AMERICAN EXPATRIATES:
AN INQUIRY EXAMINING KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER AND ACQUISITION
by
Patricia Matisz Smith
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Capella University
October 2004
© Patricia Matisz Smith, 2004
AMERICAN EXPATRIATES:
AN INQUIRY EXAMINING KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER AND ACQUISITION
by
Patricia Matisz Smith
has been approved
October 2004
APPROVED:
ZHENHU JIN, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair
MICHAEL J. LAIBE, Ph.D., Committee Member
CARL BEEKMAN, Ph.D., Committee Member
PATRICIA ANN HAUPT, Ph.D., Committee Member
CHRISTOPHER J. GLADIN, Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
__________________________________________
ZHENHU JIN, Ph.D.
__________________________________________
KURT LINBERG, Ph.D.
Executive Director, School of Business
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between personal characteristics,
successful experience, and knowledge transfer and acquisition by American expatriates who
have worked for a profit-seeking enterprise in a foreign country for at least nine months. The
expatriates who participated in this study were mature, energized individuals. They were very
comfortable in their jobs and in environments of their own choosing. They spoke with pride of
their accomplishments in the foreign business culture and identified personal characteristics that
promoted their success. They well understood their role as knowledge transmitters. Acquisition
of knowledge was not a simple byproduct of the experience but was an integral part of their
working life.
Quantitative analysis was done with SPSS and utilized non-parametric tests
Kendall's tau-b, Gamma, and Spearman's Rho. Quantitative and qualitative analysis supported
the findings of relationships between personal characteristics, successful experience, and
knowledge transmittal and acquisition.
Dedication
This dissertation and degree are dedicated to my daughter Caroline and son Carlowen and to my
husband Carl. They always believed in me.
iii
Acknowledgements
To North Carolina Wesleyan College for a year of sabbatical leave. To Dr. Zhenhu Jin and my
dissertation committee who helped in many ways. To the many expatriates who participated in
my study.
iv
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
iv
List of Tables
vii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1
Introduction to the Problem
1
Background of the Study
2
Statement of the Problem
3
Purpose of the Study
4
Rationale
4
Research Questions
5
Significance of the Study
5
Definition of Terms
5
Nature of the Study, or Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
6
Assumptions and Limitations
7
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
9
Knowledge Transfer in MNCs
16
Classics of Knowledge Management
24
Knowledge Transfer and Communications Technology
28
Understanding Knowledge Transfer
32
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
37
Critique of Online Surveys
38
Designing the Online Survey
41
Data Analysis
43
Hypotheses
43
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
46
Description of the Sample
50
Hypothesis Testing
51
Test of Hypothesis H1A
60
v
Test of Hypothesis H1B
62
Test of Hypothesis H2
64
Test of Hypothesis H3
66
Final Tests
69
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
72
Discussion
73
Implications for Future Study
74
Summary
75
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONS
APPENDIX B TABLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
APPENDIX C INDUSTRY GROUP
APPENDIX D COUNTRIES REPRESENTED
APPENDIX E TABLE RESULTS OF SPSS NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
APPENDIX F SAMPLE E-MAIL INVITATION
vi
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83
85
86
87
88
90
List of Tables
Table 1. Five-Point Likert Scale.
48
Table 2. Four-Point Expectations Scale
49
Table 3. Kendall's tau-b and Gamma Values and Strength of Relationship
54
Table 4. Personal Characteristics Questions (PC)
55
Table 5. Knowledge Transfer Questions (KT)
57
Table 6. Knowledge Acquisition Questions (KA)
58
Table 7. Successful Experience Questions (SE)
59
Table 8 SPSS Output Mann-Whitney U Test
70
vii
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem
In the current era of globalization, the human factor is the key to success of multinational
organizations. Access to capital is not the limiting factor to increasing globalization. The
limiting factor is the constraint of available human resources. In the global economy the
competitive advantages of multinational corporations reside in its people. Moreover, the ability
of an organization to leverage the intellectual capital of people and send it through the
organization builds lasting advantages (O'Keeffe, 2003). Knowledge acquisition by expatriates
may be undervalued as a strategic objective of such assignments (Hocking, Brown, & Harzing,
2004).
Expatriate managers of multinational corporations have a special role in developing and
transmitting knowledge (Harzing, 2001). An expatriate is an employee who is a citizen of one
country and is working in another country. They are one source of human capital that is
available to the multinational. The multinational corporation must maximize productivity by
acquiring, communicating, and transferring knowledge of expatriates. Learning gained by
expatriates should be transmitted back to theparent organization.
Knowledge is the most important factor of production in the modern economy.
Knowledge is the key to achieving competitive advantage. At a recent business conference, the
editorial director of Harvard Business School Publishing asked two questions. "What is the most
crucial to the success of your company? Is it the tangible assets including the financial assets
and plant and equipment? Or is it knowledge, the skills of the people, and other intangible
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2
assets?" The 700 attendees' vote was unanimous that it is not the hard assets but the people that
determine the success or failure of a company (Felton & Finnie, 2003, p. 49).
Multinational corporations (MNC) must be learning organizations. The learning systems
model is specific about the factors that relate to success. The first factor is that the organization
must have well-developed core competencies which are the basis for new products and services.
Next the organizational culture must encourage continuous improvement. Finally the "new"
knowledge must at some point replace the "old" and the organization must change. New
knowledge must be created to be competitive. The global economy requires companies to
depend less on low-cost labor and more on the education and technical competence of host
countries (Wright, Geroy, & MacPhee, 2000).
Background of the Study
An organization that acquires and transmits knowledge gained by its expatriates will gain
strategic advantages. Jack Welch, legendary CEO of General Electric states firmly:
The Jack Welch of the future cannot be like me. I spent my entire career in the U.S. The
next head of General Electric will be somebody who spent time in Bombay, in Hong
Kong, in Buenos Aires. We have to send our best and brightest overseas and make sure
they have the training that will allow them to be the global leaders who will make GE
flourish in the future (Black, Gregerson, Mendenhall, & Stroh, 1999, p.1).
One goal of using expatriates is that foreign operating entities will gain knowledge when
they are present. Another is that the parent organization benefits from the acquired knowledge
when expatriates return to the parent organization. Expatriates contribute to the knowledge core
competency of the MNC. All these benefits are present when the right people are selected for
Expatriates and Knowledge
3
the right reasons. Senge (1999) says, "Over the long run, superior performance depends on
superior learning" (Felton & Finnie, 2003; Senge, 1990; 1999, p.12).
Explicit knowledge is that which is written down or codified. It is one type of knowledge
that is transferred in an organization. Unwritten or tacit, knowledge is also exchanged while an
expatriate is on assignment overseas. Is there a corresponding acquisition from host-country
nationals? Miesing, Kriger, and Slough (2004) show the need for research into the specific types
of relationships and activities that increase effective knowledge transfer in multiple directions in
transnational organizations. The elements of the problem include the level of trust, interpersonal
bonds, networks, and receptivity to learn (Miesing, Kriger, & Slough, 2004). Hocking et al.
(2004) state that knowledge acquisition by expatriates is an undervalued strategic objective.
Statement of the Problem
Qualitative, quantitative, and conceptual studies have been written on the subject of
expatriate knowledge transfer. The current work will build upon the findings of recent studies.
Both expatriates and host-country coworkers must be willing to absorb new knowledge.
Expatriates transfer and acquire knowledge while on assignment. Is there an association between
personal characteristics and effective knowledge acquisition and transmittal? What combination
of personal factors and characteristics will promote knowledge transfer and lead to a successful
expatriate experience? For the purposes of this study, successful expatriate experience is defined
as one where the expatriate has received a satisfactory rating on personnel evaluations. What are
the best characteristics of the best people that lead to the best experience?
Expatriates and Knowledge
4
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine personal characteristics that affect knowledge
exchange between Americans living and working in foreign countries and host-country
coworkers. It will assess personal characteristics that lead to effective knowledge transmission
and acquisition, and a successful expatriate experience.
Expatriates are often sent for the expressed purpose of transmitting explicit knowledge.
It is proposed that they also acquire knowledge, particularly tacit knowledge. Explicit
knowledge is codified and is transmittable in formal systematic language while tacit knowledge
has a personal quality and is difficult to formalize and communicate (Nonaka, 1994). This study
seeks to understand and discover the linkage and relationship between expatriate personal
characteristics and knowledge transfer and acquisition. It is proposed that selected personal
characteristics of expatriates are related to knowledge exchanges.
The dissertation research will concentrate on personal characteristics that promote
knowledge transfer and acquisition by expatriates and relate this exchange to a successful
expatriate experience. The study will determine whether the expatriate's personal characteristics
involving willingness to teach and learn affects transfer and acquisition of knowledge. It will
attempt to determine whether the level of an expatriate's willingness to learn is related to
acquisition of knowledge from host country national coworkers.
Rationale
The survey of expatriates will provide data on personal characteristics that facilitate
knowledge transmittal and acquisition while leading to a successful expatriate experience. These
characteristics may then be used to select individuals for future assignments overseas.
Expatriates and Knowledge
Research Questions
The research questions were:
Which set of personal characteristics signify a willingness to teach and learn?
Is there a relationship between these personal characteristics and knowledge transfer and
acquisition by expatriates?
Is there a relationship between knowledge transfer and acquisition by expatriates and a
successful experience?
Significance of the Study
This study has the potential of identifying a set of personal characteristics in expatriates
that are related to transmitting and acquiring knowledge. This set of characteristics may help
multinational organizations in the selection process of individuals for expatriate assignments by
identifying key characteristics. The multinational organization will then gain strategic benefits
through the acquisition of knowledge by those individual expatriates.
Definition of Terms
For the current study, an expatriate is an employee who is a U.S. citizen living and
working in a foreign country (CNN Money Glossary 101, n.d.). The word repatriate is very
seldom used to indicate one who has returned home. It is most often used as a verb for the
process of returning profits from a foreign subsidiary to the home country. This study includes
respondents who have already returned home, and are sometimes called returned expatriates. It
is most unfortunate that there is not a single word with a common understanding to describe the
status as well as the experience.
5
Expatriates and Knowledge
6
Nature of the Study, or Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
The study asked Americans who have spent at least nine months in a foreign posting
various questions about activities and relationships in order to determine willingness to transmit
and acquire knowledge. These survey questions examined several areas of personal
characteristics and activities. These include (a) individual efforts to educate oneself by locating
information about the surroundings, (b) individual efforts to find means of getting things
accomplished, (c) ability to contact and cooperate with host-country coworkers, and (d) usage of
computer assisted communications to increase knowledge exchange. This self-reported data will
consider circumstances around sharing information and working cooperatively with host-country
nationals and focus on willingness to transmit and acquire knowledge.
This dissertation research consists of an online survey of a convenience sample of
Americans who are working or have worked in a foreign country for at least nine months.
Respondents were solicited by personal invitations. Because the study analyzes personal
characteristics, respondents represent many industries groups and various countries. Current and
former expatriates are included in the survey of personal characteristics.
Several open-ended questions are included in the survey. Fowler (2002) finds advantages
to open ended questions. The answers may be unanticipated and describe the real views of the
respondents more closely. He also finds that respondents like the opportunity to answer some
questions in their own words (Fowler, 2002).
Successful expatriate experience is also self-reported in the survey. Questions determine
how the organization and host-country coworkers evaluated the expatriate's work productivity,
Expatriates and Knowledge
7
achievement and interaction with people. Self-reporting of such information is a standard
technique in studies that utilize survey tools.
Assumptions and Limitations
Data was collectedby an online survey of Americans who have lived and worked in a
foreign country for at least nine months. Respondents were located by a convenience sample in
which the researcher has the freedom to choose whoever is found. A convenience sample is
simple and less expensive than random sampling. The convenience sample has no controls to
ensure precision but Cooper and Schindler (2002) declare that it is a useful procedure. It is a
method to test ideas or to gain ideas about a subject of the study. Results of a convenience
sample might produce evidence that is so compelling that a more sophisticated sampling
procedure is unnecessary.
Respondents were located by the snowball technique; this design has become popular in
recent years in studies where respondents are difficult to identify and are located through referral
networks. Individuals are selected who identify others who in turn identify others. The
"snowball" gathers individuals as it rolls along (Cooper & Schindler, 2002).
The research was conducted by a survey of the attitudes and memories of individuals. It
is assumed that by their consent to the survey, respondents will make a reasonable effort to
answer completely and truthfully. The researcher must utilize the responses as trustworthy
whether the memories are from yesterday or last year. Two recent dissertations on
characteristics of expatriates utilized a similar strategy. These are Gardner (2002) for New
Mexico State University and Eschbach (1996) for Saint Louis University (Eschbach, 1996;
Gardner, 2002)
Expatriates and Knowledge
8
Questions on these two dissertation surveys concerned events that occurred while on
assignment and asked the respondents how effectively they worked in the foreign environment.
