cit., Chps. 27, P8, & 29.
See also: TshidaC.aTpans R 1re
nt and Its Problems (mit.)
isl*rsection
and Thida, 7,, hop Pattern o an;Iar~on
on mnew
n
.
s, pefor
Asian Studies(Philadelphias 1 9t 3 ).
I
organization and functioning of political institutions proper, which can
be beat seen in some of the Neu' Statem di-scusserd here.
In mny, although
not all, of these, we ^nd very high derees of continuus -aok of ooordinati^1n
between the major r-olitiaal sgencies.
Whatever the' initial Spara ion
between the branches of government, mny di.ffulitioes deve2loped in es-
tablishing some continuous, visible proper div4 si.on of labow between thU.
The to
extremes of an adminis tration en aging In -alitioel contests ( or
being used by the parties in pover to this end) or the exeoutive and lege.
islative interfering in the working of the
fldnistration are situati ne to
I
O
founi frequently,
and
in ad ition to such
the atinistret
uite often together in many of. these countries.
ontinuous ovrilpping betOen
- in there fid lso
rain in varyn
deo"
The ltter
cording to party criteria and derarAs.
a
.us vcy often ampfyfA
as a haMnne1 of advaneennt for prty funcMionaties an
an agency which distrTbutes various goods,
Aerreerm-
an
n
siwditr overlap ping bt':een 9e norty bueaucractes
and the governmental administration.
the Sxecutive
satellites
facilties and setcee,
and as
&e
'h prty ( or pmrties) often a're
not satisfied with exerting thei i nfluence in *% higIer governmetfl seobres
but insist also .-- diret4 interferenea in the worl
of
Qie buveaucroy and
Va
in the dis tribut'n of the rooms which are at its3 e-isoa1.
nie tondency to overlatpIng and Taek of di fe-entiation betwen the
major nolitical institutio'Uns has t
some di etee been due to their dii eerent
to the r
origins, to the notential rivalry of their jprsonnel, ar
enpts
of each to control as many aspe cts of the political process a possible.
But whitever the origins of this situati on the rlativiely
lack of coordination has been evident in most of them.
overlaning betwern' diferent. nqvernmntal
agencies
h' ph degree of
While some a-ch
amoears as a natural
develonpent in many other New Nat'ona the e'%tent to which it wae d.i 'ficult
or
impossible to establish any continuous modus v-veidi or coowdination
between them seems to have been especially acute in the countries studied
here .21
21. See ,.N. Eisenstafit, 1 asays, op. cit.
xII
A similar situation cen -e dincerned in the nrocesses of develo:1aent
of the now central symbols of partial groups or sectors of the societye.
The
various separpte particularistie "primordial" symbolai of local, ethnic caste
or class grrups
-ere not incornorated into the new ca nerf
the society
and their reformulation on a new l"vel of common ident. ification did not take
place.
Hence these symbols tended to become
nints of structural separateness
and impediments for the development of a new civU.1 order.
It was not the mere persistence of these symbols that was of
crucial importance but rather the fact that they did not become incorporated
into the more central symbolic framework which had to be oriented towards
the more differentinted and variepated problems that fieveloped in these
societies as a r sult of the continuous process of modernizAtion and the
growing interaction between the different groups within them.
Or in other
words, no new ideology or value and symbol system which cnuld
Tovide
some minimal acceptable meaninr and framewrk of answere to the varied
problems stemir' 1 ng from t e new social situat' tr id
e ielop at the center.22
XTTT
I
we attempt to sumsrize the iescriptionof
countries analysed above, two aepect
seer to etcn
it
th3 stutions
t.
cases ana3yed here, there tended to develop, in
hirs,
Z all the
Pko
0tl1 the -i
tttional
spheres, a situation of growing interaction between diffenent grou -s and
strat,
of their beitg drmm together into new ocron frameorks, of prowing dift
ffrentiation ard at the samw tthe lack o? miemte nechanim to deal with the
problems atterdant on such internal dif4erenti-atin and on the growing
22. See Geerts, C, "Ideology as a Cultural System, in
Apter, D , ed.,
Contemorae Ideologys Problems of Role end
(13f Yearbook in
tics
cienoe),
aon
fa~Eor
i ng
ethod
See also: Ski %ner,G.,, ed., "Local, Ethnic and dational Loyalties
in Village Tndonesane, A Symposum," (New
Yaven,
ale University Aoutheest
Asia Studies, 1959)
Shil,
E.A,
"Primordial, Personal, Sacred and Ci1
VIII (1957), pp. 3'0-15
Ties," British
"Political Developrent," *
pp.
Journal of Sociolo
Shile, E.A.,
cit,
ep,
'l-37
int erwtion between the vari. us grops
group S
nto comnz social tr
t his
co-ming together of dif''erent
r
my have ber
rks
tv
uneuOally di-stribu ed betwean darent goups end
1
ut
is exwrmel
pointe of vie it
from all
greatly from
Yelopments in oth.,ber ioderniying
s miler level
of monnrnication whWch
itituti
relTvely sinbl~e
ttent and
of the population 0
f:th,
doubtful
n
c'rn
ities
3t
ere
guom
onsafmeworkcs.
The crucial problem of these soci.ettes has been not a relhtl"vely anll
extent of modernizat on but ratter the ladk of development of new intitu-
tional settings, regulative mecharism and norRti 7e QIjunvctions upheld
within strategic areas of the social atr oture
the ver'oue problema, w.hich
iadi 3apable of dealing with
arose in all those asphres.
This situation eould be described in Drtheit a termnt as the non-
cr
devepnnrnt Crd non
of a ntreets la
e
ititut7Win3l
oiy
t on of to
pr
ietractual:
Kiffred
L
elements
tru eabl
The nunber of "contret," i.e., of different spheres o* interaction--
be they in the field of labor relat-
s
industrial relations,
w administra-
tive practice-in which new contractual and administrative arrangements rie.-
veloped was very great.
But there diA not 4eelop ar
usa0 fraenouatt
for the
application of normative Injunctions to specific site Ftions, and the many
contractual arangemente
ore not upheld by aamomAly ehared values and
orilentation"s.
It was the combination of thes
in
charnateristice that has given rise,
emny of these cases, to what ome investigator has described as the or.
iginal ibbhesians
tee of war, i.e., to a state of nternal war of all against
al witiout the edatence of any common rales Which the participants could
find as binding.23
Again, in Durkhid' a tews, in all these cases there tok place a
23,
See KB. Sayeed, Pakistan
, en. chs.
-
:K .
.
0
failure of establishment and institutionalization of rw levels of
solidarity, of transit on from mechanie to organio solidarity,
or fPiom
a level of low organie eslidarity to a higher one, even thoagh the older
frameworks of solidarity were underrined by the r
g
dition
and
interaction between the different grou z
The preceding discussion attempted to provii
of t'ie developments in these sooieties.
an arlytic description
It does not, by itself, explain
the reasons for the lack of develo'nment of the adequate inteprative vecbn.
isms in these societies,
We shall a ttempt noi
to analyse soe of these reasons:
The lack of developwnt of adenuate mechenims
of social integration
was not due to the lack of attempts by the rulers and the aspirants to elie
positions to develop such we chanisms and
gplici es
ow to the lack of demands
by various groups -In the society., for the4,evelopwnt
social and economic policies.
of sume far-reaching
LI)
Hianifold policies wh.ch aimd at the establishment of some regulative
principles in the body politio and at the imrlementotion of vari ous
collbtive goals were developed and implemented by ttie political elites-
very often in response to various demands on behalf cf wier groups
society.
in the
But thse policies and the demands to whte? they resonded did
contribute to the establis' nent of, relatively stable coord-niatY
o+ en
n In the
society.
