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1
THE PRESERVATION AND REUSE OF URBAN CHURCHES
AS A CONTRIBUTION TO THE URBAN LANDSCAPE
by
LAURIE
PUTSCHER
B.A. Wellesley College
1976
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the requirements for the
Degree of
Master of Architecture
at the
of Technology
Institute
Massachusetts
February 1980
Laurie Putscher 1980
The Author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and
to distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in whole
or in part.
Signature of Author
.
Department of Architecture
January 18, 1980
Certified by.
Edward B. Allen, Associate Professor of Architecture
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
.
.
.
. . - - - - -....
Professor Maurice Smith, Chairman
Departmental Committee for Graudate Students
.
.
.
.
.
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2
The Preservation and Reuse of Urban Churches
3
as a Contribution to the Urban Environment
by
Laurie Ann Putscher
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on January 18,
1980 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Master of Architecture.
ABSTRACT
Through massing, scale, craftsmanship, and their traditional role, church buildings are valuable to the city.
They play an important role in the cognitive and formal
ordering of the city. They are important to the temporal
contect of the city. As the site of milestone events in
many people's lives, or as symbols of these events in
others' lives, church buildings are important for the collective memory. The grand scale of the church space combined with careful small scale detailing, make it a place
with qualities that are rare in the daily life of most people.
Because of their importance to the city opportunities
and methods to reuse church buildings should be found if
the buildings are abandoned by their congregations. Uses
should be found that are sympathetic to the spirit and the
form of the building.
The forms in church architecture are
powerful enough that they can survive extensive, yet sensitive, new construction to accomodate a new use and allow the
place to read as a new building that was once a church.
In order to allow the building to provide a temporal
context to the present, when the building is given a new
use it must also be given a new image.
The elements of the
image of a church must be analyzed to discover those which
are the most powerful and how they may be changed to allow
revealing juxtapositions that say, "this building was a
church but is one no longer."
In changing the image of
the church building, care must be taken not to destroy those
qualities which made attempting its reuse worthwhile.
These issues are investigated in a series of case
studies of reused churches.
Several new issues in the re-
design of church buildings were discovered through the case
studies.
The result is a set of observations and conclusions
that are a synthesis of the real and the ideal.
Thesis Supervisor:
Edward Allen
Title:
Associate Professor of Architecture
4
5
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Chapter 1
7
Adaptive Reuse
Chapter 2
11
Why Save This Empty Church?
33
Chapter 3
What Do We Do With It?
47
Chapter 4
But,It Just Looks Like An Old Church!
60
Chapter 5
Looking At Converted Churches
Chapter 6
70
Changing The Image, Keeping The Plan And Vice Versa
Chapter 7
84
Dealing With The Nitty Gritty
93
Chapter 8
Putting It All Together
Footnotes
Bibliography
Acknowledgements
6
7
CHAPTER 1
ADAPTIVE REUSE
The approaches
to
building.
The place-
adaptive reuse of churches
making approach, on
and of historic structures
the other hand, attempts
in general could easily
to provide
be classified under two
the new use
main headings.
The
first
a
that
for
is
better than anything
of these would be
that could
entitled the nostalgic
built today.
approach and the second
space
feasibly be
The difference in
would be called the
the two approaches
placemaking approach.
primarily in the
The nostalgic approach
attitude of the designer
leads to the preservation
or group seeking to reuse
or conservation of as
the church building.
much of the shell of
the designer who follows
a building as possible.
the placemaking approach
The alternate use for
respects the form of the
a building, while
original building, he does
ideally
not see his primary goal
to the
complementary
form of a building,
is
While
to be the preservation of
is generally seen as a
that form.
way to
of the placemaking approach
justify
the
preservation of the
The main goal
is to provide a rich envi-
8
ronment, textured in
both
might make the nostalgic,
time and materials.
Cer-
purist approach the valid
tain aspects of the form
one to pursue.
are amplified and others
arise, however, when city
revealingly juxtaposed to
administrators, planning
new construction.
In
Problems
boards; or preservation
achieving this goal the
organizations with limited
designer has made a place
funds try to rank church
that
is
than
more exciting
buildings according to
the old building preserved
their architectural impor-
as a museum or shell and
tance.
more exciting than an
tremely hard to draw
entirely new building built
between a church worth a
on the site of the demo-
nostalgic preservation
lished historic structure.
and one which is not,
These two approaches
result
or group converting the
native is demolition.
writes
Marcus Binney
building answers the ques"Why save
is ex-
especially when the alter-
from the way the designer
tion,
The line
it?".
in "England:Loss" of the
difficulties that arise
Those who follow the
when a church
is
judged
nostalgic approach to the
by purely architectural
conversion of a church
historical standards.
building do so as a result
Buildings are judged in
of several responses to
relation to major works
the question, "Why save
of a period or an archi-
The
this urban church?".
first one might be,
"We'll
never see anything like
built again, there are
it
no
longer any craftsmen like
that around,"
or "It's
tect rather than on the
merits of the building's
quality in relation to its
surrounds or the lively
spirit introduced by a
vernacular deviation
norm;
from
or, they
the only surviving example
a stvlisti-
of... so and so major
are judged as monuments
architect."
Such resoonses
ind~eendent of their con-
9
tribution to the landscape
or streetscape.
Even
major contributions
of
the original building
when purist architectural
but certainly needn't
historical standards are
preserve the entire shell.
transcended and church
The placemaking approach
buildings are saved for
should also be followed
their value to the formal
when the answer to "Why?"
cohesiveness with or in-
is based on a realization
provided
terest
to the
of the sentimental or
immediate neighborhood or
emotional value of the
for some other less archi-
building to the neighbor-
val or academic reason,
hood.
many times the impact of
A church building is
the building in the neigh-
usually sufficiently rich
borhood is not sufficiently
and recognizable in form
analyzed or the reasons for
so as not to require
saving the building remain
preservation
too fuzzy, and the designer
order to be strongly
reverts to the nostalgic
reminiscent of the build-
approach when planning the
ing once there.
reuse of the building.
changes are made with the
If
the answer to the
intact
in
If the
proper respect and care,
question of "Why save this
the result is an enhance-
urban church?" is based on
ment of the original
some appreciation of the
building.
formal contribution of
making approach is chosen,
the church to the neighbor-
greater flexibility is
hood rather than its con-
allowed on the selection
tribution to the stylistic
of a use and the options
development of a century,
are no longer either
then the placemaking
museum-like nostalgic
approach should be followed.
preservation or demolition.
The new construction in-
When a structure is merely
volved in the reuse should
old and not historic, by
be designed to enhance the
whatever criteria
When the place-
that
is
10
decided, and the place-
ties become weaker, the
making approach is fol-
building becomes less of
lowed, the disappearance
a monument.
of ,the church can be
is merely waiting until
gradual as it fades into
the day that it is re-
the city fabric.
discovered as a church,
It
Perhaps, it
becomes part of the con-
dubbed historic and re-
tinuity of change that
novated to the condition
has been characteristic
in
of city buildings since
been for the brief moment
prehistory.
of its original dedication.
As emotional
* *
which it
might have
11
CHAPTER 2
WHY SAVE THIS EMPTY CHURCH ?
Interior and Exterior Scale
Once the approach to
rare enough in daily ex-
the adaptive reuse of a
perience that thoughtful
church building has been
consideration would make
decided to be placemaking
demolition unthinkable.
rather than preservation,
The first of these
careful analysis of the
qualities to be considered
qualities of the building
is scale.
to be preserved or enhanced
a church building is
must be made.
This analy-
sis can be described on a
generic
level and then
for a
particularized
ific
church.
level it
Experientially
usually larger than the
majority of the buildings
in its neighborhood.
spec-
.,On a generic
becomes not only
Physically a church
building is either larger
or smaller, but almost
an analysis preceding
always in contrast with,
design but also an argument
the neighboring physical
for considering abandoned
environment.
church buildings as more
a church building seeming
The case of
In
larger than its surround-
most cases, the qualities
ings and physically being
of a church building to
larger
be magnified in a conver-
is easily understandable.
sion are strong enough and
The second case where the
than white elephants.
than its
surroundings
12
'Y - it il
kl1
1-I
'VIOL
building in a major
which it leaves the visitor,
metropolitan area is
have an element of mystery.
actually smaller in floor
area and roof-height than
most
surrounding
struc-
The construction systems
with which ideal or prototypical churches were built
tures, yet is perceived as
were conceived to appear
larger and grander in
straightforward yet retain
size
than anything in the neigh-
an immeasurable dimension
borhood, is much more myster-
in their size.
ious.
Both the space itself,
and the sensations with
This becomes
more apparent when one realizes that most American
13
churches until the very late
ious happening.
Victorian era were based on
were usually housed in a
one of two models.
crypt designed with narrow
The first
The relics
of these was the Medieval
passage ways and small
and the second the Attic.
arches to recall the cata-
The late Victorians, while
combs of Rome.
still looking to these mo-
they were visible from a-
dels, also looked again to
bove, sometimes accessible
Byzantine examples of church
only from entries to pas-
buildings for inspiration.
sageways in the choir.
All three prototypes while
ambiguity of scale resulted
related chronologically in
from the combination of
sources of vocabulary are
minimal lighting, heavy
spatially distinct.
In
Sometimes
The
masonry that bespoke a much
addition to a common source
larger space than the one
for their construction tech-
that in fact it framed and
niques and ornamental
vocabu-
the contrast between the
lary, all three prototypes
tight underground burial
remain slightly mysterious
chamber and the ordered
as to scale despite compre-
ceremonial space above it
hensible construction sys-
from which one entered the
tems.
crypt and to which one reThe early medieval
churches were built of heavy
turned.
In terms of the length
masonry piers, joined, on
of time required to build
either side of the nave, in
a cathedral, early medieval
an arcade or colonnade car-
architecture progressed ra-
rying a thick clerestory
pidly to the High Gothic
wall only very tentativclv
style.
pierced with small windows.
tuosity that characterizes
Somewhere under the east
this style remains a mystery
end, under either the
even today.
choir or the crossing would
sive study with sophisticated
often be found the relics
methods such as computer mo-
of a saint or major relig-
dels and polarized photogra-
The structural vir-
Despite exten-
14
phy, the play of forces that
ser than it is to a visitor
keep the buildings standing
approaching on axis.
and roofed remains open to
doing, he makes the building
debate.
seem smaller than it is,
The master masons
In so
un-
were seemingly trying to
til the visitor is almost
negate scale and building
within the portico.
and were seeking to create
contrast between the ex-
only a new space, not a new
pected size and the actual
building, infinite and other
size makes the actual size
worldly.
seem even greater than it
The translucent
colored window wall made the
This
is.
scale visually and experientially unmeasurable.
Attic builders also
created conflicting clues as
to the size of a temple and
thus made the straightforward
post and lintel system less
simple than it appears at
first glance.
The columns
were carved to be narrower
at the top, making them seem
taller by the reinforcement
of the perspective diminution
Bernini was aware of the role
The third major pro-
of ambiguity of scale in
totype for American churches
heightening the powers of a
which began to be seen in the
building and its appropriat-
late 19th century was the
eness for a religious struc-
domed centrally planned By-
ture.
This can be seen in
zantine churches.
The buil-
his colonnade for the fore-
ders of Byzantine churches
court of St. Peter's in Rome.
delighted in structural am-
Here he applies his know-
biguities that caused a mar-
ledge of perspective to
ked difference between the
make the building seem clo-
measured size of the space
15
and the experiential size
American churches that reach
of the space.
the level
A typical
of spatial
exper-
motif that tends to make the
ience of the ideal proto-
space ambiguous is the win-
types just discussed, there
dows under the dome.
is
They
usually
some
remnant of
pierce the base of the dome,
the impulses that inspired
where it appears to be heavi-
the original in the provin-
est,
causing
the dome to ap-
cial or revivialist versions.
pear to float above the
Manifestations can be as
space.
simple as a regular rhythm
American Victorian
churches which were influ-
of pilasters that speeds up
enced by Byzantine models
at the altar, or an aesthe-
express the spatial organi-
tic that specifies dark wood-
zation of the central plan
work and a concentration of
of Byzantine
light at the chancel.
churches
multiaxial spaces.
through
The axes
It is
this level of care that makes
fan out from the altar space
the scale
towards the vestibule.
building of more impact and
The
and size
of a church
visitor's perception of the
import than the double height
sanctuary depends on the axis
polished stone lobby of a
from which he entered the
high rise office building or
space.
the glaringly bright school
Spatial surprises and
gymnasium.
Because the typ-
ambiguities as to scale are
ical church space is design-
not limited to church archi-
ed as a whole with each ele-
tecutre.
ment of the design, whether
However, carefully
conceived subtle orchestra-
ornamentation or opening re-
tions of spatial experience
ferring to and relying on
based on the senses of the
another for completeness,
visitor
the space is perceived and
are not that
common
in today's built environment.
experienced as a whole.
When they do occur,
visitor is part of the whole,
it
is
usually in church architec-
he is not just passing
ture.
through on the way tothe
Although there are few
The
elevator, or sitting in the
16
stands forbidden from walk-
herent, yet it retains enough
ing on the floor of the main
mystery to be exciting and
part of the space.
For these
reasons, even when the church
remain prominent in the memory.
building is physically smal-
Perspective effects
ler than many other spaces,
also are used to enhance the
it plays a larger role in the
scale of the elevation and
spatial memory of the visi-
massing of the church buil-
tor.
Experientially it is
a larger space;
it is suf-
ficiently ordered to be co-
SI.,...
ding.
The effect of the
non-cylindrical and slighcly
leaning columns of Attic
17
architecture, discussed in
they function as landmarks
relation to interiors, also
2
as described by Kevin Lynch.
works on the porches of
By his definition a land-
Georgian and Greek revival
mark must be unique in re-
and other Attic inspired
lation to its surroundings,
churches.
The steeple,
have a clear form and con-
with its elongated pyrami-
trast with its neighbors
dical form exaggerates the
in siting, age, or scale.
perspective effect and car-
He sees landmarks divided
ries the eye seemingly far
into two types, divided
above the surrounding struc-
according to the level of
tures.
Thus, most churches
reference at which they are
in a dense downtown urban
recognizable.
environment where they are
type of landmark guides the
dwarfed by the surrounding
newcomer.
towers of apartment blocks
dings are included in this
are important because of
group.
their illusionary
largeness.
They are also important because they are small.
Their
The first
Mainly tall buil-
Unfortunately, these
tall buildings lose their
value once the newcomer has
arrived in the correct re-
traditional religious and
gion of the city.
sentimental importance has
gree of care shown by the
allowed them to exist lon-
designer for how the typical
ger than their former smal-
tower meets the ground or
ler scale neighborhood.
responds to its neighborhood
Their relative smallness
is usually not sufficient
is important in this case
to allow the building to
because they allow a bit
have a total landmark func-
of serenity
and breathing
tion.
The de-
The typical tall
room in the streetscape.
building lacks the qualities
They also allow a bit of
necessary to be recognizable
light into a canyon floor-
at any except the long dis-
like street.
tance level of reference.
Because of this contrast with their surrounds,
Depending on the density of
the towers, a church can
18
frequently belong to but not
belong in this group.
be limited to this group.
playing this dual role in
Lynch calls the second group
the imageability of the en-
of landmarks local landmarks
vironment,
This group includes those
sized in relation to the less
buildings with a variation
memorable buildings of their
in setback in relation to
reigon on perceptual maps
their neighbors, a more com-
drawn by artistically naive
prehensible variation in
respondants.
height,
radox:
or a more memorable
display of craftsmanship or
In
they are over-
Thus, the pa-
in smallness there
is largeness.