Gardner (2002) states that, "A convenience sample is used in this study [of returned expatriates]
due to the difficulty of locating a random sample of expatriates to participate in this type of
study" (p. 40). Eschbach (1996) states, "Contacts in St. Louis and Chicago were used to start the
process of the snowball; the snowball design for data gathering is used where respondents
[expatriates] are difficult to identify and are best located through referral networks" (p. 53). A
search of UMI ProQuest database of dissertations with the search term "convenience sample" in
the abstract produced 2,668 results on March 30, 2004. A second search for "random sample"
produced 6,958 citations. Use of a convenience sample is an accepted practice in dissertations.
The design and implementation of the current research arose from personal experiences
of the researcher who was a United States Peace Corps volunteer in Malaysia from September
1973 to December 1975. During this time the experience was of working in a foreign country
alongside host-country nationals. The opportunity arose of meeting persons who worked for
profit-seeking enterprises and opportunity to observe their life and work. A lifelong fascination
with those who can adjust to working in a different culture and different country began at this
time.
The second major influence is 25 years as a college teacher. During this time, there arose
many opportunities to explore the ways people transmit and acquire knowledge. A commitment
to the education of traditional age and adult learners in the college setting combined with the
opportunity to conduct original research produced this topic.
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Goods and services in the modern economy are more knowledge intensive than ever
before. This leads to the need for understanding of the economy as knowledge-based. Learning
and change are accelerating. Organizational structures, technology fusion, and the information
technology revolution are all features of the knowledge economy (Bolisani & Scarso, 2000). In
previous years the economy was based on the Industrial Age in which the primary sources of
wealth were physical. "Things" were sold. Land, natural resources, and labor were the
ingredients to create wealth. Business organizations of the previous era were designed to attract
financial capital to develop and manage sources of wealth. In the new era, wealth is the product
of knowledge (Stewart, 1999).
Nonaka (1994) states that new knowledge is created by individuals, but organizations are
critical in amplifying and articulating that knowledge. An organization that deals dynamically
with a changing environment must process information efficiently and also create information
and knowledge. Information is defined as a flow of messages. Knowledge is defined as created
and organized by the flow of information. Knowledge is anchored on the commitment and
beliefs of its holder (Nonaka, 1994, p. 15).
In the classic 1966 book, The Tacit Dimension, Michael Polanyi states, "We know more
than we can tell" (as cited in Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001; Nonaka, 1994, p. 16). In other
words, knowledge that can be expressed in words and symbols is only "the tip of the iceberg of
the entire body of possible knowledge” (p.16). Polanyi classified human knowledge into two
forms explicit and tacit. Explicit is codified and is transmittable in formal systematic language.
Expatriates and Knowledge
10
Tacit knowledge has a personal quality and is difficult to formalize and communicate (Nonaka,
1994).
Explicit knowledge is discrete or digital. It is found in records of the past. Libraries,
archives, and databases contain explicit knowledge that can be accessed (Nonaka, 1994).
Objective knowledge has many synonyms; among them are articulated knowledge, articulable
knowledge, verbal knowledge, and declarative knowledge. Defining objective knowledge is a
way of highlighting what tacit knowledge is not (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001; Bolisani &
Scarso, 2000). The knowledge of an individual will be an exquisite combination of the two ideal
forms of knowledge explicit and tacit. This was first demonstrated by Michael Polanyi in his
1962 work, The Tacit Dimension as cited by many sources. He said "We know more than we
can tell." The idea that knowledge accumulated has two dimensions, the tacit and the explicit
stems from his work (as cited in Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001; Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000, p.
474; Bolisani & Scarso, 2000; Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000).
Tacit knowledge is transmitted both by language and observation. Imitation and practice
contribute to its transmittal. It is individual and geographically limited. People must transmit
tacit knowledge one to another and thereby create networks for exchanging knowledge
(Cohendet, Kern, Mehmanpazir, & Munier, 1999). Tacit knowledge is specific to a context. It is
acquired on-the-job or in that situation where it is used. It is rooted in actions of a craft or
profession. It utilizes particular technologies. Tacit knowledge may grow out of a work group
or team (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001).
Tacit knowledge has the characteristic of being difficult to write down. People with tacit
knowledge have difficulty explaining the decision rules that support their performance. It is very
Expatriates and Knowledge
11
personal knowledge and follows mental models that individuals use in certain situations. Tacit
knowledge is both cognitive and technical. The cognitive features include mental models of how
the world works. These models include schemata, paradigms, beliefs and viewpoints. The
technical characteristic of tacit knowledge includes know-how, crafts, and skills that pertain to
specific contexts (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001; Bolisani & Scarso, 2000; Nonaka, 1994).
Stewart (1999) uses a very broad definition of intellectual capital as the sum of an
organization's patents, processes, employee's skills, technologies, information about customers
and suppliers, and old-fashioned experience. It is necessary to think about knowledge from his
definition and then formulate a framework for transmittal in multinational corporations. The
primary reason for existence of multinationals is the ability to transfer and exploit knowledge
more effectively and efficiently in the intra-corporate context than through external market
mechanisms (Gupta, Govindarajan, & Malhotra, 1999).
Acquisition of knowledge or skill is a definition of learning. Individuals acquire tacit
knowledge by education, experiments, or experience. Organizations acquire knowledge much
differently because this only occurs when individual learning is shared and transferred to other
individuals. MNCs experience learning on a global scale. Involvement in foreign subsidiaries or
joint ventures exposes their personnel to all kinds of new experiences. The knowledge
accumulates from all the globalization efforts (Downes & Thomas, 2000).
As firms increasingly internationalize, they correspondingly increase their expatriate
population. This increases the knowledge of international business. As more experience is
gained, the use of expatriates may decrease. If there is a subsequent expansion in its
multinational exposure more expatriates will be used again.
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12
Companies that are expert in managing the assignments of expatriates have two primary
motivations for the effort. The first is to generate and transfer knowledge, and the second is to
develop global leadership skills (Black & Gregersen, 1999). Expatriates play an important role
in the creation and dissemination of knowledge throughout the life cycle phases of the MNC.
Globalization means conducting business across borders and expanding competition for
most organizations. Managers must learn to operate in diverse cultural surroundings. The urge
for market growth and cost reductions are driving globalization. Trade and political barriers are
foundering. The MNCs must commit themselves to becoming learning organizations (O'Keeffe,
2003)
Effectiveness encompasses competitiveness, efficiency, local responsiveness, flexibility,
and transfer of knowledge and learning (Schuler, Budhwar, & Florkowski, 2002). It is important
to note the prominence of transfer of knowledge and learning in the model. The limitation to
expansion on a global scale is not access to capital. The largest constraint is limitation in the
supply of human resources to effect the expansion (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2000b). This is why
MNCs must identify, develop, and keep expatriates who have gained experience and knowledge.
Varner and Palmer (2002) conclude that knowledge management of expatriates includes
collecting, storing, and disseminating information. These activities should take place during and
after the assignment (Varner & Palmer, 2002). An area for research would assess how much of
the knowledge is truly collected, stored, and disseminated. The organization should have a
system to manage the international knowledge acquired by expatriates.
Individuals acquire tacit knowledge by education or experiences. Expatriates share
knowledge in many directions on assignment and after returning to the home country.
Expatriates and Knowledge
13
Organizations acquire knowledge only when individuals share and transmit what they have
learned to others. If the value gained is recognized, the organization will achieve its strategic
objectives.
Multinational corporations that have formed from mergers and agreements have resulted
in islands of knowledge spread around the world. These islands require integration and
interaction. Competencies of these global corporations may have become fragmented. Cohendet
et al. (1999) have proposed that the major problem for the globalized firm is not one of unequal
distribution of information but instead is a problem of mobilizing and integrating fragmented and
diversified forms of localized knowledge and competence (Cohendet et al., 1999, Introduction).
These authors first discuss the theoretical difference between a firm conceived as a
processor of information and a firm conceived as a processor of knowledge. As a processor of
knowledge the firm is viewed as a place where competencies are continuously built, managed,
combined, transformed, tested, and selected. Knowledge is created and shaped by problemsolving activities. Knowledge and action interact on a deep level.
Cohendet et al. (1999) conclude that the use of telecommunications networks in
globalized firms promotes new methods of communications and helps to integrate the localized
competencies. An example of a new method of communications is when people are able to work
with each other in real time on the same documents. This helps codify the know-how and
knowledge for each of the participants (Cohendet et al., 1999).
Chai, Gregory, and Shi (2003) organized the major knowledge sharing mechanisms
utilized in global organizations. Mechanisms are methods, procedures, or processes involved in
how knowledge might be shared. The ten mechanisms include cross-border assignments;
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14
forums; electronic linkages; international teams; internal markets; boundary-spanning roles;
personnel flows; common systems and tools; rules, procedures, reports and manuals; and
international meetings or temporary assignments (Chai, Gregory, & Shi, 2003).
An important element in any of the ten mechanisms of transferring knowledge is thought
to be socialization. An example is given of the Matsushita engineer who developed an effective
bread maker only after acquiring skill during an apprenticeship with a baker. In this case the
tacit knowledge was transferred in a rich medium. Medium richness is defined as the medium's
capacity to change mental representations within a specific time interval. Face-to-face meetings
are the richest medium because such meetings have the ability to handle much information with
fast feedback (Chai et al., 2003, p. 708; Nonaka, 1991).
The study conducted by Chai et al. contains the purpose of building theory rather than
testing theory. The authors propose that framework and conceptual constructs are needed as
knowledge management is in its infancy. Later, they note more robust models will be developed.
The study consisted of eleven companies with manufacturing facilities in Asia and headquarters
in the United States or United Kingdom. Data was collected by semi-structured interviews with
senior technical managers and engineers. The research questions were, "What are the
mechanisms firms employ for inter-plant knowledge sharing? What are the contents of these
mechanisms? When and why one mechanism should be used instead of the other (p. 709)?”
The results found that the most popular approach in the eleven companies was transfer of
people. Each of the companies have expatriate(s) working on site. The international teams meet
periodically and electronic communications tools support the mechanisms. Advanced
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15
information and communications technologies (ICT) were used by all companies. E-mail is the
most widely used mechanism for knowledge sharing (Chai et al., 2003).
Expatriates are a common form of knowledge transfer in multinational corporations.
These are nationals of the home country of a multinational corporation who are sent to work in a
subsidiary in another country. Although much information can be transmitted using
telecommunications, companies continue to rely on expatriates in foreign operations. It is
proposed that the use of expatriates is essentially a knowledge transfer mechanism (Bonache &
Brewster, 2001).
In a study of the expatriate managers of a Spanish financial institution, Bonache and
Brewster (2001) found that much of the knowledge transferred between units was not explicit but
tacit. This multinational corporation (MNC) used expatriates extensively and relied on their
contribution. The knowledge transferred centered on the capacity for and understanding of
launching new products. It is knowledge embedded in the experience and skills of the people
involved. It is only revealed through its application. Tacit knowledge is not codified or written
down. It can only be demonstrated and observed upon application. Expatriates are a basic
mechanism to transfer tacit knowledge (Bonache & Brewster, 2001) .
Bonache and Brewster's (2001) study was a case study of only one MNC. The authors
utilized a hypothesis that if the knowledge to be transferred among units is of a tacit nature, the
company will make use of international assignments. If the knowledge has an explicit character,
it will be transferred by means such as manuals, meetings, etc. The findings clarified the linkage
between expatriates and competitive advantage. If the primary source of sustainable competitive
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16
advantage is tacit, the firm will use international assignments to transmit it (Bonache &
Brewster, 2001).
Bonache and Brewster (2001) justify the focus on knowledge by three lines of reasoning.
First, the emerging view of the multinational firm is that it is an institution for integrating
knowledge. Second there are three elements that are transferred within the multinational
enterprise (MNE). These are product, capital, and knowledge. Knowledge is the one that is
most closely related to human resources. It is people who have the knowledge and apply and
transfer it. Third, international assignments have the potential for being a knowledge transfer
mechanism (Bonache & Brewster, 2001).
Knowledge Transfer in MNCs
The challenge for multinationals is a problem of mobilizing and integrating the
framework of diversified local knowledge and competencies (Cohendet et al., 1999). There are
some ten mechanisms to share knowledge including electronic linkages, international teams,
personnel flows, and international meetings (Chai et al., 2003). In the 1990s, Samsung was a
company that was attempting to expand into international markets. It had products that were
equal to competitors'. However, managers were unaware of or denied the existence of negative
consumer perceptions in overseas markets. Samsung's products were well regarded in the home
market (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2000a).