The most important cormn denovinetor of these politfies has been the
continuous ocillat-on between attempts of the ruling elites at cntrolling
afl the major power positions and groups in the society and monopoliuing
the positions of effective control onthe one hand and a o ntinuous, almost
irdiscriminate, giving in Vo
demands of vnrltos groups -n the nter band.
The drvelorzment of ntgies 0o:* the ralers was vesy closely related to
some af their neste *ncio-rnlitieal orientlat' ons and espcilly to what may
.
0
be called their monolithical spnirati.ons, i..e., to atiptes to direct and con-
trol all social d elelopments and all wenues of social and oecupat*onal no-
bility within them, and to mo-ropol ze all posi tions of power and of al-
location of prestigpe..2
4ut unlike, as we shall see, in the case of Soviet Russla, Mexico, or
Kemalist Turkey, whera similar status orientations developed among the
ruling elites, those in Tndonesis., Burma, and Kuorantang Lhina, etc. were
very closely coniected with the development of a sort of "ascrintive"
frceesin- of status aspirat .onn and syubole-with an mphasis on a very
restricted range of such symbols.
TIn mst of these .vases rarely hnve new
status and occupettoral orientatone and symbols been developed by the
elite.
tt was mostly the symbols developed from the nrecedinpg--be it
colonial or traditional systews--and only soibs were among them--that 'ere
upheld and, even emphaized by them with greater strength.
Ph. See 8.1. Eisenstadt, Es
2 it,, es,. pp. 4P ff.
given in Pakistan
1hua, for instance, the strong emphas
nesia to bureaucratic and "literary" i-siti
on
and Indo.
was to a very great ertent
a continuation of the traditions whtch existed1 in thw colonial or even
-orecolontal t)irest
China there
birilarly, in Kuomlntwn
upheld by the elite a merked continuity Trt
of
(it
the
and mobility aspirations, with the precedirng Con-rits
on classical (non-professional)
ete&
an
wa:
iew of the social
sybtoli wIth its emphasis
leswning.95
Hence the monopoly of status and poer that thetn elitez tended to
develop was rather "s atic".end "aacriptive" an- incaspable of creating
broeler, new, more differentiated sncial orgpnisatIon and new sable
coordinating fraxneworks.
In ord r,
ment of these
P5. See,
however, to be able to understand the veons
olicies and osc7illatlons it
ror the develop.
's not encugh to re*er them to
or instance,
ang, Y.C,
'Social Mobtlity in Thin
XXVI no. 6 (Dec.
2'f0), pp.n43-"55.
Atmen £otiological Resid,
the socio-political orientations of the elites.
They have to be put into
the wider context of the social and poll tical orieitation of the broader
social strata and of the interacti on between them ann
the sliten.
Xv
As we hve seen above, all these societies were Thsracterite
cont nously grow ng interrelations betwen different grdoupe and
by growing mobility, urbanietnan-'
enI sm
frameworks,
developnr
of modern
by
tata,
oeommic
i.e., b-y general process of "social mobil ization. "26
But the structure of these processes of social mobilitat'on took on
here some special characteristics,
The most inoortant of these characte-istics
was thet the wider social gro me and strata evinced a very high degree of
social and auLtral "closerass" and eelf-centeenssc, how'ever great their
26. Deutach, K., "Social Mobilization and Political Development," American
Political Science Review, LV (Sept. 161), pp.
'3-515.
dependence on oter grounps night hxiv
becone.
This aolied-naturally
gnu-s, to raral and
in different degr es-to var one lcal and regna
urban grouns In dIfferent echeloi
of' te
social and ?ccupational hierarchy,
urbtn
an
to small peasn.It rommunities, to
professvinale in their relatioas to each other and
.orkert.
to0ei-tkilld
the centrKL i nsti tutions
of the anciety, ?7
The most basic aspect of tti
elosenu se wta tlewedominance of a purely
"adaptive" attitude to the wid'r meial setting with 'out lIttle a five
solidary orientatton to it or
4ervtfiatiorn witt it.
tation could be manifest In two di
e(*lescing ways.
tTerent,
seemingly
One such way, most frequently
nIpol
Thi
adaptive orien-
-nposing and often
arm ;7
rM
"traditional", lower and sometimes also midrdle nun' and wban prnoie 1q eher.
27.
Wolf, F.p.,"'losed Cornorste Peant Comun 4 ties in 4esnameries and
Central Java," S-uthwetnrn o
l of A"rg:2j,
T,(Siring V)1,
p. 1-18
ncterized by & relstively passive attitude to the wider social Settings.
XhiS closenese and peeaitt
i
vanifest in the rigidity of their conception
of society in general and of their own place w
rigidity was -not entirely identical with the rwn
&k tradIW onel '}vk of
It was rather characterised by ver rigd
empethy with cthers.
This
ithin
t In narti ruLar 6
Urtual"
status
images which .id not allow for any gr- st flexibilIty of orientations to
the vi der society,
it
was often manifste4 in very m4ninal dewlopment of
any aspirati -ns beycil the tradi tional nApo of occupatinns or of aspirations
to new, different types of conmu ity politicel or aocial participation,
leadershin or organizsti on,
These
&nrac-eristics were closely reinted to aome *eatures of the
internal a ructure of these groups--to a strong tendency t
minimise
internal 4 fferentiation with rela tively severe senetions arainst those who
may hve tended to break up such horomeneity,
to a gret
knss of
e
0i. Isel- nuIstory
ability to en
thnse
1
ehanss
within these groups and to a very miimal
r nto or dleajl with ror.
&Iplex internal or exterrsl relatione25 9
charMc teticq had many ro:rc:ssio
activities of these propswhen th-
&nd diffretaflt
were
mab'i
tedi urban, industriax and
They resuied in ttr petu&-tion of previous
lationshisp-Le..., ot noternlistit
on the structurand
Arnemns1
:r
.ein
28. Wlf,
o
29. Norse, R..,
±n met
rti
setings.
p
r
inrnustrial o etta ngs and
j (r leaders
in the lack o' readine-s to tndertake resrpnsibility
'eneral
moderrized
utialized
r 6i
relntions, in dealinu with a "fictals, 2&!itiota
tin's, and in
nei
nessivity and in smal
f? +,he church,
or initiativ- in the new seto
range of intercests.29
t
"Letin Aerican Cities, As- eqti o
nction & Structure,"
compatve
Studi jn Sciet
antd Histop
I no. h (July 196?).pp, .7U94
Hauser, ed., Urbanlzation in Latin America (Peries UESCO 1961), especially
the papers byt iiTs
3.,
fleTfAdjustment of Rural Emigrants
to UrbanIndustrial Conitiona in S-49iaolo1 Brazil," op. ?3h- 9;
Germani, 01., "Inoutry Tnto the Social EffectE of Urbanimetion on a Working
Class Sector of Gree.r 3uenoce Aires,
Ip , n 6-2 33.