Most churches also
care.
Rhythm and Organization of the City
The contrast
this in three ways: by in-
in scale between a church
troducing punctuation marks
building and its neighbors
in residential neighborhoods,
also plays a more formal
by providing a critical mass
Be-
role in the cityscape.
which can impart dignity to
sides helping to make a
a town common or major street
city or town comprehensible
intersection or by providing
the siting of church buil-
a radial hierarchy to a town
dings often plays a major
plan clearly
role
in
making a
mally satisfying.
city
for-
They do
ter.
marking the cen-
The Back Bay of Boston
is a good example of the
19
first case,
the town of Cam-
Commonwealth Avenue was
bridge can demonstrate the
Baron Haussmann's Parisian
second, and the medieval
boulevards.
cathedral towns of Florence,
too, looked to the current
Strasbourg or Vienna are
French mode until the mid-
examples of the third case.
1870s.
Douglas Tucci
3
in Built
The houses,
While the infatua-
tion with the French Empire
in Boston emphasizes the
style for residential arch-
French Academic influence
itecture lasted only about
on the urban design of the
20 years and then returned to
Back Bay.
simple eclecticism, the Vic-
The model for
20
'K
^
Ail& *'A. '09. A-,V-
.1129;
*
- I!WM"
MORT- 74
;1
Y
1
_
STRAM571f
_
_
_
u
torian love of the pictu-
dential rows punctuated at
resque that had begun in the
alternating street corners
1840s remained strong in
with massive picturesque
church architecture through-
Gothic ecclesiastic struc-
out this period.
tures.
The result, in the early
This pattern of re-
latively homogeneous hori-
sections of the Back Bay, is
a very pleasing rhythmic di-
zontal rows of houses lifted
vision of the Back Bay street-
stopped at street corners
scape into classical, French
by the mass of a picturesque
Empire style mansarded resi-
Gothic church which rests
3/4 stories off the ground,
21
The public
on a base only a few steps
scape instead.
above the street but whose
architecture, too, contrasted
spire reaches majestically
with that of Beacon Hill.
to the sky, is also seen
Where Beacon Hill builders
in an earlier form in the
had sought to achieve order
more pleasant sections of
and quiet elegance, Back Bay
Charlestown, East Boston,
builders looked to diverse
South Boston, and the South
exotic styles.
The assymetry of the
End.
Mumford
praises Beacon Hill for the
massing and the off axis
townhouses which maintain a
tower responds not only to
uniform subdued scale that
the stylistic trends of the
is punctuated by elegant
century in which it was
structures of public impor-
built, but also fulfills
tance such as
an important formal need.
churches which were built at
These picturesque churches
a grander scale.
give scale to what could
nately, Mumford is right for
be monotonous rows of busy
the majority of the Back Bay.
dwellings and
residential
the spired
Unfortu-
In the later sections of the
grandly solves the problem
Back Bay, the pivotal role
of the direction change that
formerly played by the asym-
occurs when a row house meets
metric
a cross street.
corner mansions.
Lewis Mumford4 writes
in his
introduction to Back
Bay Boston:
Work of Art,
The City as a
that
the de-
churches
fell to large
This solu-
tion was not as successful
because of the unavoidable
residential scale.
The second type of ur-
signers of the residential
ban organization in which
architecture of the Back
church buildings play a ma-
Bay, in trying to design
jor role is that of the New
houses more sophisticated
England Town Common.
and individualized than the
town common has its origins
provincial bow fronts of
as meetinghouse lot.5
Beacon Hill, developed a
meetinghouse was the center
fussy and pompous street-
of local activity.
The
The
Since
22
the members of the religious
came complex enough to re-
society were usually a ma-
quire a
jor portion of, if not the
it
entire, town population,
it near its original home
the meetinghouse was com-
in
monly used for both reli-
separate
building,
was reasonable to build
the meetinghouse.
When the town became
gious and civic gatherings.
more cosmopolitan and re-
Sunday services usually
ligious differences devel-
lasted all day with a break
oped the new church was also
at noon, and the meeting-
built on the original lot,
houses were not heated.
because all of the citizens
Taverns soon were built near
felt that they had rights to
the meetinghouse to provide
it.
a place to eat and warm up
dern New England towns is
during the noon recess. Ta-
to find the churches stand-
verns were also the natural
ing just across the street
places for stage coach stops,
form the common.
and thus, the commerical
on which the church build-
center
ings stand were usually part
of town grew up a-
A usual pattern in mo-
The
sites
round the common and the
of the common.
meetinghouse.
one time been a simple foot-
When the func-
tions of town government be-
What had at
ground path has become a
23
city street; and the property along the way to the
church has become prime commercial property.
As towns grew and travel
to the original church on
the common became impractical
or splinter church denominations came into conflict new
churches were built on sites
elsewhere
in town.
Usually,
in order to preserve their
status or to provide a place
characterizes the whole
to bury their dead, the buil-
town as a fortified market,
dings were sited to provide
to which
a green space reminiscent of
brought their
the common.
sale.
In many modern
farming peasants
goods for
Unlike the Roman
towns this green space, when
colonial town which had
it hasn't been sold for sor-
been
ely needed income or turned
open square in the middle
into a parking lot, is an
which was the marketplace,
important oasis of cool and
the medieval town developed
green in a densely populated
open air markets surrounding
area.
the gates of the city.
If the church is not
characterized by an
This
preserved, neither is the
was as
green space.
needed to travel to benefit
Howard Saalman6 de-
far as
the farmer
from the protection of the
scribes the third type of
walls and the concentrated
urban development in which
population.
the church building plays
goods just outside the gates,
a major formal role.
He
If he sold his
he avoided taxes.
The cath-
describes the walled me-
edral took the center posi-
dieval town which many co-
tion in the town with smal-
lonial American towns
fol-
ler churches for the neigh-
lowed as prototypes.
He
borhoods squeezed between
24
ARGENTINA.
the streets leading from the
center
of town to the gates.
There was usually a small
open space, the close,
a-
as not to waste any valuable
street frontage.
Modern American cities
are a combination, with num-
round the choir or to one
erous variations, of these
side of the cathedral, but
three models of city organi-
the main facade was usually
zation.
directly on the street with
Bay, neighborhoods within
tiny houses and shops clu-
a city often follow varying
stering densely about it so
forms of organization leading
As with the Back
25
to a richly patterned city.
When a church building plays
a less pivotal role in the
organization of the city it
at least introduces an accent
or pausing place in the sweep
of the predominant directional forms. To be important
in the formal delight of the
city the church building need
not only be a monument or
two sided corner building.
It can provide excitement
by being a larger scaled
segment of the urban wall
or a provider of green space
in a densely populated section
Many pleasant neighbor-
hoods have been injured by
modern architects building
as if every building was a
punctuation mark.
Once co-
hesive streets often look
like a string of deleted
expletives.
The number and
distribution of church buil-
dings in a city; however, is
usually determined by the
neighborhood population size
and the minimum size for a
congregation.
Thus, the
frequency of urban churches
as monuments does not impede
the development of syntax.
of the city. When a church
building is not an exclamation point it is at least
a comma.
Protected Public Space
The church has
or public space in the city.
a long tradition of being
For more than three centur-
public space.
ies, St. Paul's Cathedral
Nolli in
his map of Rome of 1748
in London fulfilled the
hatches private buildings
function of public space.
but uses the plan of the
Judging by published com-
building to indicate a
plaints, mostly from bishops
church.
He leaves the in-
and the like, the contem-
terior of the building un-
plative quality of the space
shaded, symbolically equa-
sometimes suffered due to
ting it with the other open
its popularity as a meeting
26
0~I
W-
D~
NOMM 71-
place.
J.G. Davies8 de-
scribes it as a "promenade,
Great Fire of London, al-
a popular resort for London
though it destroyed the
building, did not destroy
men about town to swap gos-
the tradition.
sip and generally pass the
years after the fire, when
time in social intercourse,
although this on occasion
Christopher Wren's new St.
could involve open quarrels."
cathedral once again became
Promenading in
St. Paul's
Over thirty
Paul's was opened, the new
a promenade.
There is evi-
had become such an established
dence that promenading regu-
tradition that not even the
larly in the local cathedral
27
to-St.
was not limited
However,
late
it
ended in
Paul's.
the
19th century when the
servation approach to reuse.
In this approach, adequate
legal methods have been de-
Ecclesiologists campaigned
veloped so that the exterior
to elaborate the ritual of
of an historic building can
worship and to regard chur-
be considered virtually pub-
ches as sacred shrines.
lic property and is usually
Today's city needs
more places with the characattributed
Nolli
teristics
to 18th century Roman churches,
spaces somewhat akin
required to be preserved intact.
The nature of a church
space is such that, while
legally the building is
owned by a private entity,
to a Hyatt Regency lobby,
it is traditionally a public
only fully public where all
interior as well as exterior.
are admitted.
If the church
The conclusion that leads
were converted to another
from acceptance of this te-
use that brought people all
net is not that the interior
day, a fuller publicness of
should be preserved intact
the building could be en-
as publicly controlled ex-
couraged.
The space could
teriors currently are.
The
be converted to being a
type of conclusion that
sheltered place from which
should follow instead is
to watch the world go by
that an appropriate use,
while chatting with cronies
other considerations being
or to pass through like a
equal,
protected alley,
while main-
should be one that
preserves the public quality
taining a vestige of its
of the space or one that
former role as a place to
keeps at least some part of
stop for quiet as an escape
the building open to the
from the rush of the busy
public with a use that is
street.
complementary to both the
Because of the traditional publicness of a church
interior, it is difficult
to justify the standard pre-
general public and the other
users of the building.
28
Craftsmanship and Care
One of the most valu-
uable amenities
for every-
Some of the amen-
able aspects of an old
day life.
building as seen by Kevin
ities Lynch lists include:
Lynch9 is the extremely
rich form that adjusts easi-
high cost of replacing the
ly to a more intimate scale
structure with anything of
and becomes even more complex
nearly equivalent quality.
when a new use pattern is
Often certain features of
overlaid on the existing
the facility
form, and attention to de-
are
irrepro-
ducible because of the loss
tail that shows someone real-
of the skill of technical
ly cared.
ability through disuse,
Donlyn Lyndon10 writes
or because the materials
of the importance of the ex-
are unobtainable.
In the
hibition of care in the built
case of church buildings,
environment and of the impor-
skill and care were often
tance of pride of place.
lavished upon them as phy-
fortunately, he notes, the
sical embodiments of reli-
same delicate, finely wrought
gious devotion.
details of construction and
Theology is changing
Un-
craftmanship that are so po-
and even active congregations
werful in
are frequen'tly seeing their
place are also
monumental buildings as gree-
ements
dy tyrants requiring funds
priorities change.
for expensive upkeep that
to reestablish the message
could be used for program or
of pride in the neighborhood
stewardship budgets.
or place, once neglect and
Even
creating pride of
the first
el-
to show neglect when
One way
if the craftmanship and pride
inattention have taken hold,
exhibited in the richness
is to convert the building
of an old church building
to a new use and in so doing
have less
renew its specially prized
of a
role
in
wor-
ship and the established
features; not to demolish
church, they still are val-
and replace it.
Demolition
29
Tflioctuer ttlou art, if tIou erehet
to extol t{e glorg of tflere boors,
A3iaruel not at tIe golb anb tIer expene but at tfl
craftsmaneliip of tie fuork
itright is ttr nobIe
fuorh; but bring nobIg brig{1 t,
u rmso13at li
mag tra0l...
,vbbot
at it. PieniS
fugrr
ca. 1130
only serves to reinforce the
eral generations offer com-
message of inferiority of
plex evidence of the people
place.
who have.. .worked on the
"Buildings that in-
corporate the work of sev-
site."
30
Framework for the Present
As so many writers have
its surroundings, but for
expressed it. without a past
its place in the history of
there is no present and the
a stylistic or political con-
future
tinuum with the
is seriously at risk.
Marcel Proust11 writes
in
assumption
that progress has gone be-
Remembrance of Things Past,
yond the time represented
"Reality takes place only
by the building, then it has
through memory."
become history, not the past.
Modern
cities without memories of
In
or clues of their past to
the past is something exper-
present to the newcomer,
ienced simultaneously with
or that lack respect for
the present.
the memories of the long
ienced with the other and
term resident never become
the separation in experien-
As Pierre Schneider
places.
a rich
built
environment
Each
is exper-
tial terms is only hazily
Victor Hugo 1
has written in "Converting
discernible.
the Past,"
wrote in describing the
"The present
3
provides the urban language's
beauty of Paris that the past
surface;
and the present exist "like
the past its den-
sity and depth.
The past
12
the old
must maintain
text between the
lines of the new."
When a building becomes
the proper relationship with
the present so that the depth
a museum, a tourist attrac-
of experience provided by a
tion, a status symbol or ob-
sense of the past does not
ject of cultural
destroy the liveliness of
it has become part of histo-
the present or vice versa.
ry.
The best way for this to
converted to a new use,
happen is never to let a
the structures of a new time
building become part of his-
have been
tory.
When a building be-
comes venerated not for its
spatial qualities,
crafts-
manship', or relationship to
reverence,
When a building has been
laid
when
on or around it
so as not to subjugate either
the past or the present and
the characteristics of each
are enhanced by juxtaposi-
31
tion to the other, then
ted building has the poten-
both the poetry and the
tial for being poetry.
logic of a satisfying en-
converted building, in its
vironment are alive and the
layering of past and present
past can be seen as part of
is like poetry in that it
Victor Hugo14
"cultivates multiplicity,
the present.
A
continues, "What strange
and polyphonic illogic" which
events,
lets the imagination loose
sometimes accumula-
ted with the incoherence
to create a personal inter-
of reality, from which you
pretation of the place.
are free to draw reflection."
Pierre Schniederl5 lik-
16
Charles Jencks,
writ-
ing in Adhocism, advocates
ens the result of the adap-
an architecture that makes
tive reuse of a building
visible the complex workings
such as a church building,
of the environment by com-
which has
bining diverse
so many integral
elements symbolic of its
former use,. to poetry.
ad hoc.
The
subsystems
In the case of a-
daptive reuse this allows
energy and magic of the a-
the designer to express the
daptive reuse of a church
previous history of a buil-
building
ding and results in an en-
comes partly
the removal
from
of blinders
that
vironment as formally rich
results when a new use re-
and varied as urban life.
veals formal characteristics
Jencks concurs with the o-
that
ther writers included in
were
formerly
It also comes
ignored.
from the con-
this discussion that when
trast of the new use with
the history of a place is
the memories, either exper-
articulated, both the mind
iential or connotative, of
and eye are pleased and the
the old one.
While a new
experience is of a higher
building is often just prose,
order than either system a-
even sometimes very beauti-
lone, either old building as
ful prose, in that it is a
a museum or new construction
without temporal context.
logical censoring of reality
to a linear order, a conver-
Stanley Abercrombie 1 7
32
in introducing a feature
He continues:
"...
it
is
often
when
the old and new uses
in Architecture Plus on
"recycling" has summarized
it very well.
"...it
of a converted building are most disparate,
He writes:
when the juxtapositions
between past and present
is clear that
abandoned form may
have details and vo-
are most surprising
that the result
best."
lume no new construc-
tion could afford to
duplicate; as a planning aid, it may contribute an inimitable
personality to its
neighborhood."
is
In the chapter that follows
we will discuss these juxtapositions of old and new
uses.
33
CHAPTER 3
WHAT DO WE DO WITH
IT?
While there seem to be
a list of possible alternative uses
for a church buil-
ding that will be acceptable
to almost everyone,
before
structural or spatial conare not signifi-
siderations
cantly limiting.