The chairman of the corporation flew 100 senior managers to the United States to learn
how their products were seen. It was a traumatic visit. Products from competitors Sony and
Bang & Olufsen were prominently displayed in the front of the stores. Next were Philips,
Panasonic, and Toshiba. Finally in the back of the stores with "bargain sale" stickers they found
Expatriates and Knowledge
17
Samsung TVs and VCRs. There was a layer of dust on the quality finish of their products.
These managers clearly understood the work needed to change overseas consumers' expectations
(Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2000a).
It was tacit knowledge that was transferred that day to Samsung's top management. Tacit
is difficult to write down, it is personal knowledge and represents beliefs and viewpoints. A
report by a foreign manager to the top management that detailed the showroom's organization
would not have had the impact of that one day's experience. Knowledge was transferred to the
visiting executives by being present.
Many people have difficulty appreciating other cultures. This type of cultural chauvinist
thinks that other belief structures are inferior. However, expatriate managers do have a duty to
transfer knowledge. Creating an efficient, cost-effective organization is a demand placed on the
expatriate. It is part of the duty of an expatriate to transmit knowledge when the host country
staff turns to them for expertise. However, expatriates must remember that they are always
guests in the host country (O'Keeffe, 2003).
There are several principles in the way people learn and learn to adapt to other cultures.
Black et al. (1999) present a three stage process for learning. The first step is attention, which is
to see, attend to, and become aware of how locals behave. For example, an American manager
in Polynesia attended and observed local festivities. The second step is retention. The manager
must think about what has been seen and heard regarding the local culture and behavior in the
country. It is recommended that a "cognitive map" be developed. This details the behavior in
each circumstance what is eaten and how people acted. The American manager continues to
attend local gatherings. He makes careful mental notes of all stages of the occasion.
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18
In the final step the manager tries out the new behavior. After the occasion has been
observed and understood the manager may attempt to experiment with the new paradigm. This
requires that the cognitive map of the behavior be carefully checked with actual behavior. The
American manager may invite coworkers to a feast. He will make them comfortable by
emulating the food, music, and patterns he has observed in the past (Black et al., 1999). Host
country nationals react with pleasure that the local customs are honored by being upheld. The
expatriate makes the effort to emulate customs and is successful in hosting the party.
Leiba O'Sullivan et al. (2002) recommend that international assignments should be part
of a process of systematic job rotation. The repatriate's position in the home country should take
advantage of the skills, knowledge, and abilities developed while an expatriate. This is the
essential return on the investment of using expatriates, the transmittal of the knowledge
throughout the MNC. Downes and Thomas (1999) cite the policy of SmithKline Beecham
Corporation's "two-plus-two-plus-two" formula to develop top executives. It encourages its best
people to have experience in two business units, two functional areas and two countries. This is
one MNC that recognizes the competitive value of knowledge of individuals. Expatriation
benefits both the individuals and the organization (Downes & Thomas, 1999).
In a study of the determinants and outcomes of knowledge transfer to MNCs in China,
Wang, Singh, Koh, and Tong (2001) found that parent firms with greater capacity to teach skills
and with better expatriate competencies contribute more knowledge to the relationship. This
study focused on the parent's contribution of knowledge and the foreign subsidiary's acquisition
of knowledge. The four factors that facilitate or impede knowledge transfer are parent's capacity
Expatriates and Knowledge
19
and willingness to contribute knowledge, and the subsidiary's capacity and intent to acquire
knowledge.
The authors noted that much knowledge is tacit and difficult to specify and codify as it is
embedded in organizational routines and individuals. The ability of the parent to transfer
knowledge depends on the ability of its expatriate managers who must share experiences and
communicate knowledge to employees in the foreign subsidiary (Wang, Singh, Koh, & Tong,
2001).
The results show that the capacity of a firm to transfer knowledge is an important
predictor of knowledge contributed. The capacity of the subsidiary to learn is an important
predictor of knowledge acquired. They also showed that knowledge contributed is a strong
determinant of knowledge acquired. Knowledge acquired affects performance (Wang et al.,
2001).
This is an excellent study as it collected data from 297 responses from MNCs in China.
Foreign parent companies were from more than six different countries. The authors interviewed
85 senior managers from 64 of the firms. The article listed the dependent, independent, and
control variables. In contrast to the many theoretical articles, this work had field data to support
its conclusions. The model presented by the authors is also very helpful in understanding the
concepts presented.
Minbaeva, Pederson, Bjorkman, et al. (2002) also find that the absorptive capacity of the
subsidiary facilitates transfer of knowledge from other parts of the multinational corporation.
They found that both ability and motivation must be present to optimally facilitate knowledge
transfer.
Expatriates and Knowledge
20
They begin with the concept of absorptive capacity which is the ability to recognize the
value of new external information, assimilate it, and apply it to commercial ends. The absorptive
capacity of the receiving end is the most important determinant of internal knowledge transfer in
MNCs. They understand it to be a function of both competency and motivation. The study
looks at how absorptive capacity is created and developed in the firm and which human resource
management practices and organizational mechanisms increase it (Minbaeva, Pedersen,
Björkman, Fey, & Park, 2002).
This quantitative study utilized data on 241 foreign-owned subsidiaries located in three
countries. Only 169 observations were usable for data analysis. The human resource practices
that it studied included training, competence/performance appraisal, merit-based promotion,
performance-based compensation and internal communication. The study found support for the
hypothesis that the studied human resource management practices are positively related to
subsidiary employee abilities and motivation. The study was rigorous in its methodology and
provided some necessary data about the subject. In contrast to purely theoretical articles it added
to the understanding with qualitative data (Minbaeva et al., 2002).
Athanassiou and Nigh (2000) used quantitative methods to increase the understanding of
tacit knowledge in the management of multinational companies. Their study used the behavior
of members of the top management as an indicator of the tacit knowledge held by members. The
first behavior is the extent to which the members of the top management teams personally spend
time outside the home country in the various markets targeted by the multinational. The second
is the extent to which these managers meet face-to-face to discuss international business issues.
Expatriates and Knowledge
21
They demonstrated that to share tacit knowledge stocks, management members must
meet personally with employees in other countries. This transfer is required to reach informed
strategic decisions and to implement the resulting action. The research method used was
questionnaires completed by chief executive officers and other top management team members.
The dependent variable studied was the average number of weeks that the persons spent during
thee past year in the company's overseas markets. The average time for the team from each
company was calculated for use as an indicator of the overseas presence (Athanassiou & Nigh,
2000).
The independent variables were international sales as a percent of total sales and
international assets as a percent of total analysis. The authors found support for two of their
hypotheses. The more an MNC internationalizes, the more the top management team spends
time overseas in personal activities. The authors conclude that top management team members
develop their own tacit knowledge stocks by personal presence overseas. They share this tacit
knowledge with each other in face-to-face manner to evolve common interpretations and explicit
knowledge. The sharing of tacit and explicit knowledge is what is required to arrive at decisions
on worldwide matters (Athanassiou & Nigh, 2000).
In order to succeed internationally a firm must possess some advantageous, intangible,
knowledge-based assets. Recent work on the subject reveals that the tacitness of such
knowledge places limits on the extent and manner in which it may be utilized to support
corporate expansion. The greater the tacitness of the knowledge the more difficult will be the
transfer to other countries. This indicates the importance of the choice of entry strategy (Martin
& Salomon, 2003).
Expatriates and Knowledge
22
Martin and Salomon (2003) analyze the relationship between tacit knowledge held by a
multinational and the entry strategy pursued. Their conjecture is that knowledge with extremely
low tacitness is not highly distinctive. It could be imitated and has poor prospects in
international markets. A firm with little tacit knowledge probably does not enter foreign markets
at all. At the other end of the tacitness continuum, a firm with a high concentration of
knowledge is faced with transfer costs. If its knowledge is shared there is a great possibility of
loss of the knowledge through dissipation. The authors believe that it is the mid range of
tacitness that is the most plausible for the transfer of knowledge-based assets to a foreign
country.
This analysis states that at lower tacitness levels licensing is the preferred international
strategy. As tacitness increases alliances and wholly owned subsidiaries become favored.
Alliances and subsidiaries are means to protect valuable knowledge assets and reduce dissipation
to outsiders. At high tacitness levels the firm will prefer to export only. This discussion
attempts to show how knowledge shapes entry mode selection bythe MNC.
Multinational corporations are "bundles of knowledge." Their primary reason for
existence is the ability to transfer and exploit knowledge more effectively and efficiently in the
intra-corporate context than through external market mechanisms. Knowledge transfers take
place in an inter-organizational network of the units. There are at least three levels of analysis.
The nodal mode focuses on behavior of individual units. The dyadic focuses on joint behavior of
unit pairs.Systemic focuses on the behavior of the entire network of parts of the multinational
corporation. The study did not focus on transfer of declarative forms of knowledge such as
Expatriates and Knowledge
23
financial data but rather on the "know-how" type of knowledge (Gupta & Govindarajan, 2000, p.
473 - 474).
Gupta and Govindarajan (2000) study the following flows of knowledge. Knowledge
flows out to peer subsidiaries and to the parent corporation. Knowledge flows in from peer
subsidiaries and from the parent. One particular finding was that direct inter-subsidiary
interactions are becoming increasingly important.
Transmission channels may be both formal and informal. Some of the formal
mechanisms include liaison personnel, task forces, and permanent committees. These work to
integrate the subsidiary with other units. They also contribute positively to media richness.
Informal channels include interpersonal familiarity, personal affinity, and convergence in
cognitive maps among personnel from different subsidiaries. In other words, people should get
to know one another in order to create transmission channels. Expatriates constitute a formal
channel using this framework. Visits, telephone conversations, or video conferencing among
people constitute informal channels.
Gupta and Govindarajan (2000) also operationalize the feature of the proportion of local
nationals in the subsidiary's top management team. The units will have more connections if the
language and culture are held in common. Subsidiaries which employ more local nationals will
hold less in common with the parent corporation. Subsidiaries employing more local nationals
are expected to absorb less incoming knowledge from the parent. Their proposition states that
the greater the proportion of local nationals in the subsidiary's top management team, the less the
knowledge will flow in from peer subsidiaries and from the parent corporation. Their research
supported this proposition.
Expatriates and Knowledge
24
Subsidiaries that are more highly integrated with the parent will have greater knowledge
inflows. Subsidiaries whose president have been involved in socialization mechanisms with
corporate headquarters will also have greater knowledge inflows from the parent (Gupta &
Govindarajan, 2000).
Gupta and Govindarajan's (2000) study collected information from questionnaire surveys
and from secondary sources. They interviewed subsidiary presidents and corporate level
executives in six MNCs.
Nemanti (2002) creates a system that ties global knowledge management, information
technologies, and multinational frameworks together in a framework for research. The three
elements are (a) influencing factors, (b) knowledge management processes, and (c) knowledge
management outcomes. In this framework the specific influencing factors are cultural, MNC
firm structure, IT infrastructure, organizational and managerial issues, and industry specifics.
These lead to knowledge management processes of generalization, codification, transfer, and
realization. The knowledge outcomes are repository creation, access improvement, environment,
and asset management.
This framework could be used to devise a research question using one feature from each
of the three framework elements. For example the organization and management factor of using
expatriates enhances knowledge transfer and leads to the outcome of enhanced knowledge access
(Nemati, 2002).
Classics of Knowledge Management
Stewart (1999) declares that much of what passes for knowledge management is glorified
data processing. He points out the metaphor that knowledge is like sand at the beach house. It is
Expatriates and Knowledge
25
everywhere. It comes into the house from many directions. It is invisible even though you feel it
underfoot (Stewart, 1999). The top managers of Samsung found knowledge that day when they
used their handkerchiefs to brush the dust off the displays of their products. Managers and peers
at BP Amoco find it when they talk to workers on an ocean rig through a video conference.
Stewart (2000) describes another story about how knowledge is shared. A contest was
held at a customer call center to promote the use of a computerized help program. The software
was designed to be used to match the caller's description of a problem with a known correction.
The contest awarded points to workers whenever a problem was solved by whatever means. The
first-place winner with more than 900 points was Carlos. Carlos never used the software but
relied on his own knowledge to solve callers' problems.
The second place winner was a surprise. Trish had been with the company for only four
months, had no prior experience with copiers, and did not have the software at her desk. She
earned over 600 points in the contest, which was more than double the third-place winner. Trish
sat across from Carlos and listened when he talked. She persuaded him to show her the workings
of copiers during lunch breaks. She asked other people for tips. This shows much about how
knowledge gets shared. The software program had a proven track record of use and successes.
However, there are many other pathways to finding knowledge. Trish was the one who sat next
to Carlos and was able to utilize his knowledge (Stewart, 2000).