Oi a similar situation in bouthern Ttal.y see
r a-sini, Luigi, "Italy,
North 2 oIth, Encunter, no. 105 (July 19A2),
pp 0 7-18.
~
aa.q
Sll
L*IInsofar
ithin- the ga
typs
cr
up
as new occuptel& -1 and asnirations !!
they were focsed
to
ox~cuaton a
widelyh prend
S
cademic, professional,
atnst morr technical,
n MaeI' of these Counti
h
the clearest
Afl
rl develop
.n rl7tively :entriCted prO-aexisting
rE-avv of occupt rnal and ctatus concept
gr'ent propnny
-5. -~
.~.asa.
arev
busiess
'-les,
on all
nu and imnses.
r
The
o, white ollr
wfehih la so
pofssional
a of' the occupational
nifestat on or indioa-ion of these trende.30
The secondari Tai or way in which this adaptive ctlitude to the wider social
sei1ting could b
manifest Wals tht. of wvhst may be oafled ersagperated, unlimited
"opennass" and "flevibilty" and in attempts to obtainu with this new setting
maany varirvs bez nefits, emoluments and rosittons wiv'istut any consideration of
otal insxsiIl"ities or of other gronps in the
'Nooiss Thee oases are best
29, (ecnt'd..) 9"ar, J. Mafoe,"Nigration and Urhanizatin"
pp. 170-1911
e A "Some harateristics of Urbanisats on n the city of Rio
Ala s M
F.,
nies,
3.' Se s Tirra§iat
4
Mjdarga Sociais
no Bras" i,, OT
cit.
Chps. X & XI
.,)cupatioal Stratficaton2 nd Aspiration in an
exemplifie d by somn of the in-re active
urbanized
Argentina and other Lat)nAican
countrtes.
ten) to d-velop very wide "-exibl
and CCunational
aspirations
Bu4,t t eso orientatins
exittirngreality sd
Te
gr u-pe in
members
hnce they alro develop
grrour
tatis orienta.ons and
i-t tov oloael
ar
of' thee
related
sharp nrtssures
:th
on the cristent
social str cture
There wrre only relt-ve.ly few c'rouns wtiwr
these secieties whl
evinced somwihs t PrAp&er and more realistic interna
ib lity.
most imrrrtqnt among thlh wre
new prifes'-innal vrun,
wwme econone
rs.
But there
bus!ne93 rnnnmmtes or
rr
d
*n most of th
'mej
xe-k and Aborve all rlAhtivly sn
the central inst*tutirns of the societipe anl M
31.
ternal fqIs
some relK~rey rare nonSrutt '"e
and a mne rerma wM'el'9 mna
tetes studied here
and
re'
,
sot.
both Itmw
wq'car wou'a,
1 am indebted to ?rof R. Germani £orthis information a een as for
roifnt
rg out the jeneral stig
n
Of
tyne rf group at itude,
bee elo~ %erm~ansi,
Politica. Y
7Socieda
9o o
Ktte ., O&a
Ch%
A
-qiry
Thus extreinely imnortant narallels
of the new elites and of 1 rge
ri t-h Orientations and ati
orta & t e bro1k r
within theOr societies can be fouai.
4th wtere:
h
arou
nstrv
by
ae
-intAining
and develo-ing within the riw riodern institutonal frarmsworks, oCt? re ltively
rigid and rtstricted social, cultal
cases these orientatinsn
terms of sain of the
and political
>ti3auti, S,
bn
both
and atspir:ti-ns were la.rgly c neeived elither In
#;ntus snd syrbols derived mostly fron the preceding
social strueture and fooused in a relatively rigi d way on even only some
possibilities within t -se struotures, or
tn
terms of "flexible" but un-
atteinable goods.
These parallel developments in the orienK-ptions of the elites and of
Ve broader groupa and strate go a far way to exnlain sever.1 very Important
structural chvw-cenisties of vrius
grtnnxs and nf political activities, or-
A
.
4
.6
ic~taiooand" .'o
ies th-t levelo )ed within tho-s'- s, c eties.
Str r~tr~'lly '~rhars
thr, Tr.,st immortccim
cines, even thiouv.h new tT-,ea n- s e
ated
-111h,'r nr
nrt--
~"in
all t
V 4' "erentA oted so,&jnl
anot' ri' he el ite nnr amng1 Vhe broader ;-r'w u-.s nf so&.s't-
were drawnm into r
c'se
-h~h
rrnp-,,rks,, ths ~inot resul~t -:'n the cre-IIAnn of
a viable i~ew eflfferentlrtc-A instit ti-mal seta-tue.
TPhese grfO, -s were unablc to Ttinct-lor-, e."ectively
to work unler whnt r'ay be aLled 9false 7 prentsee, i..,
'ecawc they hMt
snre of' t'e, we-
rermuistes for their ef'P.-c+ivc furicti-1nrn q~d -,,ot ievejon.
The 7 t, very
ofteo exhibited1 clirreteristios, of' 1411-t has been call, I by a stuident of
'rench "retardIation" or "treMA V~ -'na
comunitlies no~t or'ientedi t,) th
ism," I"deoinnuent cor'rmiunties.11 i.e.,
at1-tainrwt of t eir manf'est goals (be thej
econor'tc -rcmth, amMINuIty develuo-sen t, or th- like) bt--O- to the rnain-
tenence of the vested status and intereet oos!.tions of their m.embers
within the existing settings.32
foese orientatIone were not, in princI ple, unlike the t.re of "nerrow
familial" orientatinn which constitu:ted
described by Banfield for South Ttaly
;he mralI
baiis of a baer
society as
Wlthough they operated here on all
levels of the social structure,
Moreover, even if
these tended tro dvelop, wI thin some institutional
spheres--be 4t in education, in the field of economic enterprise or in the
profession, either through dift usion, or through the development of spee-
ially active grours, sorm more stable, differentiated gro >ps and organIza-
tions, their ability to 4evelp and
wmaintain their organ 4 7ation and act 4vi-ties
within the wider eetting was very restr'cted.
3.
Very often they succurbed to
Pitts, J.R.,"ContVu- ty and Change in Bourgeois *rance," in Tn Search of
France, (Cambridee, Mass.:Center for Tnternat-'nl Af"eirs,
r
esp. pp. 254-259.
33. Banfields E.,
Th
Ma
Basis of a Backwardl
Sw
ey
(PreeP Press, 158).
the pressures of the environmnent becnrin? disorgnized or "delinquent. "3
As e result there tended to be
reatcd vic&aus tires
of bretkdown,
er ptions and crises and lack of ability to regul~te them in even a seem-
ingly effective way.
WcITIc
The8se
acturel characoteristics may also to somei exten' explJan theVI
nature of political actvites
n3 orientatons that deeoe
elite within thr socteties, arong both the el 4 te and the brO-r
anmng the
groups of
the society.
The most itrortant fact to be remiwbered bare is that in ""ost of the
countries analyzed here there developed a very high degree of politaation
of wide strata of the popuistion.
The rltively highly politisi; ed, in most of these countries, tended
to focue its demand on the attainment o' such pos tlons and vnrious benefits
3,
vernndes, W,, "n Cientistao BreAilleirne o esenvolvimento da Ciencita,"
Reviste Brsiliense (Sso Paolo),1S6O), no' 1,l ox.