Churches
have had uses as divergent
as a furniture warehouse and
considering any one of them,
a single family house, or
the goal of, or reason for,
as antithetical as a dis-
the adaptation should be
count carpet store and an
established.
If the reasons
for saving a particular
art gallery or a car showroom and a library.
In the summer of 1976
church building are expressed
frankly, then the imaginations
of those
involved in
the Victoria and Albert
Museum in London mounted an
exhibit
building can be set free to
Decay:
discover a new use not con-
churches."
sidered in
previous efforts.
"Change
entitled
planning the future of the
and
the future of our
In a chapter en-
titled "New Uses for Chur-
It is the standards of the
ches" from a book published
community and the motives of
to accompany that exhibit,
the promoters of the project
Patrick Brown
that will determine an ap-
three major reasons
propriate use for an unused
ing a church building for
church building.
Purely
other uses:
18
describes
for sav-
They should
0
93
"aH
H
L
Sm
be reused to prevent the
of redesign,
waste of design skills,
the new use, necessary to
energies, and resources al-
achieve any of the three
ready invested in the buil-
goals just listed, is to
dings; they should be saved
keep alterations to the out-
because they are elements of
side of the building to a
value in the townscape; and
minimum.
because they are the focal
changes to the inside of the
points of community memories.
building should be made, he
Unfortunately, Brown sees
feels, only when major struc-
that the first criterion
tural changes are the only
regardless of
Major spatial
35
take an abandoned non-conformist meeting hall
...
a new floor above for a showroom and
offices ...
add a new back staircase connecting to ...
way that can be found to in-
In New Uses for Old
corporate a use that will
Buildings Sherban Cantacuzi-
prevent the building from be-
no19 sets the preservation
ing destroyed.
of both the form and the
Using such
renovation criteria, Profes-
spirit of a church as the
sor Brown suggests that the
main goal for the reuse of
most appropriate new uses
a church building.
for a church building are
he feels that the ritual of
concert and recital halls,
a dining hall is more ap-
museums and display galler-
propriately housed in
ies.
church building than the ran-
Thus,
a
36
that charac-
goal, he does introduce the
terize the use of a museum.
concept of the preservation
The rituals of concert-going
of the spirit of the buil-
and the quiet contemplation
ding.
that characterize the use of
pose of the church building
a library are both appro-
and its congregation was to
dom wanderings
priate.
When no uses are
If the original pur-
serve as a tool for ministry
feasible that will preserve
to the community then per-
the spirit of the building,
haps a major reason for sav-
Cantacuzino 'feels that use
ing a church building is of-
by people is preferable to
ten an attempt to preserve
use by things.
By these
criteria, use as a drill
hall or gym is
more appro-
some aspect of this ministry.
If
preservation
of the spi-
rit or the ministry of the
priate than use as a furni-
building is the main reason
ture warehouse.
for finding an alternative
However,
when the planning process
use for the building, then
presents the options of
a new list of uses can be
extensive formal alteration
introduced as possibilities.
and use by people or formal
If the goal of the re-
preservation and use by
use of a church is service
things, Cantacuzino finds
to the community and the
formal preservation and
preservation of a community
use by things more appropri-
ministry, then the spatial
ate.
Thus he finds use as
or formal preservation may
a furniture warehouse more
have very little importance,
appropriate than the major
symbolic issues may become
spatial alterations neces-
far more complex, and the
sary to turn a church into
array of possible uses ex-
a dormitory.
pands considerably.
Although Cantacuzino
Uses
that could be considered
ultimately sees the preser-
when working to achieve the
vation of the building or
goal of community ministry
the form as the most immu-
include clinics or community
table aspect of his two part
health care centers, semi-
37
communal living facilities
called a hospice was founded
such as half-way houses and
in a monastery to minister
apartments for the elderly,
to the sick travellers pas-
community activity centers
sing through the valley
and sports centers.
Each
towards Marseilles.
The
of these uses, while poten-
form of the building that
tially more destructive to
housed the hospice is of
the pure formal character-
interest in the context of
istics of a church building,
this investigation.
are compatible to the spirit
parish church, the hospice
and traditions of the Chris-
had a central nave, two
tian church.
flanking aisles, and a chan-
In medieval times the
cel at
the east
end.
Like a
The
great pilgrimage churches
beds were arranged in the
of Europe frequently filled
bays of the aisles so that
the secondary function of
a simple turn of the head
hospitals.
focussed the patient's at-
Travelers, who
often had started their pil-
tention on the altar in the
grimage to seek a cure for
chancel.
a serious illness, occasion-
The more relevant infor-
ally became too ill to con-
mation to this discussion,
tinue and the church became
however, is Bruno Bettle-
the place to stay.
Sleep
heim's22 description of the
near the relics and shrines
characteristics of the image
was considered beneficial
of a health care institution.
and many miraculous cures
He writes that the building
are reported as a result
should be large enough not
of an extended stay in
a
to appear confining, yet
church.20 Viollet-le-Duc
small enough not to be over-
writes of the value of the
powering.
use of altars as a thera-
tain a certain separateness
peutic tool.21 In the 15th
or individuality yet fit
century in Beaune, a French
harmoniously into the neigh-
village in the Soane valley
borhood.
of Burgundy, an institution
dy and substantial yet com-
It should main-
It should be stur-
38
fortable.
It should bespeak
grace and be aesthetically
appealing.
Its elevation
and.Bruno Bettleheim.
The custom of fleeing,
to the church upon commit-
should explain its form and
ting a crime was well esta-
organization.
blished in the middle ages.
Above
all
the
building must have dignity.
Abbot Suger23 of St. Denis
If this dignity is time tes-
saw it as such an integral
ted, so much the better.
part of the function of a
What better structure fits
church that he mentioned it
such a description than a
in a dedication to the pa-
church building in need of
tron saints.
a new use?
the verse he had inscribed
It is the responsibility of the conversion de-
Included in
on the tombs of the patron
saints are the lines:
signer to insure that these
This place exists as an
qualities of a church buil-
outstanding asylum for
ding are enhanced, or at
least preserved in the
course of the conversion to
a health center.
It is al-
those whom come;
Here is a safe refuge
for the accused, where
the avenger is powerless
against them.
By the late 13th century the
so the responsibility of the
practice of seeking sanctuary
group writing the program
in a church became so common
to realize that the physical
that Edward I found it nec-
space of a health center can
essary to regulate it.
provide more than waiting
ordered that sheriffs be
rooms,
placed on watch at a church
labs, examination
He
cubicles and doctors' offi-
when an accused felon was
ces.
hiding out there, in order
In converting a church
building to a health care
to prevent his
center, a wonderful oppor-
an investigation had deter-
tunity exists to create a
mined his guilt.
therapeutic tool analagous
son was judged guilty,
to that envisioned by think-
was allowed to live in the
ers as disparate in their
church for forty days before
approaches as Viollet-le-Duc
being escorted into exile.
escape before
If the perhe
39
If after forty days the cri-
ture as unique as a conver-
minal did not come out, it
became a felony for anyone
ted church could make such
separation a positive, some-
to bring him food or water.2 4
what grand thing.
While churches are no
However,
longer able to grant sanc-
in the case of halfway houses
for formerly institutiona--
tuary to convicted felons,
lized mental patients, re-
symbolically they still could
represent benign and forgi-
tarded adults or drug addicts,
a reused church with its
ving forces in the world.
landmark quality would be
With
somewhat less appropriate.
this
idea
in
mind the
reuse of a church as a halfway house
for prisoners
soon
In addition to the conceptual appeal,
there are
to be paroled or on work
several use possibilities in
release would be another
halfway housing and apart-
way of perserving
the spirit
of the ministry of the
When this proposed
church.
ments for the elderly that
make them have
appeal as well.
some
formal
These op-
use is studied less liter-
portunities for formal in-
ally and symbolically the
terest occur in the possi-
problems on a psycho-
bility of maintaining a
sociological level become
small chapel using the ori-
apparent.
Such a use would
ginal space with a different
require careful thought from
set of proportions or in the
the viewpoint of the priso-
possibility of designing
ners.
Because of the al-
multi-purpose rooms that
leged character of the in-
could be finer than anything
mates, halfway houses for
that could be found in a
prisoners are rarely in-
building built from scratch.
tegrated into community
Unfortunately, in order to
life,
anyway,
and thus a
preserve some of the spatial
house that stood out so
qualities of the place, par-
magnificently would not
ticularly the multi-storied
be as problematic
windows, multi-leveled apar-
be imagined.
as might
Using a struc-
ments would have to be
de-
I
40
signed.
Such apartment de-
istry.
The ideal multi-
signs are not compatible
residential conversion would
with elderly housing.
include both dramatic pri-
In the case of elderly
housing, three factors would
vate spaces and grand public spaces.
have to be weighed before
The only argument that
the appropriateness could
can be made for the conver-
be decided.
sion of a church building
The possibili-
ty for the achievement of
to private market rate
exciting congregate spaces
housing is a formal one.
must be weighed against the
There are possibilities for
drastic slicing of the re-
exciting juxtapositions of
maining space necessary to
scale and intriguing pre-
provide comfortable
sentations of formal elements
single
level units for the elderly
such as the springing points
residents and the possible
vaults or column capitals in
formal loss must be weighed
a new setting.
against the possible con-
version is not done well,
ceptual gain of preserving
it is a multiple disaster in
the ministry of the church
that the space has been de-
by providing for an impor-
stroyed with nothing compa-
tant
neighborhood need.
rable to replace it, and the
If standard market
opportunity to use
If the con-
it for a
housing is considered, ex-
more conceptually appropri-
citing multi-level vertical
ate use is lost.
spaces centered on beauti-
done well, it could be more
fully detailed windows and
spatially
non-orthogonal spaces can
of the more appropriate uses
be achieved;
discussed thus
however, the
possibility for any public
If it is
exciting
than any
far.
Unlike the previous
spaces of a larger scale
uses discussed, the term
will probably be eliminated
"community center"
as well as the possibility
many things.
of expressing the spirit
to envision the use of a
of the church's former min-
church as a community cen-
can mean
The best way
41
ter
is
to list
some of the
space in the former chancel
uses to which churches have
and lectures and volunteer
been put.
sessions in the former nave.
They are each
seen as a way to strengthen
Another example is a rural
a sense of community by
church being used as an ad-
bringing amenities into its
junct classroom with labora-
midst.
tory and lecture space for
Such community
strengthening can be seen
continuing education courses.
as an appropriate way to
The use of a church as
preserve the spirit of the
a community center can be
church.
remarkably easy and need not
In
York,
England,
the
even be an alternative use.
former St. Sampson's was a
Instead it can be an expanded
Gothic revival building with
use.
stone piers and arches and
times, before the acceptance
a roof of wooden trusses.
of Christianity as a state
It has been converted into
religion by Constantine and
a day center for the elder-
the adoption of the basilica
ly.
form as a symbol of official
A major portion of the
In early Christian
main nave space has been
approval, churches were mere-
left spatially intact with
ly modified houses designed
only areas of carpeting,
to serve the needs of the
clusters of chairs, and
Christian community and com-
track lighting added to pro-
posed of several inter-rela-
vide a more intimate dimen-
ted non-hierarchical spaces.
sion to the hall-like space.
It is beyond the scope of
Secondary spaces have been
this investigation to dis-
built that are independent
cuss the numerous renovations
of the original structure
of church spaces by congrega-
and could be easily removed
tions expanding their mini-
without harming the original
stry and inviting a broader
There are also examples
section of the community to
in England of smaller chur-
share their space.
ches being used as Red Cross
of these types of altera-
headquarters, with office
tions is too long and the
The list
42
entrance
process
is
usually
an evolu-
ble with the physical form
tionary one, where the pro-
of the typical church buil-
blem to be solved is only
ding.
very secondarily architectu-
and smells associated with
ral.
such a use, it could also
The use of a converted
Despite the noise
be seen as an extension of
church building as a gymna-
the ministry of the church.
sium or sports center is
The typical church space
another possible definition
is usually high, and the
of "community center."
Such
a use seems highly compati-
main nave column-free.
While the size may not be
43
adequate for a full
basket-
current example of reactions
ball court, a half court,
to this problem is the re-
volleyball, dance classes
fusal of the Anglican church
or gymnastics could easily
to allow conversions of
be accommodated.
churches to mosques or Maso-
A gallar-
ied church would provide
nic temples.
wonderful spectator space,
ministering board, however,
and the vestry and other
has been very willing to
support spaces, with some
allow symphony orchestras
new plumbing added, could
to take the place of the
become locker rooms and
altar on the dias
equipment storage spaces.
sentially unaltered sanct-
Because the conversion
uary.
would require so little
holiness in beauty.
The same ad-
in an es-
Perhaps there
is
structural change, special
If one accepts the a-
attention would have to be
bility to reason as one of
given to alteration
the higher faculties of man-
of the
image the building presents
kind and sees the progres-
to the general public.
sion of the increasingly
Perhaps the most diffi-
secularized world as a
cult goal to achieve in con-
growth beyond a reliance on
verting a church to secular
metaphysics to provide an
use is in fact the preserva-
oversimplified view of life,
tion of both the spirit and
as a growth toward the per-
form of the church building.
fection of the powers of
In reaching for this goal,
logical investigation and
it seems too easy to parody
reason, then perhaps the
the former use of the buil-
use of Notre Dame as a tem-
ding, to replace the pre-
ple of the Cult of Reason
vious focus of veneration
during the French Revolu-
with one much more material-
tion, seems an appropriate
istic
reuse of a church building.
and mundane or one thai
is viewed by its similarity
The Bishop of Paris resigned
to Christian worship as com-
and was replaced under the
petition or anti-church.
A
baldachino by an actress
44
arrayed as the goddess of
as preferable to its demo-
Reason.
lition and the resulting
Children were bap-
tized into the cult and
loss of either an histori-
great ritual dances proceed-
cally valuable artifact or
ed around the nave.
a pleasing country vista or
a conversion
left
Such
the form
both.
He describes several
untouched and captured the
such church to house conver-
spirit of the building as
sions where the use of the
Sherban Cantacuzino seems
nave as a central studio
to have defined it.
space with the chancel and
The
extreme nature of this ex-
galleries altered to provide
ample sets the issue of pa-
the more private spaces.
rody and symbolic insertion
Sherban Cantacuzino, on the
into
other hand, is firmly oppo-
relief.
The question
remains, however, as to
sed to conversion
where the line of appropri-
into a private home.
ateness is to be drawn in
writes that such a conver-
the continuum between use
sion would "alter, radically
of the aspe as a stage for
and irreversibly, the spirit,
a symphony orchestra and the
form and character of the
replacement of the bishop by
interior space and so of
the goddess of Reason.
everything that would spell
It
is a question that can only
of a church
He
'church'." 27
be resolved on a case-by-
In a literal sense,
case basis by some sort of
the conversion of a church
dialogue within the communi-
to a single family home
ty involved.
should perhaps be more ac-
Patrick Brown26 reports
curately labeled a rever-
frequent community opposition
sion.
to the conversion of a small
previously, the earliest
church to a single family
Christian churches were sin-
house.
gle family homes.
Although he can un-
As has been mentioned
This iro-
derstand the resistance, he
ny is only preceived on an
sees such a conversion of a
intellectual and not on an
picturesque country church
experiential
level and thus
45
the conversion of something
once communal and public to
the most private of domains
seems inappropriate. Spati-
hoc experimentation.
ally, and formally, however,
the proposal remains viable
and attractive. If an effort is made to alter or e-
tionships.
rase enough of the exterior
elements that spell church,
then the alteration of the
interior becomes a personal
issue.and not within the
realm of community consensus.