Attitudes toward knowledge have changed throughout recent business history. Thomas
W. Malone, a professor at the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, says that, "In the old world, information was very expensive, so we managed with
relatively small amounts of it; we developed organizations that could work in an information
Expatriates and Knowledge
26
desert." In the current era, storing, moving, and finding information is extremely cheap and
easy. This era is more like an information jungle. Survival techniques that worked well in a
desert will not be effective in today's jungle (Stewart, 1999, p. 130). Just as with parts held justin-case, information should be managed just-in-time.
Drucker (1995) described the shift to the information-based organization. Knowledge is
the primary resource for individuals and the economy. Land, labor, and capital the traditional
factors of production do not disappear but become secondary. It is specialized knowledge
integrated into tasks and utilized by organizations that will produce transformation (Drucker,
1995).
Stewart's (1999) definition of intellectual capital is the sum of an organization's patents,
processes, employee's skills, technology, information about customers and suppliers, and oldfashioned experience. Friedman (2004) writes in an opinion-editorial that the nine leading Arab
economies registered 370 patents for new inventions between 1980 and 1999. During that same
20-year period, South Korea alone registered 16,328 patents for inventions (Friedman, 2004).
Friedman notes that patents are a good measure of a society's education quality,
entrepreneurship, innovation, and rule of law. Friedman uses the comparison of number of
patents between the nine Arab economies and one small Asian country as a means to emphasize
problems in the world.
The use of patents as an indicator of the quality of knowledge and innovation in an
economy by an opinion writer is not surprising. No longer is it the industrial output, kilowatt
hours, freight-car loadings, or value of oil exports that is important. It is rather knowledge
created by individuals and utilized by organizations. Knowledge must be free to flow between
Expatriates and Knowledge
27
individuals. The dialogue between tacit and explicit knowledge creates value in the economy.
Knowledge is the most important factor of production. It is embodied in the people who created
it and hold it and make use of it.
Snowden (2003) discusses the history of the management of knowledge and sees the
current time as the third era of knowledge management. Each of these three eras required a
phase shift in the thinking of both academics and managers just as the shift from Newtonian to
quantum physics required a shift in scientific thinking. In the first age, before 1995, knowledge
was managed and the focus was on the correct structure and flow of information to decision
makers. Major business applications were computerized during this era (Snowden, 2003).
During this first era the enthusiasm for reengineering reduced employment in many
organizations. It was later noted that any efficiencies achieved were at the cost of effectiveness.
People were laid off in the reengineering process. These were people who had much experience
and talent. Among the failures of this era was that of not recognizing the value of knowledge
gained by individuals through experience. Another failure was in lack of recognition of
traditional forms of knowledge transfer such as apprenticeships. Finally the lack of
understanding of the collective nature of much knowledge is a significant deficiency (Snowden,
2003).
The transition to the second age of the management of knowledge begins in 1995. This is
coincident with the popularization of the organizational knowledge creation model of Nonaka
and Takeuchi. This theory attempts to answer the questions of how organizations process
knowledge and how they create new knowledge. The central theme of this model is that
organizational knowledge is created by dialogue that continues between tacit and explicit
Expatriates and Knowledge
28
knowledge. This model emphasizes the movement of knowledge between tacit and explicit
states using the four processes of socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization
(Nonaka, 1994; Snowden, 2003). This will be discussed and defined in a later section of the
paper.
A goal of early knowledge programs was to disembody all knowledge from the persons
who possessed it and make that knowledge an organizational asset. The third generation of
knowledge takes the concept of knowledge as a thing to managing it as a flow and as a thing. It
emphasizes the context more than the content (Snowden, 2003).
Tacit knowledge has been a difficult subject to study either by surveys or structured
interviews. A characteristic of tacit knowledge is that individuals have difficulty articulating
what is known. This characteristic creates a challenge for the researcher. A method must be
devised to capture the constructed reality of individuals that helps them make sense of the world.
Some researchers approach the topic from a social constructivist viewpoint. This is a belief that
the world is socially constructed that is that people construct the world. Even so, the world is
experienced as something more than merely a human construction (Ambrosini & Bowman,
2001).
Knowledge Transfer and Communications Technology
Information and communications technologies (ICT) promote the sharing of information.
Sources of knowledge and sources of information become known through the use of ICTs.
However, these technologies cannot reveal or share tacit knowledge which resides in persons and
is not codified. Roberts (2000) gives the case of two individuals residing on different sides of
the world who read the same e-mail message. The codified knowledge embedded in the message
Expatriates and Knowledge
29
may be shared. However, the tacit knowledge that each takes and understands from the message
may not be subsequently shared. It is possible that by using a video conference these individuals
may be able to transmit any tacit knowledge gained. However, if they have differing social and
cultural contexts, along with low levels of trust, the transfer may not take place. Roberts (2000)
believes that tacit knowledge may only be shared between individuals who work together within
a group.
ICTs may have shortcomings in the transfer of tacit knowledge which requires colocation and co-presence. Demonstrations that are made face-to-face along with the social
interaction involved are argued to promote the establishment of understanding and trust (Roberts,
2000).
Bolisani and Scarso (2000) also place limitations on the use of electronic
communications and transmittal of various forms of knowledge. The model proposed notes that
explicit knowledge may be communicated between organizations with a high degree of
automation. These systems require that context, language, and context be strictly predefined.
This is a limitation on such systems. At the opposite end, context communication allows the
interconnecting actors to exchange the interpretive framework for integrating the knowledge
transferred. In other words extremely rich contents, flexible, and transparent exchange may be
made. An example of this end is a videoconference.
They argue that the transmittal of tacit knowledge presents the greatest challenge to
electronic communications exchange. The purpose of such communication must be well defined
and clear. Tools should be used that handle a few tasks, such as simple databases that can be
manipulated (Bolisani & Scarso, 2000). The authors consistently underestimate the richness of
Expatriates and Knowledge
30
electronic communications and its ubiquity. Voice over internet protocol (VoIP) is one
technology that is widespread, affordable, and allows a rich transmittal of knowledge.
The key factor in assembling fragmented pieces of knowledge to develop and reinforce
the core competencies of the firm are the computerized telecommunications networks (CTN).
Integration is proceeding through the use of facilities and software for specific applications.
More importantly, services available on the network support new communication practices. The
virtual communication practices of electronic mail, inter-personal messaging, news groups,
Groupware, video-conferencing and desktop publishing lead to integration in the multinational
organization (Cohendet et al., 1999).
Data is a set of discrete objective facts about events. Data may or may not be relevant or
useful for a particular task. Information is data with form, content and time of transmission and
reception that are appropriate for a particular use. Information is involved in the content of a
message. It can influence judgment and behavior of the receiver. Knowledge is the combination
of information with an individual's ideas, procedures, and perception that guide one's actions and
decisions (Bolisani & Scarso, 2000, p. 118).
An important implication of these definitions is that information by itself cannot generate
new knowledge. Knowledge is not information alone. The technology chosen to transmit
information is not the most important facet of its management. However, there are significant
advances in the new technologies that have a significant impact on quantity and quality of
information that may be processed and transmitted (Bolisani & Scarso, 2000)
Communication technology supports expatriates in an emotional and informational
manner. A sense of community will develop for the expatriate during the assignment through the
Expatriates and Knowledge
31
use of Internet and e-mail technologies. That sense of community will aid the expatriate in
adjustment to the new environment. There is a notion that a "happy expat is a productive expat"
(Haupt, 1998, p. 98)
A call from London to New York cost 35% of its 1970 cost in 1996. In current dollar
terms it was only four percent of the cost. Telephone service has improved and direct dialing
between countries is common and uncomplicated (Daniels & Insch, 1998). Communication is
aided by the decreasing cost and increasing convenience.
Communications tools may change the way expatriates view the assignment and speed up
success in it. Future expatriates may find more satisfying and rewarding experiences because of
their facility with advanced communications technologies. Haupt (1998) notes that an increase
in communication among employees occurs with technology. The computer has become a tool
that is more important than the telephone. Transmitting learning and knowledge is an important
feature of the use of expatriates.
A study of expatriates and communications technology found 94% who believed that use
of these tools helped them to adjust. They were comfortable with the technology and used it on a
daily basis. More than half of the participants indicated that communication with family and
friends back home and their increased understanding of the situation contributed to positive
adjustment to overseas assignment (Haupt, 1998).
Surfing the net is another means to knowledge and understanding of the local culture and
people. The expatriate uncovers information in chat rooms and sites that may not have been
provided in the formal training. Haupt (1998) also indicates that expatriates may be more
productive when they communicate with others who are in similar situations.
Expatriates and Knowledge
32
An important issue in this discussion is the concept of people being considered a capital
investment. It is an expensive proposition when expatriates return prematurely or perform
poorly. Communications technology can be used by human resource personnel to increase the
potential of individuals. HRD support staff will also perform better with the use of technology.
The knowledge accrued by repatriates may also be passed onto the others. Future assignees will
gain expertise and knowledge through this means (Haupt, 1998).
Communications is an important aspect of the HRM at Molex Corporation. It has
instituted the Global Information System which connects employees all over the world with a
single communications link. It is a tool that will integrate technology, manufacturing, marketing
and administrative systems. A corporate goal is to have as many people as possible move around
the various operations and learn from each other (Laabs, 1999). Molex has identified the
primary purpose in having expatriates, the knowledge that will be shared within the organization.
This knowledge transfer is a core competency of the corporation.
Understanding Knowledge Transfer
Ambrosini and Bowman (2001) propose a system of research involving causal maps that
will reveal tacit skills of individuals under study. A causal map is a graphic representation which
consists of nodes and arrows that link items. The nodes are the constructs that the person
believes are important. The arrows show the relationships between the constructs. The artifact
of a causal map may represent subjective data with more meaning to the observer and respondent
than other means. Such maps are tools for reflective thinking and problem solving.
The authors propose that the study should be done as a group activity to enable all
members to reflect on their own and others' behavior. The group interaction and discussion are
Expatriates and Knowledge
33
intended to discover which tacit skills are valuable. The intent is to uncover a source of
competitive advantage utilizing a resource-based view of the firm.
Respondents are encouraged to tell stories and use metaphors in order to reveal the
picture of the organization under study. These qualitative research methods will produce
fragmented, partial, and biased results. The method, however, is expected to provide insights to
both participants and researchers into identifying the tacit skills needed for organizational
success (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001). For researchers who are skilled in interpreting the causal
maps or metaphors that are found, this is an excellent research tool. It is not an empirical
methodology and should only be used in skilled hands.
In a classic Harvard Business Review article, Nonaka (1991) writes of the Japanese
approach to creating new knowledge. It is not a processing of objective information but rather
depends on tapping the tacit and subjective insights, intuitions, and hunches of individuals. It
makes those insights available for testing and use by the company. Personal commitment and
the employees' sense of identity with the enterprise is a key to the process. Utilizing tacit
knowledge in actual technologies and products requires that the managers become comfortable
with analogies, slogans, and metaphors (Nonaka, 1991).
Nonaka (1991) continues to describe the knowledge-creating company as one that does
not have the identity of a machine but that of a living organism. This company is about ideals as
well as ideas. The innovation found in the company is part of a pattern of re-creating the world
according to the vision. And inventing new knowledge is not a specialized activity. It is not the
province of the research and development department, or of marketing or of strategic planning.
It is a way of being in which everyone is a knowledge worker (Nonaka, 1991, Introduction).
Expatriates and Knowledge
34
New knowledge begins with an individual who makes that personal knowledge available
to others. This is the central activity of the knowledge-creating company. The process can be
found in unexpected places. For instance Matsushita Electric Company worked diligently to
develop a bread maker in 1985. However, engineers in the company were unable to produce
good bread with the prototype machine. The crust was burned and the inside was not fully
cooked. They even compared X-rays of the dough kneaded by the machine with hand-made
dough but failed to find a better mechanism for the bread maker.
Finally a software developer proposed training with the head baker at the Osaka
International Hotel. This baker was known for the fine quality of the bread made. As an
apprentice, she observed that the baker had a distinctive manner of stretching the dough. After
some experimentation, the addition of special ribs inside the machine was found to reproduce the
baker's stretching technique. The product's unique "twist dough" produced a record first year
sales for a new machine. The chief baker possessed tacit knowledge that was transmitted to the
apprentice (Nonaka, 1991).
Tacit knowledge that is highly personal is difficult to formalize and to communicate. The
process of baking is deeply rooted in action and to an individual's specific craft or profession.
The apprentice baker learned the tacit knowledge directly from the baker. Tacit knowledge has a
cognitive dimension of mental models and beliefs. These models shape how we perceive the
world.
Nonaka (1991) suggests four basic patterns for creating knowledge in any organization.