S-121
See also: Rig-t, F,W,"EconoV C Dh3evelo
h. tv'l.lhi".
pn. 86-1666
Jiayj n?
7.ubi.
t
n
A1k.nis2wj2xa
ktnistratm,"
pp
T,, no. iza. 19
Pcl
. 0
(material, status, nerhaps, or - wer) to be derived Thrgcly set within
the fraework of the pendtg soctal order.
ikence there tended to develop
in these cases a vics ous circle of prcssuroes on ex- sting reenurces,
as
which wqere strow1lY linked t- the r!gidity
were often rt.forced by the pol 4 ees a.nd
n
ctVtie
n
?
h
ressures
and
op
o The rulers
-)f
ul-
tiiately necessarily tended to deplete these resnurceps,
The political self perception andxlf-legi
slation of ths political
leaders was also to ,o small. extent focused on the at"sirwient, through the
new politie.1 frw'orks, of many of thene hene'its--to the
ojA~d"ivity as
such, to the major (articulate) strnta-and especially to those strata which
we-e,
as it were, leprived from sharing in these benefits in the former
period.
The various policies developed by them were to no small extent guided
by such considerationrs
Moest of these prlicies did 'bvelor in response
to growlno demands an the pr rel
'ativey
bit;
poltickoed missege
ut in dealing with these dleimands the nsw nulere ;ot only sucCumbed to
pressures from diferent gro- ps but very often thomseles crested and
legitimized such pressures.
quander Them.
was to re-!uee available res'urces an
t
resources took place often because n
"symbii
.
o; rama~vra
tion,
it
s&ilit; ava'lable to -he r Jere.
of lack of ary clear principles or r igulatinn -r
Suih soux
Using of
eoloical reason
4r
and because of the se-rch of the rul rs for suport
attest, in this way, to their lepitir
of thewe policies
sit
'hus a rery oenerIl
fad
their Ittempts to
uaual ly minimized the range
At the same time, because
t orities, they tended to ex-
acerbate the level of conflict betwi n vari-ous groups as the aeriration of
them all rose while the total output oW the econoimy remained satlc or even
decreased.
UX
The most im -ortant common denominator of thwse policies has been the
continuous lacillatiin %eweenattempts of the ruling elites at controlling
'C)
all
the major fower posi t!
ons
a
the positi-ns of ene'ctive Controfl
groups
4i
thn zo ciety and wonopolis tin
n the one hand ar
a continuous rIV ng
in to the "enands of various grou s 'en the other Kand, nameles of Such os-
cilleting po e ies couild be found in many itM1Ot3rt fieldS0
Al these e--untr* es, but prha&ps en&etll y in
us, first, in alst
Intonesia, on the one har,
and in many Lati
rcan
countr4ee on the other,
there to-k place a continuous ex-pant on and swelling or the buresucracies by
t w de.
new asonrants, the contxnuous giving in, by the rulers, to the grnm
mands of the holders of these nouitions .or tenure of -ffice and for increesed
(even if not fully e -oquate to catch up vith the growing inflation) wares
and emoluments,35
A similAr oscillation can be found In the field of agrarian reform.
In many of these countries very far-reachinp ,fficiel prorans of' redia
35.Se" Feith, on. c 4t,
ands
eks. VP', V
es", c5
Tanni, 0., ilelema t
&
Jurogr&t5aC&D no
r
raetl," Bolietim, Centro Ttino
Americano De Pesquisvs Em CenciAis Skeals, Rio i" Jir
I Tino~3
H.
tribution of innd were a+,tenn.t
countrite in
These programs often resultedl in these
misrenniation of the
the one hand ard rin the resistance of
talional
'riturfl
ar us
to utilize the situation for their ownq self-
atter ptd
aoted interets twic
;'randieent,
ests which te nded to obs ruct atter) ta At thG m
a tin
i
could be upheld by both older laidlords and bi the
i
p
on
ruril setti;
scx
tied
1nter
of agri cutur±e
rn tr propritcrn
Both often succeeded in evadinr' and subveting the: nlicies of the nuvernrent
aimed at
nerr:Ise of technical output, moderniestion of? ariculture,etc.36
Tn many cases the a-encies of rural ir -rovement-redit aenctes
com-
munity development centers which were establishef by the 7overnment, were
36.
See eli, 11., "Agrarian Reform and Tndu trial Growth, " Tnt ene tionul
DeVelopment Revew II (Oct. 196('), r. 16-22
See also# Carroll, T.F., "The Land ReforM Issue in lstin America," in
Latin Amrioan Issues (HtrschmannA.,ed.ew York a Twentieth Century Fund,
YTpp.~6-u;
For another interesting case study, see: Trde.insky, W.I., "Agrartsn
Reform in the Reoublic of Vie tnam," in Problems of hredom, South Vietnam
(fw York: The h2fe P)7
Since ndepene
r.""$3
taken up and swallowed,
the
as it were, b, these vented
anid pol-icies of the goenmn
goals
nterests, arainst
the go-vernment being
wihot
able to control them effectively.37
In the fild of education the ru
os i
ted between at.mts to
repress autonomnous mtivttias of the studente and tx dirret them
educati-nal setivi ties on the ono har
the other.
and giv
As a result, one of the most important
-gno
in
their
their demnda on
kvelopnts in the
field was the very quick swelling up of nufbers of studente in var'ous
e'iucational-inatitutions -es-eeially in "humanistic,Y"Tacademic"
hifh
schools ani in the more tradIt onal (huImnistic, legal) faculties of the
universities.
Sim'larly, the rulrrs tended to give in to the demands of
students and in educational and pedagogical fields and a -onsequent lowering
of standards.
37.
Very often and side by side with this there took place many,
See eeder, .t"Veudalsm and A-ricultural Developmnti The
Controlled Credit in 'hilets Agriculture," Land Economilics,
I-eb. 1960), p, 92-100
ole of
'VVT, no. I
albeit not too suceasful,
e
by the rulrs
to control the
tdet-ttemts
to dire-t them to the nonscaemic (technicl, rrofecss-nal) subjects and
to maintain sane discioline nmong them. 38
In the sphere of economic policy proper te
estanples of re.Amante tion
and confiesatio-n which lowr red the efficiency of the economic sectorF on
the one hand and of wide redistri.bative measures to virious pFarts of the
ponulation on the other hand are too numrous and wll known to ne- d any
detailed illustration.'t9
38. Lewis, A.,
"Education and Economie Nvelopment," Social and Economic Studies,
U. Cllege of West Indies, X, no.
P (June,
196)
Moreira, J. Roberto, Educacao e Desenvolvimento No Brasil, Rio me Janeiro,
19 0.
-~mM
Fischer, J., "Unive-sities and the Political Process in S.E. Asia,"
Pacific Af'airs, XTVI, no. 1 (Spring 1963), pp. 3-16.
Hint, H., "The Universities
*
sat Asia and Economic revelopment,"
Pacific Affairs, XmXy, no. 2 Surmer 1962), 7p. 116-128.
For a gerral analysis see:
Eisenstadt, S.N, Education and Political Develo ment (Duke University,
Commonwealth Seminar' Series,"16MfdVhoin)
39. See, for instene,
Glassburner, B., "Econom e Policy Making in Indonesia 1950-57,'" Economic
47""
nt and Cultural Cha e, X, no.(".