Because all possibilities for public accommodation
are denied when a church is
converted to a single family
house, Professor Brown is
right, it should only be an
acceptable alternative when
the only other is demolition
and replacement by a new
however, the
structure. If,
goal in church conversion is
less the preservation of the
urban, public environment
and more the development of
unique and spectacular interior spaces then perhaps conversion of a church to a
house is appropriate. In
single family house design,
there is more room for ad
The
character of the church could
be changed through the discovery of new spatial relaThe result could
be less ambiguity of message then we have seen in
any of the uses already
discussed.
46
William Wordsworth 2 8
He says it much more beau-
suggests the final option
tifully, and with more re-
for reusing a church buil-
morse:
ding so that it remains an
urban amenity,
exciting,
formally
and so that some
of the essence of its original use survives.
Al-
Well have yon Railway
Labourers to this
ground
Withdrawn
rest.
walk
for noontide
They sit, they
Among the Ruins...
Others, look up,and
though not in so many words,
with fixed eyes admire
he suggests selective and
That wide spawned arch,
wondering how it was
sensitive demolition, creative landfill and picturesque
plantings,
so that the old
church building might become a vest pocket park.
raised,
To keep,
so high in air,
its strength and grace.
And by the general
reverence
praised.
God is
Profane Despoilers,
stand ye not reproved,
While thus these simple
hearted men are moved?
* *
47
CHAPTER 4
BUT, IT JUST LOOKS LIKE AN OLD CHURCH!
In dealing with the sym-
cond type of symbolic element
bolic elements of a church
gains its meaning by acting
building, one must realize
through the memory or intel-
that some of the most power-
lect.
Rudolph Arnheim29 labels
ful elements of a church
building are those that are
the first
its
as sensory symbolism or
most symbolic.
This makes
type of symbolism
it very difficult to alter
heightened expressive quali-
the symbolic quality or im-
ties.
age of a church building with-
symbolism are those which
out stripping the church of
could be expected to cause
much of its
a similar emotion or reaction
special quality.
Elements of sensory
In approaching the problem
in individuals of dissimiliar
of changing the image of a
cultural backgrounds.
church so that it reads as
heim feels that the more
a new building type, one can
symbolic a building is, i.e.
start by an analysis of the
the more metaphoric it is in
building that separates sym-
expressing elementary non-
bolic elements into two types.
physical properties, the
The first
more successful it is as a
of these would be
Arn-
symbolic elements that gain
work of architecture.
their meaning by acting
a work of architecture tran-
through the senses.
scends mere intellectual
The se-
When
48
or literal symbolism and is
able to express the more elemental aspects of human experience, it remains valid
and worth saving despite
changes in doctrine or philosophy that make more conven-
tional symbols quickly irrelevant.
As an example
of
sensory symbolism, Arnheim
describes morning light falling through the choir windows
edral or chapel read as such
onto the altar as symbolizing
to the passerby.
enlightenment and blessing,
on the purely sensory or cross
regardless of religious be-
cultural level, with its cen-
lief or cultural background.
tric symmetry and jewel-like
Further examples of the
However,
colors, it is a symbol of un-
generic or sensory quality of
disturbed concentration or
elements in church design are
meditation.
the rose window and the dome.
ral counterparts are seen in
The dome, at a level of mean-
such meditation aids as the
ing which is dependent on a
mandala.
specific cultural background
could represent Heaven.
How-
ever, the dome is just as powerful
on a more elemental
or
Its cross-cultu-
The rose window also
serves as an excellent example of the dilemma that results in a church conversion
sensory level where it repre-
when dealing with many ele-
sents the heavens or sky, re-
ments of a church that are
gardless of cultural back-
symbolic on an intellectual
ground.
The rose window dis-
plays the same duality of
meaning.
level
On an intellectual
of symbolism,
the rose
or cultural
level.
Many of
the elements of a church
building which were originally used in church design
window is clearly a major ele-
because of the generic or
ment that makes 'a Gothic cath-
sensory quality of their
49
symbolism have become,
ther than being obliterated.
through repeated use in chur-
"The familiar that is a lit-
ches,
tle off has a strange and
important elements
that cause the church to be
read as a church.
Thus,
when conversion architects
are confronted with what
Robert Venturi30 has called
the image of a building and
must alter it, they will not
find a clear division between
elements of sensory'symbolism
and those of purely literal
or intellectual symbolic message.
Robert Venturi3l deals
with the question
of image
and the intellectual level
of symbolism and sees it to
be as important an element
of total building design as
Rudolph Arnheim sees sensory
symbolism to be.
Venturi
points out the richness that
can result when conventional
intellectual level symbols
are added to or juxtaposed
in an unusual fashion.
Fol-
lowing his proposals, it is
easy to imagine the possibilities for image alteration
in a church conversion when
symbolic elements are given
a new context or placed in
a new scale relationship ra-
revealing power."
50
Elements of Image and Their Modification
The Roman basilica is
rives from the basilica form
described by Richard Krau-
in accordance with a new se-
theimer32 as
cular use,
simply an assem-
changing the major
bly or meeting hall which had
axis would have a signifi-
a variety of uses.
cant effect.
It was
The establish-
characterized by an oblong
ment of an alternate predomi-
plan,
nant elevation, entrance,
topped by a timber roof
and ending with a rectangular
or apsoidal tribunal.
Its
name would then be modified
accordinq to its use.
movement pattern and thus axis
would totally
alter
tial sensation and perception
of the building.
A
the spa-
The basili-
Christian basilica was label-
ca form would no longer be
ed "basilica id est dominicum,
seen as a long space framed
i.e.,
an assembly hall that
eye swiftly to the focus
is a house of the Lord.
Bruno Zevi
33
with columns that carry the
maintains that
of the altar.
Instead, when
while imperial basilicas are
entered from the side, the
known which had entries sole-
typical tripartite plan of
ly at one end, a second type
aisle, nave, aisle, could
with a grand entry on the
be experienced as
long side and various combi-
colonnade, and stalls.
nations of axes was far more
approached from the long side,
common.
He then points out
foyer, grand
When
the long nave would be seen
that the Christian basilica
as a collection of bays which
always had a longitudinal
could function more indepen-
axis and was designed for
dently than the same bays
movement.
The space directed
an individual's movement
in
accordance with the requirements of the ritual.
It can be easily be seen
then, that if one wishes to
alter
the symbolism and image
of a church building that de-
when first experienced as a
secondary element to the total spatial focus.
When the Puritans came
to New England seeking to
establish a new theocracy,
one of their most symbolic
acts of reaction against the
51
Anglican church was to reject the Gothic basilica form
The vestibule and stairways
to the galleries usually oc-
with its longitudinal axis,
cupied the added longitudi-
and to build instead meeting-
nal bays so that the audito-
houses which were rather
rium space itself remained
square in plan or had their
almost square.
main entry
on the long side
This was the form to
and the pulpit and major fo-
which inventive builders
cus at the other end of the
applied the Greek porch or
short axis from the main
temple front.
entry.
applied to banks, town halls,
They were able to
It was also
see the effective image
colleges, state-houses, cus-
alteration such a simple ax-
tomhouses
is change would make.
The temple
They
and private
front
houses.
by itself
were also practical folk,
does not signal "church."
and as with all early Pro-
When the temple front is com-
testant religions the empha-
bined with a graceful high
sis in their services was on
reaching spire and an almost
preaching, not ritual, so,
cubic mass pierced with three
the choice of the square with
story windows, then a remar-
a non-axial hipped roof or
kably coherent message is
the placement of the pulpit
claimed.
on the long side of the oblong space,
thus bringing
As both Bruno Zevi
and Vincent Scully34 have
all the worshippers closer
pointed out,
to the speaker,
ple was designed primarily
also reflected
the change in use of the reli- as an exterior,
gious gathering place.
Al-
pro-
the Greek Temas an ordering
element in the landscape.
though by the beginning of
This was where the altar was
the 19th century most new
found and often, this was as
church buildings had rever-
close to the temple as the
ted to the traditional entry
worshippers were allowed to
under the gable with the pul-
approach.
pit at the other end of this
for the priests and a statue
axis, the structure became
of the god, to be glimpsed
only minimally rectangular.
through
The interior was
the screen of columns..
52
In making an argument for
the plaza spreads from it in
the preservation of urban
a theater-like fan.
churches based on their con-
borhoods where open space is
tribution to the urban whole,
plentiful and the churchyard
it seems crucial
is not an important amenity,
that we re-
In neigh-
consider the outward focus
the most effective way to se-
of the original temple
parate the three
front.
ting elements of the Attic
In converting a Greek
image-genera-
inspired church would be to
Revival or other Attic in-
imbed the church in the urban
spired church building to a
wall as suggested by Sitte.
secular use and trying to
Depending on the setting,
change the image of.the buil-
either a plaza or a literal
ding to reflect its new use,
stage could then be designed
a way should be found to
in front.
separate the three major ele-
between the parts would then
ments which when combined
be a new one and thus the
form so powerful an image.
image would be 'changed with-
The spire should speak of
out physically removing any-
the sky,
thing.
the meeting hall
should speak of shelter, and
the temple
front should speak
to life on the street.
The
The relationship
The church steeple, the
third element of the image of
Attic inspired churches, is
temple front should be made
a major part of both the land-
to emphasize its role as the
mark quality of a church and
backdrop to ritual.
its image.
Camillo Sitte35 recom-
While many other
building types have towers,
mends using major instituti-
no others have the tall slen-
onal buildings as "backdrops
der spire designed for bells
to a stage."
rather than for people.
The
steeple has been seen as
such
He includes
churches in this group.
He
suggests that a plaza in
an important element of the
front of a church facade be
image of a church, that it
arranged so that the facade
has survived several major
is part of the urban wall and
stylistic
changes.
The stee-
53
ple is actually a medieval
steeple, it usually rises in
element that was interpreted
clearly separated stages mak-
with classic orders and arches
ing it more like a classic
during the English renais-
column than an obelisk or py-
sance.
ramid.
This English tradi-
While generally the
tion was brought to the Amer-
most monumental element of a
ican colonies where it was
church building, and often
an important element in Geor-
an entire landscape, the
gian, Federal and the subse-'
steeple remains comprehensi-
quent Greek Revival
styles.
ble in scale.
From a dis-
It was later revived in some-
tance, the simple pointed
thing like its Gothic form
form of the steeple makes it
by major church architects
stand out from the background.
like Richard Upjohn and Ralph
From the near ground, near its
Adams Cram.
base, its segmentation ex-
The
steeple plays an
plains its growth towards the
important role in giving the
sky while its pointed form
church a
exaggerates its perspective
landmark quality.
It usually has both rich,
and makes it seem taller than
distinctive detail and a
it is.
clear and coherent form that
Thus, a church steeple
contrasts with its context.
can be seen to be both an im-
The church steeple springs
portant aspect of the land-
directly from the ground, as
mark quality of the church
in the case of the medieval
and of its image.
tower, or is placed almost
contribution to the liveli-
directly above the pediment
ness and comprehensibility of
or near the front of the
the urban landscape is a major
church.
In either case it
Such a
reason for preserving a church
not only marks the building
building even after it has
in the landscape, but also
no congregation.
marks a landmark section of
steeple is also a major part
the building such as the en-
of the image that causes a
try or the crossing.
Regard-
less of the style of the
However, the
church to be read as a church.
It has been so important as
54
an element of church design
word.
that in surviving several
medieval cathedrals have de-
major stylistic changes it
scribed both the simple ba-
has become an important sym-
silica and the cruciform type
bol in producing an image.
as a space designed for move-
In converting a church to
ment and irregular crowds.
a secular use and trying to
Processions involving the
give it a new image, it would
entry of the bishop and his
be highly effective to obli-
entourage, movement of the
terate the steeple.
worshippers towards
But,
Numerous analyses of
the choir
to remove it would also re-
to take communion, and related
move one of the major reasons
rituals focus in a longitu-
for attempting to reuse the
dinal axis on the altar.
church.
However,
The designer, in
even when ritual
converting the church and its
was of primary importance,
image to a non-religious
the axial movement focussed
function, must look to other
on the altar was not the
elements of the building and
only pattern suggested and
make such radical changes
supported by the space.
there
that
the religious
image
siting the stations of the
is erased while the steeple
Cross, saying prayers and
itself is retained.
lighting
The focus of the medie-
Vi-
candles
at
indivi-
dual shrines located in the
val basilica derived church
chapels along the aisles and
was primarily on the altar,
the ambulatory of the choir
but the architecture and es-
suggest movement that is more
pecially the interior layout
circular than axial.
of subsequent church buildings
When the preaching of
has reflected the seesawing
the word began to grow in
of Protestant sects, and
importance in the Protestant
the reform and counter re-
sects and services became
forms of the Catholic church
longer, pews or benches were
concerning the issue of the
introduced as permanent fix-
primacy of the altar and ri-
tures of the space and the
tual of the pulpit and the
spaces were designed to be
55
much less dynamic.
The di-
ly resolved by placing the
vided opinion on the rela-
pulpit immediately behind the
tive importance of ritual
altar or communion table and
or sermons in worship has
several steps higher than it.
created interesting spatial
Since the program of worship
effects in many churches.
in these churches did not
Many churches solved the
require the congregation to
altar/pulpit dichotomy by
move to the altar, large gal-
retaining the altar in its
leries could be built to bring
central
location and placing
the pulpit to one side of
the nave,
forward of the
people closer to the speaker.
These galleries were often
built in a U around the periThe
altar and, to improve visibi-
meter of the church.
lity, several steps above
pews in the two arms of the U
ground
level.
Since
the
were usually placed facing
front of
pews remained facing the al-
each other, not the
tar, the geometry established
the church.
by offsetting the pulpit is
them, on the main floor of
merely virtual and visible
the sanctuary face the front
only when the chruch is in
of the church.
use and all the worshippers
tion several geometries are
are turned in their seats
created which could be explo-
to hear the sermon or homily,
ited by the conversion desig-
creating a human diagonal set
ner.
against the orthogonal geo-
tablished in the galleried
metry of the building.
church could be used together
In more radical sects
the preaching of the word was
given equal
importance with
The pews under
In this situa-
The three directions es-
for maximum impact.
The first
of these is the fan-like virtual geometry of the worship-
the celebration of ritual.
pers turning in their seats
But propriety would not be
towards the central pulpit.
served if the minister deli-
The second geometry that can
vered his sermon while stand-
be heightened in order to
ing on the altar or communiqn
capture the spirit of the
table.
The problem was usual-
space is the geometry created
56
by the lines
of the pews run-
cular path is also suggested.
ning the width of the building
An effective way to alter
on 'the ground floor contras-
the image of the building
ted with those running along
while maintaining its essence
the length of the building
would be to accentuate the
in the galleries.
circular path around the per-
In order
for these two directions
imeter.
to contrast effectively the
in conjunction with an over-
vertical communication be-
all axis change like that
tween the two levels must be
suggested earlier
carefully designed.
cussing the original uses of
If these
This could be done
in
dis-
two geometries are made strong
the basilica form, or it
enough the focus on the loca-
could be used to de-emphasize
tion of the former altar/pulpit the remaining longitudinal
can also be maintained as the
axis by giving both patterns
overall or ordering element.
equal weight.
If
type of hall where movement
the site
allows it,
the
In the second
former altar location could
is not a major part of wor-
become
ship, geometry becomes the
the entry or if
the
entry has been moved to the
organizing force.
short axis or left in its
of the building can be exhi-
original location, it could
bited by playing with these
become a two story atrium
geometries in several combi-
space.
nations.