The first is from tacit to tacit just as the baker' apprentice at the Osaka Hotel. She learned his
Expatriates and Knowledge
35
tacit skills through observation, imitation and practice. This is an example of socialization as a
form of knowledge creation.
The second pattern is from explicit to explicit known as the combination mode. This is
an amalgamation of discrete pieces of explicit knowledge into a new whole. The example of this
is of a comptroller who collects information from the company and puts it together in a financial
report. The report is new knowledge as it is a synthesis of information but it does not increase
the knowledge base of the organization (Nonaka, 1991, 1994).
The third pattern is from tacit to explicit as exemplified by the apprentice baker who
articulates the foundations of the tacit knowledge to the product development team. Nonaka
gives another example of the comptroller who uses the understanding gained from the finances to
create a new budgetary control based on his own tacit knowledge. This is called the
externalization mode (Nonaka, 1994).
The final pattern is from explicit to tacit or internalization mode. As explicit knowledge
is shared through the organization, employees begin to internalize it. The example is that of the
comptroller's new financial control system becoming just a part of the background of tools and
resources. All four of these patterns exist in a dynamic knowledge-creating company (Nonaka,
1991, 1994).
In a study focusing on American expatriates' learning in host countries Shim and Paprock
(2002) found that learning situations and information about the host country reduce difficulties
of expatriate life. The study considered the experiences that were most helpful and how
expatriates change and learn in the host country. Much attention has been placed on the
knowledge transferred by expatriates and less on the knowledge acquired by them. They
Expatriates and Knowledge
36
conclude that offering information about the host country from corporate headquarters would be
useful to expatriates in increasing learning (Shim & Paprock, 2002).
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
The empirical portion of this study was accomplished by conducting an online survey of
Americans who have experienced at least nine months working as an expatriate for a profitseeking enterprise. Because the study analyzed personal characteristics and activities,
respondents came from several industries and various countries. Current and former expatriates
were included as respondents to this survey of personal characteristics.
The survey was hosted by a third party, Empliant, Inc. of Chapel Hill, North Carolina,
using the trial survey tool. This commercial provider provides a means to "Create online surveys
and forms, collect and analyze feedback, and make informed decisions based on fact - not vague
assumptions." Because the survey was Web-deployed it was faster, better, and more costeffective (Empliant, 2003).
Individuals who completed the survey had complete anonymity. Each response is
identified only by a code of letters and numbers. The researcher had no access to any
identification information such as the IP address. Several respondents chose to identify
themselves in the last question.
Face validity of the questions was checked by two experts. Pilot testing was
accomplished by a panel of academics who have been expatriates and have conducted surveys
and studies. These included a recent expatriate and academic, and a recent Ph.D. on the subject
of expatriates. Each validator evaluated the questions and completed a practice session of the
online survey.
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38
All correspondence with respondents was guided by the policies of The Institutional
Review Board of Capella University. The purpose of the research was clearly stated and
explained. Correspondence included a description of the study procedures, the amount of time
subjects are being asked to contribute, and the nature of the questions or data to be collected. A
clear description of the confidentiality to be maintained was included. This research was
regarded as not having potential risk to the subjects (Capella University Institutional Review
Board Guidelines).
Critique of Online Surveys
There is an explosion in the use of online surveys to collect sample information that was
previously collected by other methods. A wide variety of application providers vie for the
quantitative and qualitative research being done on the Internet. The methodologies and best
practices developed over many years can be applied to online surveys; an online survey can be
valid, relatively free of errors, relevant, and scientific. Online surveys are a convenient and lowcost way to collect data for academic, commercial, and entertainment purposes (Taylor,
1999/2000).
The Internet is having a powerful influence on the survey research industry. Some
predict that the influence is so strong that soon all surveys will be conducted via online surveys.
Academic research is currently being conducted on the effect of the Web on survey data
collection (Couper, 2000).
Recently online surveys represented 5% to 10% of all market research. Academics and
practitioners have come to realize the potential in conducting surveys over the Internet. Some
claim the response rate for such surveys is lower than for other media. E-researchers may be
Expatriates and Knowledge
39
willing to accept lower response rates in exchange for the lower cost and greater convenience of
online surveys (Ray & Tabor, 2003).
An online survey may produce different results from its telephone equivalent. Online
surveys may have a lower response rate. Online respondents may differ demographically,
behaviorally, and psychographically from the general population which could affect the validity
of the survey. In contrast the Internet may reach people who are too impatient to respond to mail
surveys or not available by phone(Ray & Tabor, 2003) .
Cobanoglu, Warde, and Moreno (2001) conducted a study comparing mail, fax and,
Web-based surveys in a university setting. The article first summarized twelve major studies
previously done in university settings to determine and compare response speed, response rate,
and cost. The authors attempted to inform other researchers with design and implementation of
research to gain higher response rates. Mail surveys had high labor costs and required low
expertise to construct. Fax surveys had medium labor costs and medium expertise. Web-based
surveys had low labor with high expertise (Cobanoglu, Warde, & Moreno, 2001).
Three hundred surveys were sent to university professors, one hundred each by mail, fax,
and Web-based. For the Web-based surveys, an e-mail message was sent with a cover letter and
the Website address. A unique Website address was coded for each respondent to track each and
eliminate non-sample sources of answers. The researchers found the fastest method was fax at
four days, and the slowest was mail surveys over 17 days, e-mail/Web averaged six days. The
response rate was lowest for fax 17% and highest for Web 42%.
Statistical measures showed no significant difference between mail and fax. In terms of
cost there was a significant difference between mail and the other two. Coding for mail and fax
Expatriates and Knowledge
40
surveys was done manually and had a significant impact on the total costs (Cobanoglu et al.,
2001).
Although the fastest response was found by fax, the researchers felt that the slower e-mail
response rate was caused by professors who did not read e-mail for several days. The authors
concluded that e-mail/Web surveys had significant advantages in terms of time, cost, and ease of
analysis of responses with no significant deficiencies (Cobanoglu et al., 2001).
Another study was done outside the U.S. that utilized e-mail listings in a public telephone
directory. The response was about 50% and was thought to be an excellent rate. Responses
were tracked by embedding a unique identifier in the URL link for each individual e-mail
address. This helped to eliminate multiple responses. These researchers found that Web surveys
are no less valid than other forms of data collection. Eliminating data entry errors may also
improve validity (Ray & Tabor, 2003).
And finally, the Harris Interactive online poll of 2000 was a watershed when it correctly
predicted 26 of 38 closely contested states in the U.S. presidential election. It was the only poll
to predict the statistical dead heat in the race between Gore and Bush. The company states that
net surveys are much cheaper to administer. They find that people do not tolerate telephone
calls. People have to opt in to the Harris poll by clicking on a Web site and answering an e-mail.
Response rates are higher and are free of the biases caused by the subtleties caused by the
differences in verbal communications of individual interviewers who phrase or ask questions
using differing verbal signals. Even a single interviewer may ask the question with differing
emphasis in differing situations. Harris finds the future is in online polling (Einhart, 2003)
Expatriates and Knowledge
41
Designing the Online Survey
Don A. Dillman (2000) is a respected author of the definitive work on survey design Mail
and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method. He presents eleven principles for designing
Web questionnaires. These are based on many years of research on paper questionnaires and
assessment of many Web surveys. Dillman considers these to be "hypotheses" as many are
untested in experimental circumstances (Dillman, Tortora, & Bowker, 1998).
The introduction to the survey should be a welcome screen that motivates, emphasizes
the ease of responding, and gives instructions for actions to go forward. The first question
should be fully visible on the first screen. It should be easily understood and answered by all
respondents. This will generate interest and confirm the value of continuing. The authors urge
that each question be presented in a conventional format that is similar to the method used on
paper questionnaires.
Each question should begin with a number and the question should be separated from the
answer spaces. The answer prompts should be listed vertically and to the left of descriptions.
Research has indicated that brightness, larger fonts, and spacing should be used to clearly spot
the beginning of each question. Design features should be consistent (Dillman et al., 1998).
The length of lines should be limited to decrease the occurrence of long lines breaking or
extending across the screen. Reading prose is a process that is uneven, words may be skipped.
Shorter line length assures that the respondent reads each critical word (Dillman et al., 1998).
Specific instructions should be given on the computer actions needed to respond in each
answer space. Radio buttons (circles) involve clicking on another button to erase a previous
answer. Check boxes (square) require a second click to erase. Some respondents may not know
Expatriates and Knowledge
42
that a drop-down menu reveals hidden categories. Open-ended answers, entered in a text box,
may have much more space than shown on the screen. All surveys should provide instructions at
the point where the respondent may need the information. A long list of instructions at the
beginning of the survey is likely to make little impact later on when it is needed (Dillman et al.,
1998).
The authors firmly believe that respondents should not be required to give an answer to
each question before being allowed to go on to other questions. The penalty of not being
allowed to proceed may cause some respondents to abandon the survey. Additionally, human
subject protection standards insist that responses are voluntary. There may be legitimate reasons
to avoid giving an answer (Dillman et al., 1998).
The next principle advises that questionnaires should be constructed so that scrolling
reveals the next question to be answered. The next relevant question is revealed to the
respondent and any non-required questions are hidden. This eliminates the need to scroll past
large numbers of questions that are not required. They also advise that when the number of
answer choices require a large viewing area, that these be placed in tight columns and avoid
scrolling to another screen to see the entire set of answers. Vision is limited to about 8-10
characters, this makes seeing all the choices difficult. They recommend a box around all the
choices to keep the group visually together (Dillman & Bowker, 2003; Dillman et al., 1998).
Respondents should be kept informed of their movement through the survey by a
progress indicator. These take the form of a dial or bar with percent completed indicated. When
a paper survey is administered, participants have continual tactical and visual feedback on their
Expatriates and Knowledge
43
movement through the task. Computer users should get the same feedback (Dillman & Bowker,
2003).
Finally they advise avoiding question structures that have known difficulties. These
include check-all- that- apply and some open-ended questions. In a telephone survey, people are
not asked to check-all- that-apply, but rather to respond positively or negatively sequentially to
each choice. When confronted with a large list of check boxes, people will often check enough
to feel that they have acceptably answered the question. This is called satisficing. On paper
questions, people will often give very short answers to open-ended questions. These are often
broken up into smaller parts to elicit more information. However, some research has indicated
that Web surveys may elicit fuller answers to open-ended questions (Dillman & Bowker, 2003;
Dillman et al., 1998).
Data Analysis
The survey was available online during May, June, and July of 2004. Raw data was
downloaded from Empliant's servers to be saved on a personal computer. It was subsequently
transferred to Excel and SPSS for analysis. Text answers were analyzed for content and key
words.
Hypotheses
The survey collected data from Americans who have had at least nine months working as
an expatriate. Areas of inquiry concentrated on personal characteristics and activities. These
include but are not limited to (a) individual efforts of self-education by locating information
about the surroundings, (b) efforts to transmit information and accomplish tasks, (c) ability to
Expatriates and Knowledge
44
contact and cooperate with coworkers and, d) useof computer -aided communications to increase
knowledge exchange. Willingness to transmit and acquire knowledge as seen by activities
involved in teaching and learning are personal characteristics that were studied. A successful
expatriate experience is one in which personnel evaluations are favorable.
Relational hypotheses are statements that describe a relationship between two variables
with respect to some cases. Correlational hypotheses state merely that the variables occur
together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other (Cooper &
Schindler, 2002). In the form of an alternative hypothesis, "the investigator makes a prediction
about the expected outcome for the population of the study" (Creswell, 2003, p. 110). By
utilizing previous studies, the researcher makes predictions about the outcome and works from
the alternative hypothesis. The literature has suggested an outcome that may be expected. A
directional hypothesis suggests the direction of the outcome (Creswell, 2003).
The following hypotheses were crafted based on an extensive literature search and the
indications for future research of major journal articles.
H1A
There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics and knowledge
transfer from expatriate Americans to host-country coworkers.
H1B
There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics and knowledge
acquisition by expatriate Americans from host-country coworkers.
H2
There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics and a successful
expatriate experience
H3
There is no relationship between knowledge acquisition by Americans and a
successful expatriate experience
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45
If it is demonstrated that H1A and H1B are equally strong, that would signify that
expatriates transmit and acquire knowledge equally.
Consideration of H2 will test factors related to personal characteristics and a successful
experience. A successful experience is one in which a satisfactory personnel evaluation was
reported by the respondent.
An analysis of H3 will demonstrate a relationship between willingness to teach and learn,
finding solutions, shared experiences, and a successful expatriate experience. It is anticipated
that the short text answers will provide insight for this hypothesis.
CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
The online survey of Americans with expatriate experience was hosted by Empliant, Inc.
of Chapel Hill, North Carolina. This secure, hosted site provides a survey tool among other
products for corporate human resource departments. Respondents were given the Uniform
Resource Locator (URL
) to connect directly to the survey. The survey was available online
between May 13 and July 22, 2004.