Deve
and Sea tt,"rI0q.,"V6ign spital ard Social Conflict in Tndonesia,
1962).
1950-5'," Economic Develo-ment and Culturel hanse,, I, no.2 {
Mackie, J.C., "ndonesia's Government Eatates end their Masters," Pacific
Af Pairs, MWLV, no, h (Winter 191-62), pp. 337-360).
In general, the various more restri etive policies in all tlese fields
could be frund in the more "tradition al* enuntries like Pakistan or Sudan,
while the policies of "giving in" to ex
"erated demnds of the labour groups
could be found espeOially in the nre no ern countries like indonesia or
Burma, altiougth both tendenc ea could be found, in
c mr-asure, in all
these contrie.
Nec-dless to say, many such policies-especially the more repressive
and regimen'ating ones enn be fourd also
and f r e--
concrete nolly uniertaken ii
many other "'Tew" and older nations.-
Tndonesia,
eurma or Pakistan there
could also be found an equivalent in a ror e stable regime.
dut the
most important ohvracteristic of these pol .cies as they developed
in the countries analysed here
39. (cont'd.) See "Eoonoic Reconstruction and the Struggle for Political
power in Tndonesia," World
, SV, no. 3 (Aarch 9), pp. 105-114.
and &lot Pelix, D., "Structural TNbalancee, Social Conflict, and
Inflation: An Appraisal of Chile's Recent Anti-Tuflat' onary Effort,"
Economic Develpmen and Cultural Changve, VTIT, no, 2 (Jan. 1l6O), pp. 113-1h8
has been not any srecift
detail but rather the continuous oscillation be,.
tween the repressive orientat',n on the one hand and the givine in to
the var ous deriman-s for mrany groups on the other handl the lack of devel-
onment of any stable or comtinuous eriteria of rriorities.
Hence there tended
to develop in these caseS coitinuou.s pressures on existInf resources,
pressures which were strongly linked to the rigidity of aspirations of these
groups, which were often reinfor :td by t --e policies and activities of the rulers
and which tended to deplete the existinr resourtes.
In order to be able to a preciate full: the nature of the developmnts
in the sooieties d'eciaed abew,
we Mgt perha--s cominnre theirtiefly with
those in oumntries like Mexi co, Kemalist Turkey or Meji Japan-not to say
anything about the special type of developmeants in Soviet Russia-where now
modernixing rerimes were able to deal with, to some extent, nt least, in the
initial stages of -modernization, some of the problers and contradieV ons
. 0
d isuawds above,
T
here. the alften were fWl~e niot ny
policies on the~ wtier socialf rPivs an-1 strm-
*roune Intn the myr
'ilffentiterl
+,
bu h alo tnfip
n~
f'-eTr
jris~ti,.t-v4.
lm-ns
the.r
4*hn
av. Vi
s
be~ P~v
1
'V4or'
i~ na1ysis of Japn's r,)Htieel
V. The c1e
'"ef~tu o
yiv
Emermrence S ae TlrvOpn
Jat--o
in H. om
4 "Fft
?FwitsTwme clip lw
lqle
of paci fie Relp n.11M
Retwation, (Princeton; "'rin -'ton
ChoRMh 'in the =~j itsrationp (CmhrrlVe,
Cultural1 Stuffies, no, 3, 1tudie
of' 3aen, 'n 4 Ga.
on-
University 7 r~
rlstla, tl'l' -*s.#ue nn r-4ty e'n 4 7V4*q-s
T~"'n&n* ae"M r77fr
many mther
Trvnr
\a
rl.V
!JIhersi ty
wailable m
nn~ Yempis~t Turlrey see R.
-iui,"",e
'&L
',iaI
n
frI
"Imer'n Nrkpy (?e, ,Af.
mpn(v
4
'T
~
)xfordi U. Priessp I -t'Alair
to a t4UIV'ar+y S tem, (Prineeton Tj'r*ntee vrmIT -va-,TO
~, "~oent "TMea "evelo 'wnts 'n Tujy'kOym'?+ei V'a
Backr*,ryx," op.rn- oinns 1APfarV'TTT
in
u
* al
o
*(
-$f,-
n
,
n#%
P
_
_____
(TUrbana: U. "b? Illnns rwep ,059); n. 082, 1h 1%,1:;A
rirP9s7V
Tq~ York:
ow
T4 Pe ani Thought In Moi
'!'Vyu~7"-m .he n4~s leme n 0Mr eo a 1 ev41 8rant t "%~e Ra
I
A~a;~
t sse11.: t pw-l
P " 1
Wirv
of the T-rivato andi ?PWie Sotr
q#
th-e nm4nt!
TfIr~P I-sl o" c,, -re Irm~enme 1hu'- somp
MTOSt iT~.rtaint f'romi the ncoint of view of our analysis cani be -f-hznd ins:
M. !,ilsod,,Hcrv Russ-"a is Ruled# (fabridvet Ha~a(
!'Iress, 1955),
ZJK. RrzPztr~WT_%o 'e-1 ana"Dwtwer I~n Sovtlet Politic@e ("loew forks Peger,
i~m ties 6onru'
p ~~ ~
- i go1,$ ~ I
1962); J.Ao Armstrag
Party of' the Soviet
'to nfi'S~oy
I2H i ~(l
'
The literature on the
~dm
ou
These elites developed
sim
1taneous orrien- ations to collective Ileo.-
lorical trans formati'n and to c-'ncrete tasks and roblems *rn different
"practical" fields.
£hr y perceived their legitimaticn in terms of such
wider ohanges and not only in terms -,f providiin
various
i-mdiata benefits
to difterent social gruns-although they hoped and expected that ultimately
the now plitical system 'A1il also bring worked improvemente in the standard
of living of the broadert r raups and strati of the population, as well as in
the strengthening of the econoW and poll t cal structure of the country.
Tis could be seen in eonre of the policies develoned by these elites to
deal with problemi of modernization,
1hus,
for instance, the restructuring or*the process of communication was
effected in these countries by
r-mication and their g
of' communicetion.
&
linkin' of different levels of com-
inorporation into a relatively unified system
An important aspect of this rroaess of tradual incornoration
. a
was that for a certain oeriod o-f time the different levels or types of
CoMunicativeP reterns w re kept rleatively se':iee
iedbt
cia
th t
interlinking Mechanisms which maintained sore re'latioin to the central
coicti
continuously, expanded.
"It
l
the elites urer
ystenm b
rke'f a exeriere here is very instrue ti e
s the easence of the Atat :rk Revol tio::n that
itt
th
eommunicati no bi frcation existing
in 'Lxrkish society rather than lamenting i. or
immediately at+Acking it,
as a number of other
nationalist movements have done.
he Kemalists
concentrated on the extension and consolidation
of the modernist beachhead within the ruling
elite won by the graduates of the great secular
schools al
those with Euronean training.
ehis
effort involved the final expulsion of religion f-om
the temple of politics and the attempt to complete
the Westernizati n of the intellectual elite of the
society before plunging ahead to more grandlose ventures
with the entire Turkish populationr
It also involved
the reformers tgaa drive to make the uncongenial cities
and larger towns of Aatolia habitable ftr the now
class of .esternized Turkish intell ntals who were
to serve ani represent the new state,
Tt was by no
mans an immediate attempt to rcmold the aociety
by starting with the neasant masses,
Such an
attempt was not in kee4ng with the history of the
T urkish
revolutionary movemwnt o4ihe pychologies
of its le -ders.