With the two types of
The spirit
These various geo-
metric combinations or move-
halls seen in churches, which
ment patterns need not remain
could be classified as the
within the walls of the ori-
simple basilica and the lec-
ginal church building.
ture
hall,
there are,
then,
The windows of a church
two possible organizing
building are another impor-
forces: movement or geometry.
tant
While the main movement sug-
a standard American neighbor-
gested by the basilica is
hood church they are about
down the center of the length
three stories tall and very
of the space, a secondary cir-
grand.
part
of its
image.
In
Such handsomely large
57
suggested between the longitudinal and transverse geo-
metries of a galleried church
building can be achieved
~00 122
-
*o
!I~~
by bay windows also.
In
a reverse interpretation, the
wall with its grand openings
can be treated as an arcade.
movement
The circular
sugges-
ted by the basilica plan could
occur in a new zone created
between the existing wall and
a new weather skin built
detailed openings in walls
within the structure.
are rare in daily life.
Regardless of whether the
Piercing the walls in rows
windows are treated as bay
of 3-6 along the long side
window frames or as arches
of a building, they clearly
in
announce the building type
should be made to save a
and the space that is inside.
complete sense of their full
If the original church win-
height.
dows are not in good repair,
of the church building into
the windows should be regar-
additional floors in unavoid-
ded as repetitive openings
able, it should be done so
in the walls.
They furnish
an arcade,
every attempt
If the subdivision
that the geometry or movement
the opportunity for the
of the space is experienced
heightened geometries just
on all floors.
suggested for the interior
ior the use of projecting bay
of the space to escape the
windows could preserve the
bounds of the existing struc-
verticality of the windows
ture.
Pieces of the diagonal
more effectively than span-
geometry can become bay win-
drel
dows makina the wall more
isting openings.
three-dimensional.
The ver-
tical communication between
On the exter-
panels
inset
in
the ex-
The verti-
cality is emphasized and the
image of the building is
contrast
the
floors to heighten
changed.
58
The windows of a church
building
are an important
part
in trying to give an old Gothic
Revival church building
of the whole color scheme for
a new image, to restore its
the interior
original color scheme.
of the space.
Com-
In Medieval and Byzantine in-
bined with a complementary
spired buildings the rich
lighting design,
colors of the stained glass
involve focussed track
were designed to work in har-
lighting, the resulting im-
mony with the dark brown pa-
pression would be of the total
neling and trusses or with
effect,
warm stone work and a ceiling
symbolic elements.
often painted a deep blue
designed lighting would
and sprinkled with stars to
take the focus from the altar
produce a dark interior
area and any added elements
filled with mystery.
such as plush wall-to-wall
Spots
that might
not the individual
Properly
of brighter light are used
carpeting could either re-
to focus attention.
inforce the deep brown of
In Attic
inspired churches, the large
the woodwork or pick up one
windows galzed with many
of the rich dark colors of
small panes of clear glass
the stained glass.
were
tion of the plush carpet and
intended to shed a
The addi-
bright glittery light on a
similar items foreign to the
predominantly light interior.
original church furniture in
Sometime,
colors that make them apoear
probably in
the
early 20th century when the
to belong would be very ef-
neo- colonial
fective in incorporating ele-
and thus Attic
aesthetic was very popular,
ments formerly symbolic of
many Medieval Revival churches
church in a new whole.
were painted uniformly white
inside -
no more rich brown
The old and the new
could be entirely complemen-
woodwork or starry ceilings,
tary, not in collision.
no more mystery.
taking this approach it
Although the following
In
is
necessary to be wary of imi-
suggestion may seem paradox-
tating the old in the new or
ical, it would be reasonable,
neo-revivalism.
The modern
59
must always read as such and
since they never associated
the old should not be dis-
its new/old decor with
guised.
The juxtaposition of
"church."
In this way the
the two must be maintained,
formal qualities and crafts-
it is collision that is to
manship of the original de-
be avoided.
The old can be
signers can be appreciated
enhanced by being restored
while another layer of care-
to a former or original
ful design is added.
state.
In so doing the
image can be substantially
altered for the current users
60
CHAPTER 5.
LOOKING AT CONVERTED CHURCHES
The purpose of
this in-
ations and finding an appro-
vestigation has been to deve-
priate use as it is on purely
lop a series of criteria to
formal and spatial sensiti-
use as a framework in de-
vity.
signing a church building conversion.
It has also made
The beginnings of a productive approach to the re-
some broad suggestions about
design of a church building
how to implement decisions
come from a thorough under-
made according to the criter-
standing of why the building
ia established.
Since the
should be reused rather than
process that starts with a
demolished.
worshipping congregation in
teria established in this
the church building and ends
discussion dealt with
with a thriving new group
preservation or
of users in
a new version of
The first crithe
enhancement
of those qualities of a
the same building involves
church building which make
several groups, this discus-
it worth saving.
These qua-
sion has not been limited to
lities included:
the contrast
purely formal or spatial con-
in size and scale between
siderations.
The success
a church building and its
the
subtly
of a church building conver-
surroundings;
sion is as dependent upon
modulated and detailed multi-
careful programmatic consider-
storied interior space;
the
61
traditional semi-public nature
make the grand space slightly
of the place; and the impor-
mysterious and unique in
tance of a church building
daily experience.
in providing temporal context
lities of a church interior
for the urban environment.
that require analysis are not
The first feature of
built.
These
Some qua-
are the patterns
a church building that makes
of use that have established
it an important part of the
a geometry or axis.
urban environment is its
dinal or circular axes of ri-
size and scale.
tual
The building
Longitu-
or movement and fanlike
is usually larger or smaller
or diagonal geometries are
than its neighbors.
all created by the people
This
contrast in scale causes the
who have worshipped regularly
building to be a dramatic
in the various spatial types
element in the streetscape
of churches.
and to play an important role
of the space can be the organ-
in the cognitive organization
izing force behind any neces-
of the city in the minds of
sary subdivisions of the church
the inhabitants and visitors.
interior and thus be given
The successful conversion of
physical form.
a church building must include
grandeur and detailing of the
significant effort to preserve
interior are the reasons for
or enhance the role of a
saving the space, this fur-
building in
ther analysis is needed to
The
its
interior
urban setting.
of a
church
building also contrasts with
the daily
environment.
The
These qualities
While the
suggest methods for enhancing
these qualities.
The windows of a church
craftmanship exhibits a
building are another element
level of care and provides
that needs to be studied
a sense of scale that allows
in order to preserve the im-
the visitor
portant qualities of the
to feel a sense
of belonging in the whole
interior space.
space.
serve two functions that
At the same time the
The windows
detailing often provides sub-
must be evaluated when a
tle perspective effects that
church building is being
62
converted.
They allow light
sort
of built
change
can
to enter the space giving
contribute to both the en-
it either a colorful, yet
hancement of the unique qual-
shadowy aura, or a sparkling
ities of the interior space,
brilliant light.
They also
and the formal
and cognitive
are usually multi-story and
role of the church in the
one of the primary elements
urban environment.
provide
that
a
strong feeling
cality.
story
the space with
of verti-
Accenting the multiwindows
through some
Many urban churches,
while still churches, are
only open during worship services and have lost their
63
-
,-
traditional publicness. When
out losing all the feeling of
deciding on an appropriate
peacefulness that was also
use and writing the program
once characteristic of the
for the new functions, the
place.
public quality of the place,
The criteria for church
or at least a part of the
conversion just discussed have
place, should be reintroduced
had as a primary goal the en-
or preserved.
Architecturally, hancement or at least the pre-
every effort should be made
servation of the qualities
to make the converted building
that make a church building
proclaim its publicness with-
important in the urban envi-
64
ionment.
A successful con-
of church.
On the exterior
version of a church building
these elements include the
requires more than this.
long narrow basilica form with
A
truly successful conversion
the gable end facing the
results in the creation of
street, or the Attic inspired
a place that was clearly once
porch and steeple, and the
a church building; but, just
multi-storied windows.
as clearly, is one no longer.
the interior these elements
The building must look like
include the dominant axis,
more than a preserved church
the quality of light
with an alternate use installed
furnishings.
to help defray the upkeep ex-
ner has recognized the sym-
penses.
It must also look
bolic elements of the church
like more than a temporary
building he should deal with
home for some group short on
them in such a manner that
funds that hopes to move
they no longer work together
out as soon as
to spell church.
it.
it can afford
When the buildina reads
On
and the
Once the desig-
His treat-
ment of these elements should
clearly as a new old building,
be guided by a desire to
with the past serving as
preserve their formal charac-
context for the present, the
teristics and the role of
fourth
the church in
reason,
a
need for
its
urban set-
temporal context, for adap-
ting.
tively reusing a church
in this discussion for the en-
building has been achieved.
hancement of the valuable con-
In order to make a church
The suggestions made
tributions of a church build-
building serve as context for
ing to the vitality of the
the present, to allow it to
cityscape
be more than just an abandon-
ted in such a way that the
ed building, the designer
past and present are brought
must consider the image of
into a proper relationship.
the church building.
The
should be implemen-
In the course of this
designer must look at those
discussion, in analyzing the
elements of the church buil-
spatial,
ding that are clearly symbolic
producing characteristics of
formal and image-
65
a
three
church building,
cat-
egories of basic spatial types
The three cate-
have evolved.
gories are based on historic
sources,
use patterns and proThey
portions of the space.
have helped to make a formal
the arches of the windows and
doors are usually pointed.
Althoughyvarious Romanesque
styles are included in this
category,s.the pointed arch is
not that universal a characteristic.
The second category of
analysis possible allowing
spatial type is a variation
of the array
classification
of spaces that have been la-
of the simple basilica form
belled church buildings ac-
that is uniquely Christian.
cording to characteristics
It is also Medieval Revival,
than their
other
i-
overall
in an historic sense of the
mage or building type label,
word;
"church buildinq."
new axis it introduces to the
The first of these categories
is
Revi-
the Medieval
The
val Church building.
but, because of the
spatial organization of the
simple basilica, it has been
placed in a separate category.
Roman basilica is the ulti-
This second type is the
mate source for this space.
-church building that is cru-
Most of the
As the spatial type has
ciform in plan.
evolved and been interpre-
examples in this investigation
ted in
vernacular American
church architecture,
the nave
or sanctuary is twice as long
as it is wide.
Sometimes the
have only very short transepts
crossing the nave just before
the former location of the
altar, but the transept is im-
type includes side aisles
portant becuase of the secon-
with a lower ceiling height
dary axis that syncopates the
than the nave.
There is
usually a chancel, choir or
apse located at what in medieval times was the east
end of the nave.
The detail-
movement through the space or
suggests a second entry.
The third category is
called Attic Inspired primarily because of the classical
ing of the building is usual-
detailing with which it is
ly in rich subdued colors,
decorated.
Despite
the contra-
66
diction with the label this de-
developing
tailing is usually white.
were discovered that were
The
theory,
buildings
actual worship space is an ear-
basically Medieval Revival
ly 17th century Protestant in-
buildings but had extensive
vention.
Partially in reaction
balconies, or buildings with
against the image of the Cath-
Attic inspired plans and Med-
olic basilica form and parti-
ieval Revival detailing all
ally as a result of practical
painted white.
considerations stemming from
dictions were usually cate-
a new attitude towards worship,
gorized according to their
the sanctuaries, or worship
plan type.
spaces of the church buildings
was two thirds as wide as
categorized under the heading
was long, it was classified
of Attic inspired are almost
square.
In order to bring
Such contra-
When a building
it
according to its detailing.
A second level of spatial
as many people as close to
organization was also found
the pulpit as possible
that had the potential for
these buildings often have
influencing the adaptive reuse
extensive balconies.
of the building more than the
The fourth category is
original use.
These were the
a variation on the third that
urban churches that reacted
reflects somewhat the stylis-
to a small
tic trends during the Eclectic
program by putting the church
years in this country.
This
site and large
social hall in the basement
category is called Composite
almost a full story above
and includes those church
ground and putting the worship
buildings that are almost
space on the second floor.
square in plan yet are Medieval
The worship space was usually
in detailing.
As will all
reached through a ground floor
good rules and systems, there
vestibule with grand stairs
are exceptions to this method
rising in each corner.
of organizing the converted
the revivalist impulse worked
churches in this investigation.
to keep the
In the course of looking at
thus proportions more correct
actual buildings and not just
than the interior porportions,
exterior
Since
image and
67
the result was usually a less
seemed equally successful.
vertical worship space.
Each had major faults, but
As can be seen from the
ticular spatial type did not
each showed interesting examples of sensitivity,
imagination, or juxtaposi-
seem to dictate or suggest
tion, as well.
matrix which follows, a par-
a single type of adaptive reuse.
With the exceptions of
the case studies which will be
discussed in the following
chapters, the conversions
I
68
FORMER CHURCH BUILDINGS STUDIED
________________
U
I
F
I
SPATIAL TYPE
uJ
rnI
uJ
a
0
'u
L
Q)
0
IL
>1
cc
NEW USE
EDUCATION
CENTER
COMMUNITY
CENTER
STUYVESANT HTS EDEN INSTITUTE
CHURC. PRINCETON, NJ
3ROOKLYN, NYC
CHRISTIAN
PEABODY HOUSE
U.DELAWARE
SOMERVILLEMA
TUDENT CENTER
NEWARK, DE
HEALTH CARE
CENTER
NORTH END
HEALTH CENTER
BOSTON, MA
MULTIPLE
RESIDENCES
BERKELEY CTR
SOUTH END,
BOSTONMA
LIBRARY
WESTBROOK
COLLEGE LIBRARY
PORTLAND, ME
THEATER
CHOCOLATE
CHURCH
BATH, ME
COMMERCIAL
DANE DECOR
DOWNINGTOWN, PA
OFFICES
DANCE HALL
MUSEUM
ELLIS MEMORIAL
SOUTH END,
BOSTON, MA
MEMORIAL HALL
HARVARD U.
CAMBRIDGE. MA
CHARLES
PLAYHOUSE
BOSTON, MA
LITTLE JOHN'S
MIXED USE
SOUTHBRIDGE.MA RESTAURANT
ATLANTIC CITY,NJ
**
PHOENIX DISCO
PORTLAND, ME
EDUCATIONAL
FOR ARTS
NEW HAVEN, CT
CTR
AFRO AMERICAN
HISTORY MUSEUN
BOSTON, MA
69
*
* *
Multiple Residences
in a Cruciform Building
Offices in an
Attic Inspired Building
HILL CONDOS
BOSTON,MA
CHAMBER OF
COMMERCE
PORTLAND.ME
TOWER CONDOS
CAMBRIDGE.MA
TOWN HALL
ABINGTON.MA
ST MARK'S SQ.
BROOKLINE.MA
CHARLES ST
MEETINGHOUSE
BOSTON.MA
POLICE STATION
NEWARK. DE
CHURCH BUILDINGS w/ MAIN HALL on SECOND FLOOR
Community Center
PEABODY HOUSE
Health Care Center
NORTH END CTR
Multiple Residences
HILL CONDOS
Theater
BERKELEY CTF
CHARLES
PLAY HOUSE
Commercial
Of f ices
Museum
DANE
ELLIS CENTER
DECOR
CHARLES ST
MEE TI NGHOUSE
AFROAMERICAN
HISTORY MUSEUM
70
CHAPTER 6
CHANGING THE IMAGE, NOT THE PLAN; AND VICE VERSA
The Phoenix Disco in
scribes as
"pleasure zones"
Portland, Maine is one of
are Marienbad, the Alhambra,
four churches in the study
Xanadu, Disneyland and Las
that are of particular in-
Vegas.
terest because they have
important to the develop-
capitalized on the anecdo-
ment of a "pleasure zone" as
tal quality of their Medie-
seen by Venturi are light-
val Revival buildings.