Contacts were made by culling Web sites and Internet user groups for potential
respondents. These were Americans who are currently working or who have worked overseas
for a profit seeking corporation for at least nine months. Two consultants helped provide
recommendations for people who could be solicited. The Women in the Academy of
International Business distributed the request through its listserve as did Intercultural Insights
Group.
Many people recommended contacting business and professional organizations in various
cities. Many of these rejected the request out-of-hand without review. Postings to message
boards included: Capella Learners, Returned Peace Corps Volunteers, Americans Living
Overseas, Americans Living Abroad, Expat Focus, and Expats Reunite. The requests on public
boards described the purposes of the survey and requested willing participants to send an e-mail
to dissertation@cox.net. Approximately 200 letters were sent to corporations requesting
participants.
As participants were identified, they were sent the URL for the survey. The URL was not
posted on message boards or distributed without prior identification. There have been at least
Expatriates and Knowledge
47
two other dissertation studies on expatriates that have posted the URL for the survey on message
boards. This allows anyone access to the survey and may compromise the accuracy of the
results.
The e-mail address was used as the primary identification key as contacts were made. A
database was created using a word table was created containing six columns: e-mail address,
name (if known), contact site or organization, date of initial request, date of reminder, and date
of final appeal. The table was sorted by the date of initial request and was used to send the first
reminder at a week to ten days after the first. The final request was sent two to three weeks after
the initial contact.
There were 247 individual e-mail addresses, 8 were incorrect addresses, and 28 persons
replied to refuse or declare that they are ineligible. The initial request and two follow-ups were
addressed to individual e-mail addresses. There were no e-mail mass or group mailings which
may have compromised the confidentiality of respondents.
At the close of the survey, a file containing responses was downloaded from the Empliant
Web site and saved. The file was in horizontal format with text responses and comma delimited.
This file was subsequently opened and saved in Microsoft Excel format.
The Empliant survey software keeps track of each time a user connects to the address;
this is known as a "view". The survey generated 138 views (about 10 of these were from the
pilot phase of the survey) and 75 responses. Fifteen responses were not acceptable as the
industry group was education or other not-for-profit. These were cut and pasted on a separate
worksheet in Excel. Eight long text answer fields were cut and pasted on a third worksheet in
Excel. Long text responses cannot be analyzed in SPSS and this reduced the number of fields to
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48
a manageable size for version eleven of SPSS. Country names such as Peoples Republic of
China and Hong Kong were changed to China. Three respondents did not give industry group.
The responses were analyzed and an industry group name was inserted for one. Sixty responses
were judged acceptable to the survey purposes.
The function “find and replace” was used to translate the items downloaded as text to
numbers for later ordinal analysis in SPSS. Each of the responses was changed using this list in
Table 1:
Table 1. Five-Point Likert Scale.
Find:
Replace:
Strongly Agree
5
Agree
4
Neutral
3
Disagree
2
Strongly disagree
1
I don't know
0
The file was then opened in SPSS and in "Variable View" value labels were given. The
number “5” was labeled Strongly Agree and each in turn. This allowed SPSS to use the correct
order for responses Strongly Agree then Agree then Neutral and so forth.
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49
"Find and Replace" was used in Excel for these text responses to questions on
performance evaluation (#33 – 38) and adjusted in SPSS accordingly. Table 2 shows the
conditions that were used to translate the text responses.
Table 2. Four-Point Expectations Scale
Find:
Replace:
Substantially Exceeds Expectations
4
Exceeds Expectations
3
Meets Expectations
2
Below Expectations
1
I do not know
0
Babbie (2004) recommends utilizing multiple observations pertaining to a concept in a
survey. This survey had several questions for each variable. An index was created for each of
these variables to provide a measure of the particular characteristic. A good index "provides an
ordinal ranking of cases on a given variable” (Babbie, 2004, p. 167). Composite measures are
used to study variables that have no single indicator because the response to any one question
may not adequately determine the level of the variable. For the present study, questions on
computer utilization (Gi), performance evaluation (SEi), and personal characteristics (PCi) were
selected and formed into three indices. A simple average was calculated for each respondent's
response to each group of questions. These are identified in the sections on analysis of each
hypothesis later in the current chapter.
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50
Gerson and Horowitz (2002) state that "Qualitative research always involves some kind
of direct encounter with 'the world', whether it takes the form of ongoing daily life or interactions
with a selected group" (Gerson & Horowitz, 2002, p. 199). Qualitative research provides a set
of analytic tools to understand the paths that socially embedded actors utilize. The researcher
may step outside and view the entire terrain and enhance understanding. This dissertation will
provide snapshots into the career paths, work environment, and outlook of selected expatriates to
demonstrate the relationships to be tested.
The remainder of the current chapter examines the data collected from respondents to the
survey on expatriates. The data collected will first be described and then analyzed. The sample
will be described in terms of demographics and responses. Finally, each of the hypotheses will
be tested and reported.
Description of the Sample
The sample consists of Americans who have worked for a for-profit corporation in a
foreign country for at least nine months. Seventy-five persons responded to the survey. Of these
15 worked for universities, government, or other not-for-profit entities and were set aside. This
left 60 usable responses.
Complete demographic and background information of the sample is contained in
Appendix B. The sample has forty-six current expatriates residing in 12 countries and 14
repatriates. The 60 respondents reported experience of living in a total of 39 countries.
Industries represented are banking, consulting, law, computers, telecommunications, and many
others. There are 48 industry subgroups represented. A complete list may be found in Appendix
C. 73.3% of the sample is over the age of 40 and 66.7% are male. Top executive/chairman as
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51
job title was given by 28.8% of the respondents. An astonishing 58% have master's degrees or
higher. Thirty one respondents (51%) reported a high level of working with HCN and 17 (28%)
reported working mostly with other expatriates. These 60 people report almost 400 years of
expatriate experience for an average report of 6.7 years in the current country of residence. They
reported an additional past experience of 206 years of expatriate experience for an average of 3.5
years. A complete listing is located in Appendix D.
Hypothesis Testing
In order to test the four proposed hypotheses, tests of association areused . The tests will
determine whether a set of responses to the survey questions have a relationship to another set of
responses. Quantitative analysis by SPSS will be used to test for association. In the next section
of the current chapter, qualitative analysis by textual examples of cases is also given by using as
examples specific individuals who responded. These individuals are selected to illustrate in a
personal way the relationships tested by statistics.
The analysis of each hypothesis was accomplished by selecting pairs of survey questions
from each of two sets (Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7). These were studied in SPSS. Ordinal-by-ordinal
non parametric tests were performed on the Likert scale responses. The ordinal symmetric
measures indicate the significance, strength and direction of the relationship between the row and
column variables of a crosstabulation. A high Kendall's tau-b value combined with low
Significance (p) indicates a strong relationship between the two ordinal measures. The four
hypothesis statements postulate that there is no relationship between the measures. Tests are
used to find a relationship that supports rejecting the null hypothesis.
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52
Likert results are ordinal measures that is, they are rank-ordered (Babbie, 2004, p. 135).
The Likert scale on Table 1 produces ordinal data which have rank order but no specified
distance between items. Nonparametric statistical analysis methods will be used as the data
contains variables about which nothing is known concerning distribution. These methods do not
assume normal distribution. The tests selected are symmetric and indicate measures of
association that produce the same result regardless of which of the two variables is independent
and which is dependent (Cooper & Schindler, 2002). Kendall's tau-b, Gamma, and Spearman's
rank order correlation make no distinction between the independent and the dependent variable
(Dattalo, 2004). Results of tests are in Appendix E
.
In an article evaluating analysis of data measured by Likert-type items, Clason and
Dormody (1994) discuss the selection of appropriate statistical tests. They note that Pearson's r
is inappropriate for ordinal data because it is influenced by the range used in response coding.
The article further contends that either of the Kendall's tau coefficients are appropriate as well as
Spearman's Rho, Somers'd and Cramer's V. They propose that the selection of the test is not a
right or wrong answer but rather one of choosing the technique that provides meaningful
understanding of the data (Clason & Dormody, 1994).
Gaither and Glorfeld (1985) writing in the Academy of Management Review also agree
that use of parametric procedures may be unsuitable in certain organizational research. Data
may have problems with skewness or noninterval data. They recommend that doctoral
dissertations in organizational behavior emphasize nonparametric statistical tests of significance
when appropriate (Gaither & Glorfeld, 1985).
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53
The first SPSS test conducted was Spearman's Rho. It is used to find a relationship
between two variables and is the nonparametric equivalents to Pearson's correlation coefficient.
Spearman's Rho assumes the variables were measured as a rank order scale and measures
association at the ordinal level. This nonparametric version of the Pearson correlation is based
on the ranks of the data rather than the actual values. The observations are ranked in two ordinal
series that are Likert responses. Because this nonparametric test is intended for use with ordinal
data, it is based on rankings and does not assume interval or scale properties (StatSoft, 2004).
When pairs of survey questions were tested the results showed many Spearman's Rho
values above 0.250 which is significant at .05 level (2-tailed). Others were .400 and above
which is significant at 01 level (2-tailed). The p value is the statistic that measures the extent to
which the test disagrees with the null hypothesis. It will indicate what percentage of the sample
lies beyond the sample curve. It shows the probability of making a Type 1 error. A Type 1 error
occurs when a true hypothesis is rejected (Cooper & Schindler, 2002).
The next test was Kendall's tau-b which also measures the strength of the association
between variables measured at the interval or ordinal level. Kendall's tau-b is a measure of
association often used with but not limited to 2-by- 2 tables. This statistic is computed as the
excess of concordant over discordant pairs (P - Q), divided by a term representing the geometric
mean between the number of pairs not tied on x (X0) and the number not tied on y (Y0) (Garson,
2004). The Gamma test is similar to Kendall's tau-b and is a general purpose measure of
association for ordinal-by-ordinal relationships. Gamma values indicate even stronger
relationships between pairs tested. Results from both the Kendall's tau-b and Gamma test values
range from +1 to -1. Gamma is equivalent to Kendall tau, except that in the Gamma test, ties are
Expatriates and Knowledge
54
explicitly taken into account (StatSoft, 2004). The strength of Kendall's tau-b and Gamma in
absolute values is reported in Table 3.
Table 3. Kendall's tau-b and Gamma Values and Strength of Relationship
Value
Relationship
Less than .1
Quite weak, insignificant
About .1 - .2
Slight relationship
About .2 - .3
Moderate relationship
About .4 - .5
Strong relationship
.5 - .6 and higher
Very strong relationship
(Weil, 2004)
The Significance level (or p value) is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as
the one observed. If the significance level is very small (less than 0.05) then the correlation is
significant and the two variables are linearly related. High values for Kendall's tau-b and
Gamma combined with low significance indicate a strong relationship between the outcomes.
Some researchers prefer the T values; these were calculated and were found to strengthen
the Kendall's tau-b, Gamma, and Significance (p) results. A complete table of all tests is
available in Appendix E. The appendix reports all pairs whose approximate significance was
less than .05. In the following sections, SPSS results for each hypothesis will be demonstrated
when values for Kendall's tau-b is high and significance (p) low. This combination indicates a
strong relationship. The survey questions were distributed among the four topics consisting of
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55
personal characteristics, knowledge transfer to host-country coworkers, knowledge acquisition
from HCN, and successful expatriate experience. Each of these will be introduced and described
in turn.
Table 4. Personal Characteristics Questions (PC)
Question
Mean
SD
4.66
.863
13. I used Google or other search tool to find information on the Internet. (Gi)
4.43
1.03
19. I use e-mail to communicate with host-country coworkers in country. (Gi)
4.37
1.15
5. I was sent on the assignment because of my expertise.
4.08
1.15
10. I read nonfiction books about this country. (PCi)
3.78
1.14
11. I frequently read the local newspapers. (PCi)
3.71
1.33
17. I frequently use the company's Intranet to find information. (Gi)
3.41
1.35
9. I read novels set in or with characters of this country. (PCi)
3.28
1.28
4. I sometimes felt that I knew more than I could tell my coworkers
3.12
1.42
6. Host country coworkers frequently came to me to ask questions.
3.08
1.15
15. I frequently use an Internet message board. (Gi)
1.88
.958
14. I frequently use postal services or "snail mail" to communicate.
1.73
.778
18. I frequently use e-mail to communicate with colleagues in my home
country.(Gi)
Note. (PCi) Included in index of Personal Characteristics (Gi) Included in index of computer
use.