Mreover, the task was sinrly too
immense for suoh an anproach.
As in most emergent
natioins, a sneller handle waa n
more
ay-s
lever
asily 7rasped,
'ut another way, what we -re sayingt is that the
cormunlenti'ins bifureition in Turkish society betwe n
educated elite anl uneducated n2s3
actually-, promided
Mustafa Kemal ith a convenient hal"way hamse in the
reshapitn
of his country.
He couled to a 1-rge evtent
af-'ord to for 'et about the submer-rd peasant messes
ani concentrate his limited resources on solidifying
his hold on the dominant 'ntellectual gro tp, to which
he could increasingly appeal through such improvements
fn cormmuni attions techniques as hnd been made.
'hen,
once this crucial initial battle was won, once the bulk
of the ruling elite hal been modernized, he could inove on
to the ere'nter task of chansingz the manses.
comrnicat- one between elite and mass w-s
The lack of
vital factor
which he used to simplify his task and eouste it with his
resources. "4l
T he
same picture e 'uld be seen on the whole in the field of developmnt
hl. See Prey, F..,
"Political Development, Pover and Comuni'ations in
,
Turkey," in R.ini Pye (ed.), 4 ormunicati'ns and Politjical evegi
2p. cit., pp. 313-4
of educatioInal policies0
khs, for iniste-c,
in
ur'kaiey there took
a widespread e teno oni of primrry edation on the lccl Tevei, side by
tgithj
M.
the extensiion of special new secularizd
and wit; only a gradual extension of
.n
divetirs tied elite schoolh,
beween these 171olty
Similar &'elo mnts both in the field o" oornr&ition and
took place in Japan and in ?4-re co,
The initial
eF ts
were to Ireak dcown some of the "'feudl closeneass" of t
courage them to transfer their
&eucation
of the 'Melji leoders
rural groups and en±-
raditional loyalties to the new polity,
without nevoseartly destroyinr thei r trn Ationd
setting.
''- ews
n to
a large extent e-eerted by the extension and unif9 cation o' t.e system of
priury edwggtion,
At the same time many new schools an
untversities into
which the more active and mobile eleents could be at lenst nartially
Pbw
ent 4 n Trkey," 4n
'dertion anti olitial noflnr
JS. Coleman (ed.), rducation and nolitien 1ene0hpment, I'rincetont
"rinceton U, ~Tess, eORcomiunj)
l2. See grey, W.,
sor -et **-,a ontiluouEay lieveloped-43
Tn
Meic !-he snreid of esi-i,7tlon to tlh-e various social ivriu~ wris
also 1rr-1e?7mn-taitn a sW rilqr way. th
nv'4nt o' view of~ oixt'
I-ird, and perhaps mo~st Imtmorant "- on te
disctssion,
of~ social ndb i ty
1.as been the structutrng ot the nrcse
in these societies,
therE rt-A corntinumusly dielop
In all tLie5e aowtriia
procecaes of miobility which niw esssriV broke down ihe aeleuf;Acieney of
sop nt leat of Vic, trz-dtiornal uanits and brr-'u-ht themu into the Prorswork
of the newt noise r'o-rn-',?ed -1nst4' tutinns.
was e'vareA to
relstr expandlns o
crelc7. between tbP iuob11$'IA Psipln
great 99 i~n the othpr amses, Astsuqs
'rn tbta v'nyq V
.nrtun-te4-U
r
iv n1I I7
thp fit
qnA tho- ?rP044EP8 svns
ONve
0
"ve
~s.-
nmq
rmcelses n#' wib 4 lt
4~3, On the. divelopmnt n-P Japnege Pfteat 4 cin in the, ?%
rinpl, 80e
R. Andersons," lapans Three Enooh. o~r 7vo&rn '4Au-atl -n.9 fshtnotonn
U.S., !)epo of Health iLduoati-r a-0i ' T etsre
%lrt 4 ng
110109 wrI. TO
and lsoR.K qal,,Iducation for the ?!4ew JT-Pan , .P 7;Mvevn j1 0 ho, and
the forthomling
Moko 1 a~~~
tna4
'Vtrp
in 'opens" in 4v Colera~n., 2P Ct
2*2 1)n development of educatl.i'n n "exdco see h,17, '1inet Ono Cit
ch.
JohnsMton, M$,Cep "dunation in -e!htflntofl (' shins'ton
",ept. of
Educatirin and 1'-fTrare, C
rin Vduc95 ')
s~h
ver4 e ITrm T-ently conneete-1 vtwith i' Te *-aelpmnt of
differ~entia ted stetus wid
had som~e rea11%istic
sortie
i.mportan~t ehanzg-
ticipatt on, arid to
Inthe
d~vve'pi
did often r'is~t ierv
dif'ersntipti on uithin th
lcast
ne-!r
Sow-
crupien o tat-3ona ar,,,ntniilati ,n
pro~eo -)f waoc
Sim1krly, the -ocee
Gat
oI~
ra
v
"3r'e
whic i
sciety-
nP.
or~~f ur,2
rls
-n the StrCILUrG of
vni-wt
owing ccnnectione bc.tN~en, tlei
toi~L
Pr
iro-ups 9-
WY4
r-
the cental
xx'
In all th~ese caes the new ru.lers were, of cowsep also inte'-ested
in ma~intaining in thieir "hands tranopoly of nower mM
.,l11cation
of status.
But they attemnted t&oleveln- and matintain such mronopoly tor'ether wiith a
grov~ing
vripetion of thp a itbnlo and fammwrks
of caursev stress the~ iwmrnortance of the
attem~pted ti~ connect it
AMt emplvsl
on rie
Of itatuS,
They aso~ did,
p?~l~ic stus but usu,9l1y
ne iet-
technicall and
and professional activities,
They at-tempted aso t
miniize as'rs
p-ssible various tendenries to asCriptive Mnopolization of zprer poesitions
by var- ous eli.te and bureaucratic grouns.
The case of *Sovietrssis
point of viee
is probably most insructive from tris
In Soviet Aussa there developed on the one hand aong
many parts )f the
marging elito-bue
rts,
technicien,
strong fandenoies to "freeze" their posit- one in an tscriptive
p
way through
monot)lisatio-' far themselves and their families of many social, economic,
ant, eduestional prero-atives.
tIttempt
But these tendencies were countered4 by the
of the top political leaders to break up these ascripti-Pe bases
and to maintain through pr-dominance of the party to qwme extent in continuous
differentLation of status ard power criteria.k5
can be found in Kmalist
65.
*Imilar tendencies and policies
irkey, Mexico or Meji Japan,
See G. Bereday, The Chanving Soviet School, Boston, 1960, and
G.e. Beredpy and"7oan P7trrwi
) Ie Poli"stics of Soiet
Eduantion, New York, 1060, and n, Anwe!r, "Probledii T-7*5Ehureform
in steurore," Internati-nal Review of Educat'on, VI (1060),, p,. P1--351
also: N.K. Gone
f~
~
lireinU
, ibid.,
of
pp. 43240; and N. Dwlitt, "Upheaval in Lduation,"
Cormniism VII (Jan. 1959).
/~
.'a
t
If,
how eve,
tsse elites were relatively more fle-ible in their
status orien'atiins "Ahey were also
tion of their relc ies n
he'y did iot rive i.
ately to the 7emande of different pr-.