Ra-
ness, the quality of being
ther than attempting to en-
an oasis in a hostile con-
hance the purely formal or
text and the ability to en-
spatial qualities of the
velop the visitor in a new
buildings they were recy-
role.
cling, the designers of the
The other qualities
The Phoenix meets three
conversions of these places
of these four characteristics.
chose to heighten the sym-
The designers concentrated
bolism associated
on heightening the symbolism
with the
style of their late-19th
of the place, in so doing
century Medieval Revival
they also strengthened the
buildings.
Robet Venturi36
quality of the place as an
has listed heiqhtened sym-
oasis.
bolism as a characteristic
framed by the chancel arch
of a "pleasure zone."
and the music-synchronized
A-
mong the places Venturi de-
The dance floor is
light show is projected on
71
a screen set into the arch.
ditional location of the church
The light show is designed
balcony.
as a kinetic stained glass
ded the formal elements that
window.
The windows of the
The designers guar-
spell "church" for their
nave have been bricked in
image-generating quality, for
with care so that the pointed
their symbolism.
arch remains prominent and
avoided sacrilege through
the bricked windows are in
their choice of materials
relief
with the plane of
the wall.
The mezzanine
They have
that makes everything just
a little off; but they have
level of the disco which was
maintained enough of the
added as a bar is in the tra-
sense of "church to provide
72
the sense of an oasis
from
the work-a-day world.
the original exposed trusses
by being called "The Rafters"
The designers of the
-- escape to Grandmom's at-
disco were not content to
tic where no one can find
merely offer
you.
the image of
The eatery in the
the church as the only op-
basement of the building
is
portunity for escape.
called the Oak Street
(the
There
are also two bars in the
address of the disco) Sub-
disco offering a choice of
way Station, and sports me-
images.
tro cars painted on the
On the main floor,
under the mezzanine, one
wall.
finds a cedar shake sided
no subway system, a snack
bar with a low ceiling of
in the
exposed heavy timber beams--
transport you to the major
escape to a cabin in Baxter
western city of your choice.
State Park.
By offering
Upstairs in a
Since Portland has
"waiting room" can
several
places
back corner of the mezzanine
for escape, the proprieters
is a second bar.
have given the guest ample
This one
boasts Sidney Greenstreet
opportunities to become en-
chairs and slow moving hori-
veloped in a new--albeit
zontal fans hung from the
temporary--role.
roof--escape to Casablanca.
This upstairs bar plays on
The manager
readily
grees that by putting the
a-
73
disco in a building that
energy on avoiding death.
stood out from its neighbors
He uses a number of mecha-
in
nisms in what he believes
scale
and image,
prietors
the pro-
is
have created a
his moment by moment
"disco gimmick" that helps
struggle for existence.
the success of the disco.
These mechanisms are mani-
People remember the disco
fested in what are seen as
when they hear of it because
the symptoms of autism.
it is the "disco in a church."
People come there to dance
for
An important step in
the treatment of autistic
the first time because they
children is the creation of
are curious.
a new total environment.
But, most impor-
tantly, they return and tell
The child's experience with
more people about it because
his first environment left
it works.
him in mortal fear.
Peter Waldman, in de-
In or-
der to bring him out of this-
signing a school for autis-
fright, a new physical as
tic children in the nave of
well as human environment
a church sought to preserve
needs to be provided.
the symbolic church and give
environment must be complete
it
so that it will seem secure;
equal weight with the sym-
This
bolic elements he adds to
yet;
the nave to make a new envi-
tionship to the real world
ronment for the school.
The
so that the transition to
autistic child is not really
this world will not rein-
understood and there are se-
force the fear that the
veral approaches to-treat-
treatment is seeking to dis-
ment.
pel.
It is generally be-
lieved that autism is brought
it must bear some rela-
Peter Waldman's approach
on in early childhood by
to providing a new and com-
a child's fear of imminent
plete environment has been
death.
quite literal.
The young child is
Within the
so frightened by his envi-
thick stone walls and high
vonment, that he feels he
vaults of the church he has
must concentrate all his
built a child size school
74
building and house. He has care-
expressed so strongly here,
fully cut the new construc-
of a high vaulted space as an
tion away at the original
all encompassing world.
stained glass windows so
was the intention of the ori-
that they remain a part of
ginal medieval cathedrals,
the total envelopping space.
with their three dimensional
The stained glass windows fil-
entries and statues in niches
ter out the real world, and
designed as small buildings
their patterns and color are
within the larger whole, ex-
an important tool in creating
pressing a hierarchical world
a unique world within the
order.
church.
Waldman's intention in the
It is not clear whether
the facades of the little
buildings within the exis-
This
And, this was Peter
redesign of this rural medieval revival church building.
The center for non-
ting structure will success-
resident students at the Uni-
fully read as the types they
versity of Delaware is defi-
are intended to represent.
nitely an oasis in a desert
Nor is it clear that autistic
of cars.
children associate with li-
on three sides by two city
teral building images.
What
is important is the concept,
It is surrounded
blocks of parked cars.
Its
fourth side fronts on the
75
main street through town.
sees a raised neo-medeival
The original building was
drawbridge and a wheelchair
in
built
two stages.
Both
sections are stone Medieval
Revival structures.
The
ramp in front of the new main
entry.
Immediately to one
side of the entry he sees an
support spaces behind the
ice cream take-out window
original sanctuary serve as
with a crenelated canopy.
a link to the later social
The ramp seems more effective
hall addition.
at signalling entry than the
The front doors through
raised drawbridge, which tra-
which the congregation once
ditionally says "no passage."
entered the sanctuary from
The take-out window canopy
the street no longer have
and the drawbridge signal the
exterior doorknobs. This
is the only indication to
beginning of a whimsical collage of medieval romance that
the pedestrian that the
continues inside.
main entry has been moved
the visitor finds all the signs
to the link between the for-
lettered in a stylized Old
mer social hall and the sanc-
English script, including
Inside,
The converted building the restrooms labelled "knights"
and "damsels." The former
designed for approach by
tuary.
is
car;
it
is
designed for the
commuting student.
From
the parking lot, the driver
church social hall, now student
social hall, walls sport murals of dragons, castles,
76
shields and maces.
social hall had been used
Banners
are hung from the high arched
to develop a non-escapi'st
ceiling and a cardboard cut
formal delight in the study
out of Rapunzel lets down a
hall
long hank of braided yellow
church building would have
yarn froi
a window above the
The early 20th centu-
stage.
ry stained glass windows let
in
cheery pastel light but
A
theless, the lack of imagination displayed in the converstudy hall results in a hall
The escape is complete. which is more pleasant than
a study hall which might have
"pleasure zone" has been
resulted had the same level
created.
of thought been applied in
The former sanctuary
is a study hall, no escaping
reality here.
The floor is
designing an entirely new
student center.
The final example of a
covered with a heavy duty
gray beige carpet with no
pile.
None-
been more successful.
sion of the sanctuary to a
not the view of the parking
lots.
the conversion of this
Medieval
Revival
church buil-
ding redesigned through heigh-
The furnishings are
all spindly, minimally uphol-
tened symbolism as an oasis
stered modern, placed in or-
or escape from reality is a
derly rows and at right an-
restaurant in Atlantic City,
gles.
New Jersey called "Little
The modern painted
The name indicates
aluminum light fixtures are
John's."
hung within a few feet of the
its obvious symbolism.
study tables leaving the high
trademark is
arched ceiling in shadow.
De-
be Merry."
Its
"Eat, Drink and
The drawings on
spite the almost entirely
the matchbook covers show
eggshell walls and ceiling,
the restaurant in the middle
the sanctuary/study hall seems of Sherwood Forest.
Through
in
to have captured the feeling
a fortuitous accident,
of a monastic copy room of a
terms of image alteration,
very ascetic sect of monks.
the interior plaster has been
If even the simple imagina-
removed and the stonework has
tion that was seen in the
been exposed.
Although con-
77
verted historic buildings
with exposed stonework or
brick-work have become very
cliched, in this case it is
very effective
in
heighten-
ing the rustic atmosphere
that suggests a manor hall
in the medieval woods of
(Mosusis23
England.
The building is interesting as a spatial type.
Al-
though it is rural English
sanctuary with vestibules at
medieval in materials and
the three corners on the
detailing, it is unique in
street.
plan and massing.
If it
The original designer
weren't for the clearly En-
was not a purist.
glish styling, the sanctuary
added a small extra gable
could fall into the category
projecting from the side of
labeled Byzantine-inspired
the octagon under which one
in this discussion.
However,
found the pulpit.
He has
The site
it is clearly an invention of
was not square so he made one
the original designer dealing
of the arms of the cross al-
with a corner site, the
most twenty feet longer and
requirement of the Protestant
crossed it with a steeply
sect for an equilateral form
gabled church hall.
that retained some axial fo-
result is a church building
cus, and a general multi-
without a standard form or
gabled medieval feeling.
In
The
plan and an orderly yet ir-
massing he solved the problem
regular collection of gables
with an almost regular cross
that is easily converted to
of steep gables set in a
a non-church image without
square with low hipped roofs
destroying the formal func-
at the four corners.
This
tions of a corner church in
massing is expressed in the
ordering the urban environ-
interior as an actagonal
ment.
78
-
7
i 4
2
The section of the building
If for any number of
reasons, either valid or mere- that is saved could be that
part that plays the most imly avaricious, a church buil-
ding is torn down, is the
loss made any less acute if
an isolated portion of the
building is saved? Such a
mixture of old and new could
be said to allow the layering
portant formal or cognitive
role in the streetscape.
Or,
it could serve as a gnomon
that marks a place where many
people celebrated important
events in their lives.
of time thus giving the neighThese three possibilities
borhood a temporal context.
can only be realized if the
79
juxtaposition of old and new
facades that meet at the tower
is done very sensitively.
are just as important in syn-
In order to provide the proper
copating the rhythm of the
relationship between old and
street.
new the sections of the church
alone serves the same partial
that are saved must be those
landmark- function as a tall
that can provide a framework
building.
for the new construction.
The
The church tower
In order for the
tower to have its full im-
saved section of the church
pact it must be complemented
building should not have an
by other pieces of the former
object quality in relation to
church building that intro-
If it does
the new structure.
the proper relationship be-
duce a change of scale at the
street level.
tween old and new is not preserved.
The
saved former
If the selective demoli-
tion of a church building is
church building pieces become
not done carefully
more like a deformed side
collective
show attraction -or gimmick ra-
be recalled by the preserved
ther than context and setting
pieces will be those of the
for the present.
There would
enough,
memories
grandeur
that
the
that will
has been lost.
seem to be a critical mass
The memories will not be
of saved old structure neces-
those of thanksgiving, wed-
sary to be effective in pro-
dings or even quiet good-byes.
viding framework or context.
The preserved pieces of the
While a tower is an
former church building will
effective formal element in
stand on the street looking
marking and resolving a di-
tortured and abused.
rection change at a street
bring pain to the passerby
corner,
the directionality
and scale of the two main
rather
than reverie.
It will
80
The next three
buildings
requirements of its formal
in this discussion are also
role as a corner church in
examples of a concentration
an urban setting they var-
on the issue of image and spa-
ied the traditional symmetri-
tial modification in a tradi-
cally organized plan of the
tional building plan.
medieval cathedral by giving
They
are not church conversions, in
the building only one tower.
the sense discussed thus far,
They also acknowledged its
however.
dense
These medieval revi-
urban setting
by de-
val buildings retain the im-
signing the building so skill-
age of traditional
fully that the image of the
medieval
plans, yet the interior spa-
building as a copy of a gen-
ces have been rearranged to
uine High Gothic church buil-
meet different use require-
ding remains undisturbed
The spatial modifica-
ments.
tions
of
these buildings
re-
main primarily within a pre-
while the urban environment
benefits greatly from the
changes.
The alterations
scribed shell and thus are
to a
not fully applicable to the
traditional
goals listed in this discus-
made just as skillfully.
sion.
The asymmetrical plan that
They do, however, pro-
interior were
vide helpful suggestions for
results from the changes in
interior spatial changes that
the exterior massing are not
preserve the qualities of the
experienced in the interior.
space.
The nave is majestically axial
The first
example is
St.
and central in feeling.
The
Thomas' church by Cram and
worshipper is not even aware
Goodhue in New York City.
that two floors of parish of-
The site is on the corner
fices are nestled beside the
of two major city streets.
choir.
The architects chose a richly
the office piece of the
carved cathedral style of Go-
church is a galleried conti-
thic architecture as befitting
nuation of the triforium of
a downtown church in a major
the nave.
city.
is experienced as a simple
In response to the
The third floor of
The interior
in
i:.~
LLa.AA.A~.~.a.&.I
I
TWVTIYVII~
I
*
~
~
1.8
4
6
6
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
J
I
82
basilica with aisles on each
side and a shallow rectangu-
in the late 19th century,
lar chancel. From the exterior, the massing of the building makes it appear to be
Only from
cruciform in plan.
an airplane would one be aware
as a parish hall, the smaller transept arm as a ves-
own entry.
that the plan is a simple rec-
traditional east end of the
tangle.
Another church with a
church has been further sub-
the chancel was refurbished
tibule and the larger as
a small chapel with its
Today, the
divided into rentable office
traditional Gothic Church image space and meeting rooms. The
spaces that have resulted
and a modified plan is the Old
from the shortening of the
Cambridge Baptist Church. The
worship space are more conexterior of the church building gives the building the
image of an English Gothic
cruciform church with a square
venient for a Protestant
chancel and two short transept arms. The building does
have a cruciform footprint;
but, even in the original
design the building was subdivided to meet contemporary
biases and use requirements.
When the building was first
siologists to separate sacred
sect, allowed the 19th
century impulse of the Eccleand profane uses to be accommadated and are still pleasing in proportion and unusual
in
day to day experience.
The third example of
a traditional Medieval Revival church plan subdivided
built, the church worship
space was limited to the nave.
The altar space was in front
and used untraditionally
of a partition crossing the
nave one bay before the transept. The chancel was used
as a small chapel. One arm
cruciform plan with a large
of the transept was a classroom and -the other was a
social hall. After a fire
tional cathedral plan to
is
Memorial Hall at
Harvard.
Ware and Van Brunt chose a
apse at the traditional east
end and a tower over the crossing.
They used this tradi-
house a dining hall and
theater.
The building detail-
83
ing is a colorful Venetian
Gothic.
The plan, massing
Ware and Van Brunt both
used the
image of a cathedral
and detailing combine to pro-
for their purposes and seemed
duce a powerful image of a
to be little troubled by the
church.
contradictions possible in
The architects have
worked within the axes of the
plan to design a grand en-
using a religious image for
a secular use.
The building
was built as a memorial to
trance in each end of the
Harvard's Civil War dead and
transept.
thus the religious
The entries in the
traditional west end of the
nave are off
tive.
axis and diminu-
By changing the axis
of main entry the architects
have provided the passerby
with a
strong hint that the
place may be intended for other than ecclesiastic use.
The transept was designed as
a monumental vestibule from
which one entered either the
dining hall in the nave or
the breathtakingly steepfloored theater in the large
apse.
imagery
was probably a conscious
choice to proclaim such a
message.
Beyond this imagery,
the architects showed great
skill in analyzing and enhancing the purely spatial
and formal
qualities
of the
place, unencumbered by pro-
blems of religious connotation.
84
CHAPTER 7
DEALING WITH THE NITTY GRITTY
When the developers of
St. Mark's Square,
a resi-
the neighbors because it
helps preserve a remnant of
dential conversion of a for-
the original
mer Methodist church in
neighborhood which is rapid-
Brookline,
ly being destroyed by a pro-
first became in-
scale
of
the
volved with the building,
liferation of condominium
it had already been vacant
towers.
for several years.