Expatriates and Knowledge
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Table 4 lists the survey questions that elicited responses about personal characteristics of
expatriates. In Table 4, the questions with the higher mean values represent greater agreement
with the questions. The three questions with the highest means are related to computer usage (Q
#18, #13, #19). The lowest mean question is, probably unsurprisingly, the question on use of
postal services (Q#14). The respondents are also not on the cutting-edge of computer usage as
they do not tend to use Internet message boards (Q#15).
Standard deviation is a measurement of the dispersion or wideness of the results. It
summarizes how far away from the average the data values typically are (Cooper & Schindler,
2002, p. 475). The highest standard deviation is for question #4 which asked about "knowing
more than could tell" coworkers. This indicates the least agreement among the respondents. The
lowest standard deviation is reported for the question about use of postal services, indicating the
highest agreement among respondents as to this answer. While this group does not use message
boards they also tend not to use the post office.
Knowledge transfer (KT) to host-country coworkers was measured by the questions listed
in Table 5. In Table 5, the questions with the highest mean show the highest agreement among
the respondents. Two questions (#20, #22) show strong agreement with the characteristic of
transferring knowledge to HCN.
The lowest mean in Table 5 was returned for the question about the help from the
employer (#29). Question #28 shows a low mean, however this indicates disagreement with the
question. This question should have been expressed in the affirmative. In its present form it
may be read to indicate lack of frustration and adequacy of explanations. These are the same two
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57
questions with the highest standard deviation which indicates higher dispersal around the mean.
There is less conformity about these two questions.
Table 5. Knowledge Transfer Questions (KT)
Question
Mean
SD
20. I used the telephone to communicate with coworkers who were host-
4.05
1.11
4.02
1.30
30. I think I would be a good teacher.
3.86
1.15
25. I discussed what I read in the local newspapers with host-country
3.64
1.08
3.48
1.24
2.67
1.40
2.53
1.20
country nationals.
22. The host-country nationals who worked with me learned from what I
did as well as what I said.
coworkers.
12. I frequently shared the information I found with host-country
coworkers.
28. I was often frustrated on the job because I had difficulty explaining
how to do things to host country coworkers even though we spoke the
same language.
29. My employer helped me to share what I know with others.
Knowledge acquisition questions are listed in Table 6. These concern the on connections
between the expatriate and host country coworkers. The knowledge acquisition questions are
included in Appendix A.
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58
Table 6. Knowledge Acquisition Questions (KA)
Question
Mean
SD
26. I learned how to do things at work from my host-country coworkers.
3.82
1.15
31. I found many times when a host-country co-worker and I found a solution
3.78
1.10
3.68
1.24
27. I learned how to do things at work from my fellow expatriates.
3.36
1.36
32. I found many times when something a host-country co-worker did or said
3.19
1.41
8. What I learned on assignment overseas had benefit when I returned.
3.03
2.04
7. I make/made an effort to find the places people congregate to find out the
2.92
1.28
to a problem at work.
21. I found I often had to go to see someone to explain what I needed or to
find out something.
something that caused me to have an "ah-ha!" or "eureka" experience.
latest news.
The highest standard deviation in Table 6 was for question 8 dealing with benefit upon
return. The wide dispersion on this question may arise from the fact that many expatriates do not
intend to return to their home office or they own the business in the foreign country.
Table 7 supplies the results of mean and standard deviations for individual questions
related to a successful expatriate experience.
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59
Table 7. Successful Experience Questions (SE)
Question *
Mean
SD
23. I thought I had a successful expatriate experience.
4.48
.770
33. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my work
3.11
1.04
3.05
1.02
3.02
1.14
2.89
1.25
2.86
1.29
2.85
1.28
productivity as: **
34. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my achievement
of work objectives as:**
35. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my interaction
with people as:**
36. Host-country coworkers evaluated my performance for work productivity
as:**
37. Host-country coworkers evaluated my performance for achievement of
work objectives as:**
38. Host-country coworkers evaluated my performance for interaction with
people as**
Note. *All seven questions included in SEi index. **Scale 0 – 4 on Table 2
Successful experience questions are listed in Table 7. These are self-reported measures
by the expatriate. In Table 7 the mean for question #23 was the highest of any question in the
four tables with one of the lowest standard deviations. This indicates that this group of
respondents has high degree of certainty about having a successful experience.
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60
The questions in Table 7 also demonstrate the alignment of the three questions about
performance appraisals from the organization and the three about evaluations from host-country
coworkers. The means for the organization questions are all higher than the means for the
coworkers' appraisals. This may indicate that the respondents have more positive feedback from
the organization as compared to coworkers. In the three sets the questions were ranked in the
same order work productivity, work objectives, and interaction with people. The means descend
for each question that appeared later in the survey. Alternately, this may simply represent a
factor of fatigue while taking the survey.
Test of Hypothesis H1A
Hypothesis H1A states "There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics
and knowledge transfer from expatriate Americans (ExAm) to host-country coworkers (HCN)."
Personal characteristics (PC) are measured by survey questions listed in Table 4 and knowledge
transfer (KT) questions are listed in Table 5.
Ordinal-by- ordinal non parametric tests were performed on the Likert scale responses.
The ordinal symmetric measures indicate the significance, strength, and direction of the
relationship between the row and column variables of a crosstabulation. Kendall's tau-b
measures association of the table of results of the responses to the two questions. It finds the
surplus of concordant over discordant pairs as a percentage of concordant, discordant, and onehalf of tied pairs. A pair of results was tested in SPSS for hypothesis 1A. The first pair was one
from the PC list (#5. I was sent on the assignment because of my expertise.) and one from the
KT list (#22. The host-country nationals who worked with me learned from what I did as well as
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what I said.). The relationship between these was moderately strong. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.447, p
= 0.000).
Another pair of results was tested for hypothesis 1A from the PC list (Personal
Characteristics Index.) and one from the KT list (#12. I frequently share the information I find
with host-country coworkers). The relationship between these was moderately strong. (Kendall's
tau-b = 0.335, p = 0.003).
The next pair included from the PC list (#11. I frequently read the local newspapers.) and
from the KT list (#12. I frequently share the information I find with host-country coworkers).
The relationship between these was moderately strong. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.398, p = 0.001).
The final pair included from the PC list (#19. I use e-mail to communicate with hostcountry coworkers in country.) and from the KT list (#22. The host-country nationals who
worked with me learned from what I did as well as what I said.). The relationship between these
was moderately strong. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.303, p = 0.010).
These four examples show that there is a relationship between an expatriate who uses
computerized communications, reads to collect information, and has expertise in the field with a
willingness to transmit knowledge to host-country coworkers. Statistical analysis using
Kendall's tau-b test supports the finding that selected personal characteristics and knowledge
transfer from expatriates to HCN have a relationship. These two characteristics of expatriates
are related. Personal characteristics were positively correlated to knowledge transfer from
expatriate Americans to host-country coworkers at a statistically significant level.
The relationship between personal characteristics and knowledge transfer is illustrated by
respondent number U99DA a 50-59 year old male who is currently living in China and works
Expatriates and Knowledge
62
closely with host-country nationals. He is a top executive in the chemical, fibers, and
manufacturing industry. He reads novels and nonfiction books and shares knowledge at forums,
seminars, and industry associations. He says that "Examples [of sharing] are simply too
numerous. It is a day-to-day occurrence in the business world of China." The strength that
makes him good at working with host-country coworkers is that "I listen".
The null hypothesis H1A is rejected. There is a relationship between selected personal
characteristics and knowledge transfer. The results from both theuse of statistical software and
from qualitative analysis support rejecting the null hypothesis.
Test of Hypothesis H1B
H1B states "There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics and
knowledge acquisition by expatriate Americans from host-country coworkers." Personal
characteristics (PC) are the same as those for H1A in Table 4. Knowledge acquisition (KA) was
measured by several survey questions listed in Table 6.
Pairs of questions were tested for hypothesis 1B. Kendall's tau-b evaluates concordant
and discordant pairs of results in the tabular comparison of the responses to two questions. The
questions in the first pair include one from the PC list (#6. Host country coworkers frequently
came to me to ask questions.) and one from the KA list (#31. I found many times when a hostcountry co-worker and I found a solution to a problem at work.) The relationship between these
was very strong. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.529, p = 0.000).
The next pair of questions was tested for hypothesis 1B. The first of the pair was one
from the PC list (#17. I frequently use the company Intranet to find information.) and the next
from the KA list (#31. I found many times when a host-country co-worker and I found a
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63
solution to a problem at work.) The relationship between these was moderately strong.
(Kendall's tau-b = 0.392, p = 0.000).
A third pair of results was tested for hypothesis 1B. The first result was one from the PC
list (Read Index.) and one from the KA list (#26. I learned how to do things at work from my
host-country coworkers). The relationship between these was moderately strong. (Kendall's taub = 0.223, p = 0.085).
A final pair of results was tested for hypothesis 1B. The first question was one from the
PC list (#17. I frequently use the company Intranet to find information.) and one from the KA
list (#26. I learned how to do things at work from my host-country coworkers). The relationship
between these was moderately strong. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.325, p = 0.003).
The strong interaction between personal characteristics and knowledge acquisition is
exemplified by respondent U872D. He is over 60 years old with post doctoral work and is a top
executive in management consulting and manufacturing in China. He reads non fiction books
and local newspapers. He states that he acquired knowledge during the experience "I have
greatly increased my understanding of merger and acquisitions through working with our local
partners who have significant experience in this area." His strengths are strong communications
skills, long-term commitment to China and an understanding and appreciation of the local
culture.
A 20-29 year old female working in the transportation industry in China describes
acquiring knowledge in this way: "I often have to ask 100 more questions than I would in my
home country to get to the root cause of the problem. I have many ah-ha experiences when I
Expatriates and Knowledge
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finally get to the question and reveals the root cause." She uses the company's intranet and
Google, but does not use postal services to communicate.
The null hypothesis H1B is rejected. There is a relationship between selected personal
characteristics particularly computer use and knowledge acquisition by American expatriates.
The results both from use of statistical software and from qualitative analysis by case study
support rejecting the null hypothesis.
Test of Hypothesis H2
Hypothesis H2 states, "There is no relationship between selected personal characteristics
and a successful expatriate experience." The selected personal characteristics (PC) are the same
as those in Hypothesis H1A from Table 4 and successful experience as an expatriate (SE) are
measured by survey questions in Table 7.
Relationship between the two variables of hypothesis H2 was found by analysis of
measures of association for several pairs of survey questions. Pairs of questions are tested for
hypothesis 2. Kendall's tau-b evaluates concordant and discordant pairs of results in the tabular
comparison of the responses to two questions. The index created of personal characteristics
(PCi) was compared to the index created by averaging the seven successful experience questions
(SEi). The test shows that there is a slight relationship between these two characteristics.
(Kendall's tau-b = 0.237, p = 0.019). An expatriate who takes the personal initiative to read
books and newspapers about the country and its peoples tend to have a successful expatriate
experience.
Pairs of questions were tested. The first pair was one from the PC list #5. I was sent on
the assignment because of my expertise) and one from the SE list (#23. I thought I had a
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65
successful expatriate experience.) The relationship between these was very strong. (Kendall's
tau-b = 0.433, p = 0.000).
The next pair proves to be strong significance. These were (#6. Host country co –
workers frequently came to me to ask questions.) and (#23, I thought I had a successful
expatriate experience in my working life.) (Kendall's tau-b = 0.408, p = 0.000) Question 6 also
had a strong relationship with the SEi. (Kendall's tau-b = 0.443, p = 0.000)
A fourth pair demonstrated strong relationship. These were (#19. I use e-mail to
communicate with host-country coworkers in country.) and (#23. I thought I had a successful
expatriate experience in my working life.) (Kendall's tau-b = 0.497, p = 0.000)
Relationships exist between other pairs of the results. These are listed in Appendix E.
These results demonstrate that expatriates with expertise who are open to questions and
interactions with HCN may be expected to have a successful experience. These people use
communications tools such as e-mail to increase their rapport.
Respondent "UD156" has had very successful expatriate experiences. He is currently
working in China as a top executive in original equipment manufacturer of consumer and
industrial products. He is a frequent user of the company's intranet, e-mail, to host country
coworkers and colleagues in the home country. He reads nonfiction books and local newspapers.
He says, "All people are the same and strive for the same things irrespective on nationalities.
Governments are different but people are all the same. Working overseas has opened my eyes to
the fact that our own press in USA is extremely ignorant with respect to other countries and
creates bias towards others without merit."
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66
The null hypothesis H2 is rejected. There is a relationship between selected personal
characteristics and a successful expatriate experience. The results both from use of statistical
software and from qualitative analysis support rejecting the null hypothesis.
Test of Hypothesis H3
Hypothesis H3 states, "There is no relationship between knowledge acquisition by
Americans and a successful expatriate experience." Knowledge acquisition questions (KA) are
the same as those for H1A in Table 6 and successful experience (SE) are those stated for H2 in
Table 7. SPSS testing for Hypothesis H3 combined two questions from each variable.