In extreme case,
rice c~esive and fir
ps aid s
in, the itmlementa-
continiuuslv anrd indicrimin-
;i
tun
like In tssia, they used coerci-n s-airn
thir
s
thes
e
o
roups
but in others they attempted to direct and maniputat'E these demands,
Qome
of these demands--like those for Agrarian Reform in Mexico have becom
important symbols of te
ew Regimwe-b it interestingly enough the actual
policies relte.d to these symbols did not always ftC1y implemnt all the
;
% al demands which could-and vely often even
tion with the-r symbols.
Aid-develop in connee-
Thue, for irs'anee, reforms thet were implemnted
in Mexico in the field of agrarian reforms, were important from the point of
view of te
restructuring of internal arrangements of the rura' commities
45. (cont'd.) h-D-h) ?DeWitt, N. ,"Upheaval in
munamp VI1r (Jan. 1959).
dua ion," Prob eris of Com
i:,
ihIln then and onening up new
roue
creating new social and econmic
channels of mobility to the enter.
allowed to block conti nuously, through givi
vested intereste, the expansion of te
o
in
ng
not On the whole
e
rs
aIgt thser
oth cid and new
cooy
The 9.arious policies undertaken in thrs
n
ounr
such
fils
c
as educatV on or labor relations had on the whole etmilar eIectse
Truly enough the success of the se elites in th'ee different countries
varied greatly, dependin~ on the initial affinity between them and thc
wider grou-9 of the society and on tie snore of the -inttIn1 orennsss
and flexibility of these wider grouns,
In none of these cases do we 1ind a sitiatiol similar to that in
denization, the secondary
We torn eountries, where t1a initial stages of
-
46.
~
r
~
es
'
ols
lMIlr-,
-.
on Mexican iani reform see H. Cline, or.
Mexican Land Reform, Aertenn
T9!?~eF~,0.E
i
t.,
ett.,
X1
Ch.
ch.
TT
ma di
x'
J.G. Maddox,
Staff, Jo '5-57
(N.Y.:
Agrarism MeviAcnno ;g la "Ieforrte jtgraria,eicos
-:ndo de Culture heondcTa,39i
6Sa
rientt
elites which wrre the major hearers of
in the econonic and cultur'I anhere
,
and where 'be
s
Wae
wereo
wider seeiei
and str!ta w re to a very erea^ e-tent open to t'ese
and tendencies in both economic Pnd ideologial soeeee
ca'es discusd
ctve
-rros
n
nce
ece in ;All the
here the elites faced the problem of ovening up," erourafing
and at the same time controlling whateve r more mr.znTiz n7. forces or orientations
existed vi tin
the broeder strata.
izin- oitientations of te
the case in
6 oviet
coercive measures.
Tneofar
s tne a Tfin- ty betA
'een the modern-
elltes and of the bron'er strati was small, as was
Russin, the elites enbpArked on a course of usinp very
But, although some elements of coerci.-n were used in
almat all these *-euntries,
yet in most of them, the elite- were either
less monolithic and totalistic in their orientations then the Soviet elite
or there existed a greater (even if ressive) affiniy between them and the
47.
See S.-. E*senstadt., "Initial TnstitutIonal Pattrns of Politicn1
Modernization," Civilizat 4 one, Brussels,
T, no. h (196) and X1I,
no. 1 (1963).
.4
I
the wider strate.
Hence they were able to use less coercive masures and
face less intensive tensions.8
Truly enough the succe's of these elites in one phase ofo modernization
did not necesserily asswne, a s the c-:ses of Turkey or Japan teti
c'ntinuou.s uninterrupted growth and mobility.
But the success in
to,*
one
p'iase may have created sone irnortant facil tating 'Actors for further
developments.
10tTTI
The problem wty in Turkey, Japan, Meyioo or Russia there emsrged in
the Initial staenes of modernization elites vith orientations to change and
ability to imilement relatively eflective policies while they did not develop
in these initial phases in Indonesia, Pakistan or Burma, or why elites with
similar differences tended to develop also in later stnges of moderniration,
is an extremely difficult one and constitutes one of the most baffling
problems in comprative sociological analysis.
There are but few available
4R. See S.N. Eisenstadt, Tnitial Patterns, M., cit*
iiientions to deal with this problem.
be suggeested th-t it has to so=is
it mray prhape
'Itativey
Very
extent to do with the placemnrt o? thee
elites in the pecedin social etruoture, with the extent of their internaql
cohesiveness and internal traneforrvton of their on va-lue orientatIon.9
In all the Tew States discussed here the newodernIing elite were
greatly alienated from the precediwn
(colonial and/or traditional) eocio-
political qystems and tended to emphasize the evelooment of new values
and ideologies as a veri important part of their moderniinr; orientation.
But in most of the countries analyzed here the new elites werc mostly
ocamosed of intellectuals and in many cises they constituted the only ini-
tielly available modern elite.
They had but very few
internal soci al
contact a
49.
and ideological
See J.N. Kautsky, "An Essay on the Politics of 1evelerent,"o t ,cit.g
and H. Bond&,
on-Western Tntelligenti ise as Political Elites,, "
"
Kautsky, ed., Political C .e in Urierdev- opd Countries, oN. cit., pp.
235-052; and f--1nis
copo. TI & III.
rocess-6;rfialI
ines (LRoaniFleT; is-y
or idetificnttons (even if
an mbIaient
i
e
eo
the
pre-existing tr-idit 4 one or -Ath the wider poups of the society.
The
modernizing orientations of thef- elites were foowsed iistly on the
political, much less on the economic 8obere, And surprisingly enough also
very often lese on the cultural sphere, in the sense of redefinition
reformation of their own '>&sie internal value-orientation.
wAn
Conseauently
they w, re not able to establish a strong internal cohesiveness and strong
ideologicul and valu-identifications and connectinns with other, potentially
modernized gro ps and stras.
Simi'larly the various noliticsl
elites or le-ders, whether the more
oligarchie cc more dsmavoguc ones, in many of the Latin Amerie-n aountries,
were alo mostly most dissociated even if in a di fferent way, from the various
broader gtro-pe that were continuously coming into the society or impinging
on its central instituti one.
The orocess of selection and formation of
these elites was a relatively rigid and restric ed one, bringing in re-
.
O
lative-y -eaker elements and intensifying their alienation from the brander
nternal insecurity and lack o' cohesion.50
.ll as their
Frroup as
Similar--nd even mre intensive ri f4tS between difPerent elites Aevel-red,
known, sn various Luropean countries in the twen.i es
e'l
as is
the elites in Turkey,
Yn the other hand,
-
thirties.
Japan and Mexico, or some of t e
more cohesive elites in cofuntries of lnter stages of
ioernisation, however
great the di mferences betweeni them, hod yet some contrary charategzistics
in cmmon.
Jhey were not usually composed onl y o' intellectual gruns
entirely Al icnted from the prc-ext
some of the
elites an
broader grouns of the socic ty but we e to some extent !Aced in secondary
elite nositions in the preceding stre ture, and had somewhat closer relations
with m-any active, broader rrnups.
".1
50o. Se
and value spheres they aimed at the development
I4eoloie
1
lermani, (.1, Politica Y cociedad
p. cit.