A neigh-
Because the building is
borhood group had had it
on the National Register,
listed on the National Regis-
developer of the
ter of Historic Places in an
be unable to include
effort to discourage its de-
costs of demolishing the
molition and replacement by
solid stone
a ten story tower.
his cost of construction for
The
a
site would
structure
the
in
building's value to the
tax purposes.
neighborhood is not histori-
would not be able
to depre-
ciate them.
is one of
cal.
It is
neither a unique
Thus,
This
he
specimen of a particular
the provisions of the Tax
style nor is it an almost
Reform Act of 1976.
perfect architectural master-
provision of this act allows
piece that could be studied
a developer who converts a
as a standard of excellence.
property on the National Re-
The building is valuable to
gister to a commercial,
Another
or
85
EAST
NORTH
other income producing use,
towers near completion in
following the guidelines of
the area and apartment buil-
the Secretary of the Interior,
to either amortize the costs
dings were rapidly being condominiumized. This led them
of the rehabilitation work
to believe that the most fa-
over a five year period or
vorable market would be in
rental units. Even when
they squeezed thirty-nine
to depreciate the cost of the
original building plus the
construction expenses at the
units into the existing shell
of the building the construc-
favorable rate allowed for a
It was this
new building.
tion cost per unit was too
provision that made the pro-
great to allow them to ob-
ject look feasible to the
tain an FHA insured mortgage.
developers.
FHA standards are based on
new construction and don't
consider two story living
The huge tax
savings allowed by five year
amortization to an individual
in a high tax bracket makes
rooms, stained glass windows,
stone sculpture or a field
stone lobby or a bell tower.
finding limited partners relatively easy.
When the developers
first considered the conver-
-
Although the volume of space
for the money was greater
sion of the church building
than that of new construc-
to multi-residential use,
tion the overall costs of
there were several condominium the bare bones conversion
86
turned out to be greater
of these spaces and the spar-
than that of a standard new
kle of the light
rental apartment building
rose windows doesn't have
with the same number of u-
to be impaired by the addi-
nits.
Thus,
it was not fea-
tion of a plexiglass storm
window.
sible.
The condominium market
through the
Although the units
designed in the first plan
has remained strong in Brook-
for the conversion were more
line and with the recently
interesting than standard
enacted ban on condominium
new rental units, the extreme
conversions there seems to
slicing of the space seemed
be a shortage developing.
quite brutal.
Thus, the conversion of the
sign seems more sympathetic
church building
to the spatial qualities of
is
currently
being redesigned as sixteen
luxury condominiums.
The second de-
the former church building.
In order to be certified
The
entire transept is being
as a "substantially rehabili-
designed as a lobby with the
tated historic structure" a
possibility of windows or
conversion project must meet
balconies from the units
the Standards for Rehabilita-
opening into the
space.
No
floors are being added to
tion of the Secretary of the
Interior.
These are ten ba-
the space under the roof leav- sic guidelines written in
ing the opportunity for
general terms to apply to
several of the individual
historic structures ranging
unit owners to add lofts or
from mill buildings to sin-
otherwise customize their
gle family homes.
living spaces.
As in the
The guide-
line most frequently cited
earlier design, spaces ad-
as having been violated when
joining the rose windoes
a project
is
are cUt back and provided with fication is,
refused certi"preserving the
their own glass weatherskins.
distinguishing original char-
so that a large part of the
acter of a building."
rose windows can be seen
the guidelines are only very
through the operable windows
general, decisions are made
I37
Since
87
The following "Standards for Rehabilitation" shall-be used by the Secretary of
the Interior when determining if a rehabilitation project qualifies as "certified
rehabilitation" pursuant to the Tax Reform Act of 1976. These standards appear in Section 36 of the Code of Federal
Regulations, Part 67.
1) Every reasonable effort shall be made
to provide a compatible use for a property which requires minimal alteration of
the building structure, or site and its environment, or to use a property for its
originally intended purpose.
2) The distinguishing original qualities
or character of a building, structure or
site and its environment shall not be destroyed. The removal or alteration of any
historic material or distinctive architectural features should be avoided when
possible.
3) All buildings, structures and sites
shall be recognized as products of their
own time. Alterations that have no historical basis and which seek to create an
earlier appearance shall be discouraged.
4) Changes which may have taken place
in the course of time are evidence of the
history and development of a building,
structure or site and its environment.
These changes may have acquired significance in their own right, and this significance shall be recognized and respected.
5) Distinctive stylistic features or examples of skilled craftsmanship which characterize a building, structure or site shall
be treated with sensitivity.
6) Deteriorated architectural features
shall be repaired rather than replaced,
wherever possible. In the event replacement is necessary, the new material
should match the material being replaced in composition, design, color, texture and other visual qualities. Repair or
replacement of missing architectural features should be based on accurate duplications of features, substantiated by historic, physical or pictorial evidence rather than on conjectural designs or the
availability of different architectural elements from other buildings or structures.
7) The surface cleaning of structures
shall be undertaken with the gentlest
means possible. Sandblasting and other
cleaning methods that will damage the
historic building materials shall not be
undertaken.
8) Every reasonable effort shall be made
to protect and preserve archeological resources affected by, or adjacent to, any rehabilitation project.
9) Contemporary design for alterations
and additions to existing properties shall
not be discouraged when such alterations and additions do not destroy significant historical, architectural or cultural
material, and such design is compatible
with the size, scale, color, material and
character of the property, neighborhood
or environment.
10) Wherever possible, new additions or
alterations to structures shall be done in
such a manner that if such additions or
alterations were to be removed in the future, the essential form and integrity of
the structure would be unimpaired.
on a case by case basis and
character
their tenor could gradually
the preservation of the shell.
change with the trends of
The Tax Reform Act of 1976
public opinion.
does not allow five year a-
point,
however,
At this
the most
of the building" is
mortization of any new con-
liberal interpretation of
struction that goes beyond
the "distinguishing original
the original foundations,
character of the building"
walls or roof of the buil-
is
ding.
the shell;
the most liberal
The first development
interpretation of "preserving
proposal for St. Mark's
the distinguishing original
Square required the rapid a-
88
mortization in order to be
stored Chapel of the Good
feasible.
Shepard on Roosevelt Island
It was indeed
certified as having preserved
in New York is a case study
the building's distinguishing
that will demonstrate this
original character.
clearly.
Not only is the interpre-
Even though the
project involved more simple
tation of the standards of the
renovation or restoration and
Secretary
the intended new use was
of the Interior
some-
what affected by current
essentially the same as that
design thought but implicit
for which it had been ori-
standards of what is sensitive
ginally designed, the major
adaptive reuse are influenced
expenses- in the renovation
by government standards.
were those which were
When
re-
government and quasi-government
quired to bring it to modern
agencies are willing to allow
code standards
and require a deeper level of
public assembly.
analysis of the "character" of
for a place of
When Welfare
Island was
an historic building and
renamed Roosevelt Island and
its formal and cognitive role
designed as a new town in
in the environment in its re-
the center of New York City,
view processes, then more
there were several buildings
grassroots organizations and
already on the Island that
less sophisticated projects
were listed on the National
will improve their informal
Register.
approaches and standards.
Good Shepherd was one of
It won't be until this hap-
these.
pens that we will begin to
restore the building as a
have an urban environment
meetingroom-theater and make
richer in time and materials
it available for use by lo-
and more clearly readable.
cal community groups.
Another item of a prac-
The Chapel of the
It was decided to
Struc-
tural calculations showed
tical nature that can have
that the floor joists
a major impact on the design
main floor were sized to sup-
of a church conversion is
port the code mandated 60
code compliance.
The re-
of the
lbs/s.f. live load required
89
By the standards esta-
for a place of assembly with
fixed seats.
The girders sup- blished in modern codes, the
porting the joists
and the
historic chapel was not ade-
cast iron columns supporting
quately ventilated.
the girders were not ade-
to comply with the codes the
quate, however.
Since struc-
In order
area of operable window must
tural work was going to be
equal 5% of the floor area
necessary anyway, it was de-
for
cided to design the struc-
if the existing stained glass
ture so that it would meet
windows had been made fully
the code requirements of 100
operable they would not have
lbs/s.f. for theater use or
provided adequate ventilation.
for a place of public assem-
If the historic shell were to
bly with moveable seats.
be maintained, a mechanical
The structural improve-
a place of assembly.
ventilation system had to be
ments were designed with the
installed.
intention of preserving as
equipment was installed in
much of the original interior
the bell tower and the new
as possible.
New joists were
Even
The mechanical
ductwork was concealed under
inserted between the existing
a hung ceiling in the base-
joists and steel girders were
ment which also served as
used to replace the original
fireproofing for the new
wooden ones.
Since fire exits
steel girders supporting
The bell was
were plentiful and both floors
the main floor.
of the building had easy ac-
remounted on a stand in the
cess to the street the fire-
surrounding plaza.
code was stretched and the
A
third area necessary
cast iron columns in the base-
for code compliance was to
ment were allowed to be left
allow access to all levels
unprotected.
To increase the
of the building to the handiIn order to meet
loadbearing capacity of the
capped.
columns to meet the use re-
this requirement, a ramp was
quirements of the building
dug to an entry in the side
code they were filled with
of the basement wall from
concrete.
which a hydraulic elevator
90
accessed a lower basement and
gun for the phased renovation
the main auditorium floor.
of the former church building.
The elevator was installed in
The construction work began
the former organ cabinet.
in 1975 and was estimated to
From this discussion of
cost around $299,000, or
the three important areas of
about $26/s.f.
change that were necessary
bably two factors working to-
in a simple restoration of
gether to make the actual fi-
a church building to essen-
gure come to more than $600,000
tially the use for which it
or about $55/s.f.
was designed, it can be seen
vation costs become this high
that the decision concerning
an argument for adaptive reuse
an appropriate use depends
of an existing building, as
on formal analysis and com-
opposed to totally new con-
munity standards.
struction, must depend solely
Building
There were pro-
When reno-
structure and traditional
on the intangible elements
use are not the determining
of a building such as the
factors .
pleasure derived from rich
The Ellis Center in the
South End of Boston moved
into its
ces that
present building,
a
converted church, in 1924.
Before
they moved in,
detailing, the pleasant spa-
the
result
grammed bits of
from unpro"left over"
built volume found here and
there, the importance of
building had been an automo-
the building in the street-
bile shop for thirteen years
scape or in the provision of
and then classroom space for
a sense of temporal context.
the Franklin Institute.
At
The estimate of construc-
sometime in the building's
tion costs was based on the
history a variety store had
need for extensive structural
been attached to one corner
reinforcement, brick recon-
of the building.
In 1970,
struction and repointing, a
some of the expanding func-
new asphalt shingle roof to
tions of the Center moved in-
replace the decaying slate
to two renovated townhouses
one that was too heavy for
next door and plans were be-
the weakened structure, re-
91
placement of plaster with
vation of the building, a la-
drywall throughout the buil-
bor intensive job, in addition
ding, demolition of the var-
to the programs of the center,
iety store appendage and
would aid the community.
This
numerous other small projects. was not that extravagant a
decision since contractors
Throuqh a combination of altruism and reality, work was
will rarely bid for a renova-
not put out for competitive
tion job, anyway.
bid.
The Center wanted to
The uncer-
tainties as to the true extent
give the job to a neighborhood of most rehabilitation jobs
contractor so that the reno-
are too great for a contractor
92
to be willing to risk a truly
lems.
competitive bid.
knowing how much of the even-
Since the administration
tual
They had no way of
doubling of the estima-
of the Center was not exper-
ted construction costs was the
ienced in the construction
inevitable result of the un-
field, they were at the mercy
certainties involved in reha-
of the architect and contrac-
bilitation work and how much
tor
in
terms
of what were
jus-
was the result of sloppy work
tifiable cost overruns, true
by either the contractor or
extras and unexpected prob-
architect.
93
CHAPTER 8
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
In the design of the
Stuyvesant Hieghts Center
architects William Vitto and
of the church in the community
in years to come.
The shell to which the
Ira Oaklander had to deal
architects were asked to add
with the nitty gritty as
learning spaces, play spaces
well as design a "pleasure
and meeting spaces had been
zone."
the original building, built
When the project of
converting a medieval revival
in 1870, for the church.
chapel to a community/youth
larger church building had
education center was presen-
soon been built next door
ted to them,
and the 1870 structure became
they were faced
with a fire bombed, gutted
an auxiliary chapel.
A
The two
shell of a 40' x 90' Landmarks
buildings work together as
chapel in a Brooklyn neigh-
a harmonious whole in the
borhood that was poor, yet had
streetscape.
seen worse times and showed
were asked to design the new
signs of grassroots revita-
spaces in such a way that
lization.
The project was
The architects
they would communicate with
part of the effort of the
the three levels of the main
church congregation, which
building next door and comple-
owned the building, to streng-
ment the range of sizes avail-
then their youth ministry in
able in
order to insure the presence
kitchen, and sanctuary floor-
the basement-with-
94
95
with-balcony of the current
ticized version of the past
church building, as well.
as a place for escape.
The congregation had al-
With
great vigor they suggested
ready dealt with another arch-
the present as a wonderful
itect and had rejected a plan
time to be in Bedford Stuy-
that called for removal of
vesant, in Brooklyn, in New
the fire charred trusses and
York City.
burned-out planking of the
The place that the arch-
pitched roof, replacing the
itects have created expresses
roof with a new flat one and
the importance of the past
inserting a new two story
to the form and substance of
building behind the historic
the present.
facade.
The proposed building
The fire-charred
trusses have been painstaking-
had been designed with a cen-
ly re-covered with plywood
tral double loaded corridor
pieces cut to box the trusses
on each floor.
This was not
and yet preserve their original
The plywood surfaces
the way to attract youth to
shape.
the church or to convince
were then painted a warm
school children to come there
gray so that there is no mis-
to have a good time after
taking them as imitation any-
school.
Like the designers
thing.
Except for the church
of the Phoenix disco, the
office at the entryway, there
University of Delaware student
are no fully enclosed spaces.
center, or Little John's
This allows both a central
restaurant, Vitto and Oak-
axial sense of movement from
lander were called upon to
the entry towards the former
design a place for escape.
location of the altar and a
Unlike the disco they did
decision of returning from
not suggest pleasure by
the altar by circling back
alluding to escape to far
down either what would
away places.
Unlike the
traditionally have been a
designers of the University
north or south side aisle, now
of Delaware student center
at two different levels.
or Little John's restaurant
Once having returned via an
they didn't suggest a roman-
taisle' to the entry area one
96
climbs to a
space with
the
The ex-
through collision.
most enclosure that is used
citing differentness
as an intimate chapel and
place enhances
meeting room and is in the
role of the church building
location of the former bal-
in the urban environment as
Thus the sense of the
cony.
former place is reinforced
by the organization
of the
of the
the important
a source of a pleasant change
from daily spatial experience.
Using Venturi's definition,
paths, by the preservation of
this church building conver-
a sense of the whole space as
sion meets
one moves through the levels,
characteristics of a
and by the interior massing.
zone."
On the way to the balcony
bright and filled with light,
chapel,
one reaches a semi-
three of the four
"pleasure
It does so by being
and by being an oasis of
circular landing that commands
exciting spatial
a view of almost all the main
It does more than just envel-
spaces of the place.
It is
experience.
op the visitor in a new role.
in the mirror image location
It tells the
of a traditional raised side
is wonderful as he is.
pulpit.