Silvert, Lideran;a,
%rnandles, Mudangas
,
jop
t.,
op.
t, c
"hs,91
79)
of a new, more flex-ible set of syrbola and collective identity which,
while not negating the traditios
for the now processes of cange.
ould alas provide some new neaning
iienoe thq tended o, the one had to be
more cohes ve, while at the same time to ef ect som internal value trans-o
formation vithin the broader groups and strte.
But these are neceesartly only very brief prelininery and ina4euatf,
remarks with revard to this proilem, which ev ould constitute a focus of
continuing oomparative resear-ch dealing both with initial and latei stares
of modernisation.
TXIa
'The develoirwat of processes of social rmo ilizati on with ant
integration, of rifts between the
leaders, and witin te
adequate
ns rumental" and "solidarity making"
symbolic and ideological realis of a society did
develop in all the oountries in which some breakdowns of modernization
and especially of politi cal modernisation took -la ce.
They develomed in
.
C
different phases or s ages of mo ern sation.in the various new States
enumerated above, in Kuoriintang Chins, in some Latin Countries best exem~pli fied
bi pre-Peron Ar"ent na, in Japan in the ln e twenties, in pre-.Nazi
ermany.
But, needless to -ay,
rocesses
the concrete detals-and outcomes-of these
varied gr rtly between these varimas types of countries.
One counon outcome of these processes is Irinl
4 cit
-n rost of the
preced ng' analysis--namely, the "reversal" of these regimes to what may be
called a lnver, less flerible level of politi el
and social different aton,
as s. en in the scope - f problems with which they are capable to tbal.
But
on the other hand, as has alrad!fy been pointed out above, most of thear
less d. fferentiated regi mes hove to sne ext ent retained some of the symbols,
goals and institutional arraneents of modernity, even if they attempted to
develo - new ideologies and symbols.
This enabinatio, has necessarily crusted a potential contr diction
which could develo", in principle into several lifferent directions.
one
. k
I
such possible outcome was the instituttonalization of a relatively modern
system, a satewhst lower level of diferetit'on,
albet with sort
sibilities of li-ited institutIonal absorpt Ion of
han e, and conducive to
sore economic growth.
po-
The other possibil ty is Vrt of ievloprnt o
stag-
native rrgines with but very little capecity for absention of chatge and which
may either becom
relatively stable or develop a sysem of vic ous eireles of
eruptions, blockarf s and violence.
The analysis of the condit' one which
may lead to any of these dirertions is beyond the province of this paper.
They denend nostly on the cohesion and value orientation of the elites, on
the extent to which the new elites were capable of ovcrooming the dif-
ficulties and pitialls of the preceding perl ods and of developinr
policies
which would not be beset by continuous oscillations and contradictions,
6ut it might perhaps be worth while to sum up, by the way of some
comnarative notes
-bout
the diffe-ent types of breakdown of nodernization
4r-
which tiok pInce in the different situat,ns analyzed in this paper.
I
tXXV
In most of Up. New ;3tates the mjor onints of' ri't
were betwven the
trnditi-T al and the more modern settings and within the m -dern settinrns
themselves.
The various traditio nal seotors in Burn,
Pakistsn, or Indo-
neeia-~and before that of nost-Imperial China-have been cant' nuously
drawn into more differentiated and midern rectors.
VI7en thone groups
which remained within the older, traditional settings becamt
very often
disorg'nised, and lorre parts of their populat on were withdrawn frma
of e'tive participatio)n wi thin them.
symbols and trad tiona
let many of tbeir older framwosr
if solidarity tended to persist and exert some pull
and influence -oth in the more traditi -nal and the m re modern wettings.
Within the more m-dern new centers tha -xmcessea of diaspianization,
of conflot
a*oe
ont' nwed, and atiny nww rifts develiped, but even t'ere many
were st*11 to a relati vely great evtent oriented t)
symbols of tra# tional solidarity.
so-e of the
Hence the various elites coull to sor
Ik
.
or
extent draw on the reservo)irs of this traditional solidarity and their anti-
nodern tendencies and orien' ations were to no sill
extent temered by the
4 tionalien.
attempts to find sor* modus vivendi betw een modernity and trad4
The situation in Argentina was already diff'erent,
Thouaghout
three decades of the 19th century and the first two oK the 'th
te last
century there
developed, through continuous inmigration and coloniztion diff erent new
"relatively modern" grounv--such as nem planters, workers, etc.
These
groups tended, on the whole, to be socially and culturally rather separate.
However, because of the continuous economic expansion in a colonisatory
setup they were Able to conti nue to maintain their
separate existence
and mutuel closeness together with continuous development, change, and
nodsrnisation.
Only gradually they bcasme interwoven into a closer
framework of mutual interdependene.
garchic elites
At thre same time, the major oZ34
ioh held the ruling pose tions in the country did not
A
develop no! symbols, institutions, and pole4ies capa ble or deoaling w-ith
these new nroblems nnd
w
r
asically mainteined t1e
developeA in
the mid-loth century, thus also imreding the full inteir'tion o'
h
groups into new more modern framworks,
It
was only when on the one Ind the
r
e
i
beteen
s
groups became closer and the continued economide expana on bene hled,
that the shaky co-existence was broken down--giving rise to lonp periods
ving then rise to the Paronist
of conflicts and tension in the thirties, g~i
regime and cont-inuing later some of the same institutional instabilities.,
Thus, in a way, the Argentinr
case shows the limits o
tie continuity
and stability of a society in which nrecontractual elements were weak or
underdeveloped from the very berinning, and which did not have any strong
pre-existire tradi ti -nal base of soliderity.
enoe the new symbols and
orientitions develo ed by the various groupe aid by the various nolitical
leaders we-e much less anchored in comnon trAditional backPround.
Al-
though many of tiese lenders attenpted to develo
sre symbols of demoriern-f
imation, they were y, t limited by 'he various separate tri&.tons of the
dif'erent graups, by the
cInek of cnmron symbols
of
which it 'me -cossible to rebel ard by the bes'to-ly
dernization o' most of these pr-,urs.
Heice the rrtss
f1dentinaation
oi ie
tainst
attitdes to rn.
that tentdd to
develop here were more based on va'ue popuhistie symiols an
various st-
tennts to raise the ronvlntionst nart'oaration *n the central -olitical life
and its share in the economic benefits of this life, rather then on o'tright
demodernization.
The situation in Japan in the twenties and thirties, after the breakdowm
of the original "eit oligarchic modernization wns already couched in many
terms of outright deroderniation.
isation vas
But its rotential drift to such demodern-
wiPrped by the nersiwane of the mperie: symbo'tsm, end of
many treditional elements within the society and by the relative int.ernal
weaknesses of the military cliques.
I
The trend tovrderr
comlete demodernizatton he
in the development of 1azi Germany and to o
Fascist Ttaly.
atttinsd its irak
mh
There it was mostly groups wict
taller
atined a rea ttvely
high level of modern sation that were drawn into ev
wac net
unstable differentiated condritions. "Ter
onfi iets were
entirely in terms o
inter>
highly derentiate
wor:s of modern institutions,
Whatever tretonai
extent In
sqr
et
y'
tlmst
fan within
frerte-
symbol were used
there were mostly of a nurely negativi.st, denoderntz&ng nature, without
really being any longer rooted in any trrditi onal solidarity or identift.
catin.