When the whole place
is being used by a church
does this
visitor that he
in the
It
same way
that neighborhood revitaliza-
gathering it is from this semi-. tion through adaptiae
reuse
rather than
circular landing that the
and rehabilitation
minister addresses the group.
demolition is effectiv.
The choice of materials,
in
bringing pride into the com-
light colors and forms have
munity.
made it clear that the new
not make the building into
structure is something bril-
an image of something it's
liantly new and different.
not.
Yet,
the creative use of
The conversion did
Instead,
it tells the
user that what was there
traditional massing and move-
good.
ment patterns have made the
ding worth saving;
new and old enrich each other
worth this
through juxtaposition rather
make
than compete with each other
is
the buil-
Not only was
it was
to
much effort
it even better.
The extent
of
the nitty
97
as a windowless burned out
shell to its current
state
at a cost of less than $20/
s.f.
After the church got rid
of a crooked contractor that
gritty is apparent when one
realizes that the architectects and the workers from
the congregation and the
community were able to revive
the building from its state
98
architects served as the
general contractor,
subbing
out those parts of the job
such as the concrete work
that were beyond the capabilities of the mostly ama-
squandered a large part of
the budget before the
archi-
tects became involved, everyone,
including the architects,
pitched in and did everything
from hand excavating a large
section of the basement to
laying glass block.
The
99
teur crew.
From the example
of the Stuyvesant Heights
Community Center it can be
seen that the nitty gritty
-
need not get in the way
of good design.
100
This discussion can be
The architects have ad-
concluded with a second ex-
ded tiered seating to the
ample of a church conversion
space and have enlarged the
in which the architects have
stage so that it projects
dealt quite successfully
twenty feet into the nave.
with most of the numerous
By placing the seats in a
factors involved in conver-
fan-like
ting a church to a new use.
few seats could be added to
The former church is now the
the original aisles increas-
Performing Arts Center at
ing the effective width of
It is a wooden Medie-
Bath.
Revival board and batten
val
building.
The main worship
space measures about 48'x
96'.
Although it has al-
arrangement,
the theater.
a
The propor-
tions of the seating plan
thus become more manageable
as a theater.
The nave is so longi-
most the same dimensions as
tudinal and focussed in feel-
the Stuyvesant Heights Com-
ing that the addition of the
munity Center, it is dif-
fan-like tiers of seatinr
ferent in spatial feeling.
becomes an overlayed geo-
Along each side of the nave,
metry rather than an obli-
separated by piers and an
terating one.
arcade, and defined by bal-
and arcades, emphasized by
conies above and by a change
the galleries above the
in roof pitch, are two
aisles, still march power-
The width of the
aisles.
The piers
fully towards the tradition-
aisles makes the nave very
al east end of the former
narrow, and the feeling of
church building.
the space very vertical and
added geometry that reflects
Stich a narrow nave,
a use pattern common to both
axial.
As an
only about 30' wide, makes
the former and present
conversion of the long space
of the building the fan-like
to
a
theater
for
live
per-
formances somewhat difficult.
arrangement
compatible
use
of the seating is
with the space.
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102
The modification of the
The main entry
for
the
space through the rising
theater has been shifted to
tiers of seats are sen-
the southside, crossing the
sitive image modifiers.
long axis.
They help make the buil-
side is the former social
ding read as a former
hall/education building for
church
the church.
that
is
now just
Also on the south
The conversion
as.effectively some-
has added a new structure
thing else.
connecting these two buil-
The architects of
dings at three levels.
The
the conversion have in-
main area of this link
creased the number of
serves as a foyer and lobby.
seats convenient to the
It is a two story space,
stage by enlarging
the
predominantly glass enclosed
rear balcony.
side
in which one finds a wide
The
galleries have been sub-
ramp accessing all the
divided, at a diagonal
levels of the tiers, a round
to the original structure,
ticket kiosk and a bridge from
into theater boxes.
the upper level of the for-
In
order to preserve a full
mer education building to
sense of the height of
the balconies of the theater.
the space, yet improve
In order to provide enough
its
entries and exits, three of
functioning as
a
theater, clear plexiglass
the stained glass windows
curved acoustic reflec-
were removed and the openings
tors have been hung over
converted to doorways.
the stage area
of the windows has been re-
as have
One
flying light bridges.
mounted in a corresponding
The former central entry
location in the
tower has three levels
the lobby.
and serves as a control
glass wall of
The former education buil-
room for lights and sound,
ding is also medieval in sty-
as a set design studio
ling but is a later structure
and a fire exit.
and not as rich in form or
103
craftsmanship.
In the con-
gritty.
The conversion
version, it has been exten-
just described exists in
sively remodeled into a multi-
drawings only.
level art gallery, lounge,
profit organization, they must
restrooms, bar, and cabaret.
patiently collect funding from
Much of the north wall,
numerous private
ad-
As a non-
and public
joining the new foyer struc-
sources before the construc-
ture, has been removed and
tion can continue according
can be closed by operable
to plan.
partitions.
state, the theater uses the
Extending
from the new
In its current
old pews for seating, the
foyer between the former
lighting control room in the
education
tower is accessed by a ladder
building
and church
building is a long glass
and the
roofed walkway that extends
be used for seating because
all
they don't have enough exits.
the way to
and a
large
the street
marquee.
With-
side galleries cannot
The first step in the
out defacing the building by
conversion was a masterful
hanging a sign from it, or
one, however, Few people have
removing the tower and much
heard of the Performing Arts
of the character and land-
Center at Bath;
mark quality of the building,
southern coastal Maine resi-
the architects have created
dents have heard of the Choco-
a modern, horizontal equiva-
late Church.
lent to the medieval tower.
Arts Center stands on a
It signals the location of
hillside, on the main street
the new main entry, serves
of an old New England Town
as a local
landmark and makes
but, many
The Performing
and is brown.
The building
clear the juxtaposition of
had been white when it was
old and new.
acquired by the Performing
The conversion architect
Arts Center, and it had been
and the director of the Per-
white for as long as anyone
forming Arts Center at Bath
could remember.
are frustrated by the nitty
listed on the National Register,
When
it
was
104
the local preservation society
church buildings and property
examined it and discovered
as a way to proclaim his
that its original color had
newly won independence from
been brown.
With one paint
Rome and his new position as
job, necessary to physically
the head of the Anglican
preserve the building, the
church.
former church was given a very
churches were converted
powerful new image and was
through the arrangement of
made historically "correct."
furnishings to the new re-
The case studies discussed in this investigation
are all
examples of attempts,
While most parish
quirements of worship, large
monastic structures and other
significant church buildings
with varying degrees of suc-
were converted into ruins,
cess, to sympathetically con-
granaries and arsenals.
vert the building to another
later Puritan Civil War re-
use.
Church conversions have
The
sulted in further symbolic
not always been the result of
conversion of ornate Anglican
a design or nostalgic sensi-
cathedrals to simple Puritan
bility, however.
Ever since
houses of worship.
Stained
minarets were added to
glass windows were systema-
Hagia Sophia in order to con-
tically smashed and heads
vert it to a mosque, church
knocked off of statues of
conversions have often come
saints.
about as a result of poli-
In France, the Revolution
tical or social upheavals.
of 1789 resulted in the con-
The space of church buildings,
version of churches to barracks,
which has always been designed
prisons, warehouses, market
to proclaim a message or
halls, china factories, and
strong image, has often been
stables.
altered or reused to proclaim
advent of the Soviet Socialist
an equally powerful yet contra-
Republic
ry message.
of churches to anti-religion
Henry VIII used the conversion and destruction of
museums.
In Russia, the
saw the conversion
In the United States,
the predominantly Protestant
105
which tends to
tradition,
an abandoned church can be
regard the building more as
answered, in fact, very
a meeting house and less as
briefly: don't tear it down.
a holy place, and the theore-
In most urban environments
tical separation of church
it is either one of the last
and state, makes church
remnants of low rise building,
buildings somewhat less sym-
an important break in
Their conver-
bolic of power.
sion to
another
use is
thus
rarely a result of symbolic
malicious intent.
Thus,
sweeping strings of row houses, or one of the few remaining examples of proud craftsmanship and rich ornamenta-
inappropriate uses for a
tion.
church building can be deter-
once it has been saved?
mined by the intent or mo-
worship or imitate it.
tivation of the converter
should be converted to a new
and must be established by
use with the same vigor yet
a dialogue within the com-
the same level of care that
munity involved.
was exhibited in its original
Thus far, this discus-
What to do with it
desian or construction.
Don't
It
The
sion has taken primarily a
original building was built
positive approach to the
with a careful blend of
question of how and why to
current
reuse an abandoned church
of tradition, modification
building.
The discussion has
fashion, comprehension
according to use requirements,
centered on how a church
and, awareness of image and
conversion should be done.
the urban context.
In conclusion, the issues
sion should be designed with an
discussed in the previous
equally sensitive blend.
sections can be put into
relief by briefly discussing
what not to do in a church
conversion.
The answer to the question of what not to do with
The conver-
Wo(.
107
FOOTNOTES
1.
Marcus Binney, "England:Loss," Change and Decay,
Marcus Binney and Peter Burman, eds., Studio Vista,
London, 1977, pp. 27-41.
2.
Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, MIT Press, Cambridge,
1960, pp. 78-80.
3.
Douglas Tucci, Built in Boston, New York Graphic
Society, Boston, 1978, pp. 43-35.
4.
Lewis Mumford, Back Bay Boston: The City as a Work
of Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1969, pp. 18-35.
5.
John D. Cushing, "Town Commons of New England 1640-1840,"
Old Time New England, Vol. LI, No. 3, Jan-March 1961,
pp. 67-94.
6.
Howard Saalman, Medieval Cities, George Braziller,
New York, 1968, pp.
7.
G.B. Nolli, Pianta di Roma, Biblioteca apostolica
vaticano, Citta del Vaticano, 1932.
8.
J.G. Davids, The Secular Use of Church Buildings,
SCM
Press, London, 1968, pp. 142-155.
9.
Kevin Lynch, What Time
is This Place, MIT Press,
Cambridge, 1972, pp. 55-60.
10.
Donlyn Lyndon,
"Five Ways to People Places,"
Architec-
tural Record, Vol. 158, Sept. 1975, pp. 89-94.
108
11.
Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past, Vol.
1,
Random House, New York, 1956, pp. 105.
12.
Pierre Schneider, "Converging the Past,"
Architecture
Plus, Vol. 2, No. 2, March/April 1974, p. 65.
13.
Victor Hugo, quoted by Pierre Schneider, op. cit.,
p. 66.
14.
Ibid.
15.
Pierre Schneider, op. cit., p. 67.
16.
Charles Jencks and Nathan Silver, Adhocism, Doubleday
& Co.,
17.
Inc., 1972, p. 73.
Stanley Abercrombie, "Recycling," Architecture Plus,
Vol. 2, No. 2, March/April 1974, pp. 37.
18.
Change and
Patrick Brown, "New Uses for Churches,"
Decay, Binney & Burman eds., Studio Vista, London,
1977,
19.
pp.
163-170.
Sherban Cantacuzino, New Uses for Old Buildings,
Watson-Guptill, New York, 1975, pp. 1-26.
20.
J.G. Davies, The Secular Use of Church Buildings, SCM
Press, London, 1968.
21.
Violet-le-Duc, quoted by Lo Yi Chan in "Hospice," AIA
Journal, Vol. 65, December 1976, pg. 43.
22.
Bruno Bettelheim, A Home for the Heart, Knopf, New York,
1974, p. 75.
23.
Erwin Panofsky, Abbot Suger, Princeton University Press,
Princeton 2nd Edition, 1979, p. 57.
24.
J.G. Davies, op. cit., pp. 40-46.
25.
Patrick Brown, op. cit.,
26.
Ibid.,
27.
Sherban Cantacuzino, op. cit.,
28.
E.
p.
167.
p. 169.
p.
3.
de Selincourt and Lelen Darbishire, The Poetical
Works of William Wordsworth, Vol. 3, Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1954, p. 63.
109
29.
Rudolph Arhneim, The Dynamics of Architectural Form,
University of California Press, Berkeley, 1977,
pp. 208-220.
30.
Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, Steven Izenour,
Learning from Las Vegas, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1972,
pp. 104-148.
31.
Ibid, p. 130.
32.
Richard Krautheimer, Early Christian and Byzantine
Architecture, Penguin Books, Inc., Baltimore, MD,
1965, pp. 20-22.
33.
Bruno Zevi, Architecture as Space, Horizon Press,
New York, 1974, p. 80.
34.
Ibid.
35.
Vincent Scully, The Earth, the Temple and the Gods,
Yale University Press, New Haven, 1962, p. 1.
36.
Camillo Sitte, City Planning Accordinq to Artistic
Principles, Random House, New York, 1965, p. 28.
37.
Robert Venturi, op. cit.,
38.
NTHP, "the Tax Reform Act of 1976: An Update,"
Preservation News, The Preservation Press, Washington,
D.C., January 1979, pg. 8.
39.
Robert Venturi, op. cit.,
pg. 53.
p.
54.
110
111
Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation. Report to the
President and the Congress of the United States,
1978,
Wasnington, D.C.:
U.S.
Government Printing
Office, 1978.
3loomer, Kent and Charles Moore. Body, Memory and Architecture,
dew Haven: Yale University Press, 1977.
Bunnell, Gene.
Built
ervation Press,1977.
to Last,
Washington,
Caldwell, William. Maine Magic, Portland:
D.C.:
The
Pres-
Gannett Press,1979.
Cambridge Historical Commission. MidCambridge, Cambridge:
Cnarles River Press, 1967.
Cantacuzino, Sherban. Architectural
Conservation
London: The Architectural Press, Ltd.,1975.
in
Europe,
Cneswick Center.
Th Challenge.of Underused Cnurch Property
and tne Searcn for Alternatives, Boston: Cheswick Center,1975.
Diamonstein,
Barbaralee.
Buildings
Reborn,
New York:
Harper
Row,1977.
Kertesz, Andre.
Wasnington SquareNew York: Grossman,1975.
Of New York, New York: Alfred Knopf, 1976.
Moore, Charles and Gerald Allen. Dimensions,
Arcnitectural
Record Books, 1976.
New York:
National Bureau of Standards. Assessment of Current Building
Regulatory Methods to the Needs of Historic
Preservation
Projects, Wasnington. D.C:U.S. Gov't Printing Office, 1978.
112
"Centres Historiques" L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui,
complete
issue devoted to revitalization
of historic
downtowns,180:1975.
"Reconversion" L'arciiitecture
devoted to adaptive reuse,
d'Aujourd'hui,
194:Dec.1977.
"Town Commons of New England" by John D.
New England, vol.62 pg.86,173 and 195.
Jencks, Cnarles and George Baird.
New York: George Braziller,1969.
Cox,
Harvey.
Tie Secular City,
Cushing.
Meaning in
New York:
pjohn's
Rural
Arcnitecture,
New York:
are
listed
Architecture,
for Old First
Da Capo Press,
1975.
New York:
Da
Capo Press,
1972.
1833.
Stanton, Phoebe. The Gothic Revival
Arcnitecture, 1840-1856, Baltimore:
These references
the footnotes.
Old Time
1852.
The Works of Asaer Benjamin V,
originally published in
issue
Macmillan,1966.
Jones, Ezra and Robert Wilson. What's Ahead
Church?, New York: Harper and Row, 1974.
originally publisned in
complete
in
and American Church
Johns Hopkins Press,
addition
to those
cited
in
1968.
113
With many thanks to:
the architects, managers and other officers of
converted churches who took time to talk to me;
to Ed Allen who also gave time and encouragement;
to fellow thesis students who had a good time;
to Paula and Andrea who helped save time.