Pairs of questions are tested using Kendall's tau-b to evaluate concordant and discordant
pairs of results. Kendall's tau-b is calculated using a tabular comparison of the responses to two
questions. The first pair was one from the KA list (#26. I learned how to do things at work from
my host-country coworkers.) and one from the SE list (#23. I thought I had a successful
expatriate experience.) The relationship between these was strong. (Kendall's Tau-b = 0.350, p =
0.007).
The next pair consisting of (#7. I make/made an effort to find the places people
congregate to find out the latest news) and the Successful Experience Index (SEi) produced a
moderate relationship was found (Kendall's tau-b = 0.242, p = 0.009).
A strong relationship was found between (#21. I found I often had to go to see someone
to explain what I needed or to find out something) and (#23. I thought I had a successful
expatriate experience.) (Kendall's tau-b = 0.316, p = 0.001)
A very strong relationship was found between the fourth pair (#31. I found many times
when a host-country co-worker and I found a solution to a problem at work.) and (#23, I thought
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67
I had a successful expatriate experience.) of (Kendall's tau-b = 0.561, p = 0.000). More results
are listed in Appendix E.
Fifty-four of the sample of 60 (74%) responded agree or strongly agree with question 21 I
found I often had to go to see someone to explain what I needed or to find out something. Fiftynine of the 60 respondents selected agree or strongly agree with question 23 (I thought I had a
successful experience). These are people who have experienced success and who understand the
need to acquire knowledge.
A 40-49 year old female respondent (UBCC2) working in telecommunications in Puerto
Rico as a top executive reports several examples of knowledge acquisition.
Describing differences [sic] in the countries’ value systems with those in the US. For
example, in Puerto Rico being financially over-extended or having bad credit is not seen
as shameful. I had to be careful not to pass judgment on the differences
I didn't understand why employees were committing minor thefts until someone
described 'Ay Bendito' or pity, where the infringement was OK as long as the person
apologized for committing it
It is possible to influence the workplace with some of the efficiencies inherent in
the US culture. The locals want to do a good job it's just something all they've ever seen
is beaurocracy (sic). Showing them a better way is received well as long as it's presented
within their frame of reference.
She reports performance evaluations as substantially exceeding expectations and thought
she had a successful expatriate experience. When asked to "Describe examples of work-related
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knowledge that you felt you took (or expect to take) back home with you" respondent UBE1C
wrote:
I learned not to take anything for granted. I learned to question EVERYTHING
including the financial statements and the detail to which each item was prepared (i.e.,
A/R Reserves, Inventory Reserves), question all data and to validate information
provided by checking with other sources. Painstaking and timely, but it quickly helped
me establish who I could depend on to provide honest & accurate information.
Respondent UC9DA answered: "How to deal successfully with colleagues abroad from
home, either on phone or via other virtual communications means."
Respondent UEO96 wrote:
Although I have worked in China for 5 years I can't think of specific work-related
knowledge I have brought back. Approach to business may have some benefits to my
future work. The Chinese are more cautious, patient, and place a high value on the
relationship between the people doing business together. I have only been back in the
U.S. for a week and have not worked yet, so I am not sure if there is a work-related
benefit but absolutely there is value in having worked outside the U.S.
Respondent UC433 is a 50-59 year old man working in a large multinational in China.
He reports having a successful expatriate experience. When asked to describe finding a solution
to a problem with a host country co-worker he wrote,
I relied on host country workers to provide the local knowledge and suggestions, they
relied on me to provide the company perspective and together we would determine the
best solution to all issues.
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69
The null hypothesis H3 is rejected. There is a relationship between knowledge acquisition
and a successful expatriate experience. The results both from use of statistical software and from
qualitative analysis support the rejection of the null hypothesis. The results that demonstrate this
relationship are stronger than those established for the other three hypotheses.
Final Tests
As a final test, the sample was split into two groups of expatriates. The first group (n =
31) consists of those who identified strongly with the statement "Q#1. My closest coworkers
are/were host-country nationals." The second group (n = 17) consists of those who identified
strongly with the statement, "Q#2. My closest coworkers are/were other expatriates (Any non
host-country persons.)"
Twelve other respondents gave responses that did not indicate a definite answer and were
not assigned to a group. A Mann-Whitney U test was performed to find any significant
difference in the knowledge transmission comparing these two groups of respondents.
Significant differences between the two groups were found in three questions (#31, #12,
and #26). The Mean Rank and Sum of Ranks for those working closely with HCN are much
greater than that for those working closely with other Expats in these three questions this leads to
the large Z scores and low significance. These show that those who work closely with HCN also
find occasions to transfer and acquire knowledge, other questions show no significant difference
between the two groups of respondents.
Table 8 contains a summary of the Mann-Whitney U Test results. It lists the Z scores and
the significance results.
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Table 8 SPSS Output Mann-Whitney U Test
No.
Question
31
I found many times when a host-country co-worker and I
found a solution to a problem at work
12
I frequently share/shared the information I found with hostcountry coworkers.
26
I learned how to do things at work from my host-country
coworkers.
Note. *<.01 ** <.05
Z
Asymp. Sig.
(2-tailed)
-2.567
*.010
-2.413
**.016
-2.079
**.038
These three outcomes show how those expatriates who work most closely with host
country coworkers transmit and acquire knowledge. These results are also supported by answers
from the expatriates themselves. Respondent U2AF0 is a 50-59 year old man with a Ph.D. who
works in the chemical industry in China. His close work relationship with host-country
coworkers has led him to several insights.
As an example of work-related knowledge that he expects to take back he said:
Communication and implementation. I assumed in home country that because people
understand the language, they agreed and implemented 'directions'. Overseas the
communication gaps became very apparent, delaying implementation. Only then did I
realize that communication gaps at home were as large as overseas, but just less apparent.
Implementation at home, actually seldom occurs.
His eureka experience was: "Yesterday I learned that a global corporate culture is not
adoption of the headquarters culture and dissemination around the world but instead some 'new'
culture tat is an amalgamation of all the national culture. Means 'localization': strategies will not
Expatriates and Knowledge
71
lead to a global culture. I learn things like this every day." In a short space he eloquently
describes the knowledge he acquired from this experience. The textbook definitions and global
corporate culture have new meanings for him.
CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This dissertation research examined several areas of personal characteristics and
activities. These include (a) individual efforts to educate one's self by locating information about
the surroundings, (b) individual efforts to find means of getting things accomplished, (c) ability
to contact and cooperate with host-country coworkers, and (d) usage of computer assisted
communications to increase knowledge exchange. The population studied was a sample of
mature individuals in the fullness of their careers.
Quantitative and qualitative results of the study supported the rejection of each of the
hypotheses. There is evidence of relationship between personal characteristics, knowledge
acquisition, knowledge transmission, and a successful expatriate experience.
The study has illustrated aspects of the research questions. Which set of personal
characteristics signify a willingness to teach and learn? Is there a relationship between these
personal characteristics and knowledge transfer and acquisition by expatriates? Is there a
relationship between knowledge transfer and acquisition by expatriates and a successful
experience? Knowledge is the most important factor of production in the modern economy.
Knowledge is the key to achieving competitive advantage.
The current study confirms Antal's (2000) work that expatriates gain factual knowledge
about a country's culture, about its business culture, and about how people and organizations
work in that setting (Antal, 2000). It also supports Shim and Paprock's (2002) study that focused
on American expatriates' learning in host countries that is much more holistic than the simple
Expatriates and Knowledge
73
acquisition of new information. They state that expatriates review what and how they have
learned. They reassess and examine the perspectives they already have.
Discussion
Expatriate managers of multinational corporations have a special role in developing and
transmitting knowledge (Harzing, 2001). Tacit knowledge is transmitted both by language and
observation. Imitation and practice contribute to its transmittal. It is individual and
geographically limited. People must transmit tacit knowledge one to another and thereby create
networks for exchanging knowledge (Cohendet et al., 1999). Tacit knowledge is specific to a
context. It is acquired on-the-job or in that situation where it is used. It is rooted in actions of a
craft or profession. It utilizes particular technologies. Tacit knowledge may grow out of a work
group or team (Ambrosini & Bowman, 2001). This research found evidence of transmittal and
acquisition of tacit knowledge. However, most of the respondents reported gaining explicit
knowledge that can be codified or written down. Many explicit knowledge examples were
given, such as how to automate a factory, or how to adjust to changing export regulations.
There are three factors transferred in multinational enterprises, these are product, capital,
and knowledge. Knowledge is the one that is most closely related to human resources. It is
people who have the knowledge and apply and transfer it. International assignments have the
potential for being a knowledge transfer mechanism (Bonache & Brewster, 2001). The
multinational corporation must maximize productivity by acquiring, communicating, and
transferring knowledge of expatriates.
These include but are not limited to (a) individual efforts of self-education by locating
information about the surroundings, (b) efforts to transmit information and accomplish tasks, (c)
Expatriates and Knowledge
74
ability to contact and cooperate with coworkers and, (d) use of computer- aided communications
to increase knowledge exchange. Willingness to transmit and acquire knowledge as seen by
activities involved in teaching and learning are personal characteristics that were examined. A
successful expatriate experience is one in which personnel evaluations are favorable.
Respondent U9AF6 exemplifies the willingness to transmit and acquire knowledge of an
expatriate. She is a 50 – 59 year old Ph.D. working with financial software and has spent nearly
eight years in six countries. She wrote, "Never rely solely on 'terminology', our different back
grounds and experiences cause confusion as to industry terminology. Always ask for or provide
an example of the issue to ensure both parties are in complete understanding." Her greatest
strength is the ability to listen and show respect. She added, "I work with financial computer
systems. Many times, the host company desired functionality which our system did not provide.
We had to work together to provide a reasonable and functional solution to meet their business
needs. Neither one of us alone could solve the problem."
Implications for Future Study
Areddy (2004) writing in the Wall Street Journal found many American expatriates who
plan to finish their careers with the overseas experience (Areddy, 2004). This dissertation
research found expatriates who expressed the fact that they consider themselves to be
"permanent expatriates." These cannot be considered to bring knowledge "back" to a
multinational organization's home country. Perhaps these professionals should have some other
designation and be considered a distinct population for study.
Many respondents reported having formative experiences overseas in the military, the
Peace Corps, or as students. This may correlate with those personal characteristics that produce
Expatriates and Knowledge
75
a successful expatriate experience. Future research may concentrate on persons with such
experiences as related to knowledge transfer and acquisition later in life.
And finally, Bonache et al (2001) note an area for future research may measure the
usefulness of the internationally acquired skills and competencies in home-country positions.
Summary
Respondent U92FB is an excellent example of the combination of the four variables
studied in this dissertation. He is 30-39 years of age with a master's degree working in
aerospace. His personal characteristics include a strong interest in reading novels and books
about the host country. When asked to describe work related knowledge he wrote,
My overseas experience was very successful from a professional and personal point of
view. I now understand how other countries view the US and Americans. My
confidence and expertized (sic) with working collaboratively with my peers and senior
management has increased considerably.
[As an example of shared knowledge with a host country co-worker, he wrote] I
shared my fear of the international move and of Australian wildlife. Following the
conversation, I became much closer to this individual.
[An example of a work-related problem was] I found Australians very friendly
and collaborative. My project was to assist with procurement related business. Working
closely with my Aussie peers was critical to ensure that all requirements could be met by
the supplier.
Expatriates and Knowledge
76
The knowledge he acquired and described is not explicit but tacit. It is a capacity to
make assurances that all requirements will be met. This expatriate demonstrates that expatriates
are a basic mechanism to transfer tacit knowledge (Bonache, Brewster, & Suutari, 2001). In
response to the question of finding a solution to a problem with a host-country co-worker, others
said,
Too many to list. All global initiatives, if launched "as created" in the West and
implemented in China will fail. Each has to be translated into a local need and usually
the local need will be different than the global one or it will need to be described in a
different way. If we take their time to go thru this process, we can solve a local
need/problem. If not we create local disharmony as some action is occurring and we are
not participating. U2AF0
There are many facets to exportation of goods. We solve issues/make decisions
every day based on previous experiences/situations. I use host country knowledge for
govt regulations and we find a solution within our scope. U7FB0
We find and solve problems together every day. This week we found a way to
reduce the time it takes to send technical specifications to suppliers. We found several
manufacturing process problems and solved them. We found one internal security
problem and think we solved it together. U8246
I work with financial computer systems. Many times, the host company desired
functionality which our system did not provide. We had to work together to provide a
reasonable and functional solution to meet their business needs. Neither one of us alone
could solve the problem. U9AF6
Expatriates and Knowledge
77
In response to the question about working with host-country coworkers to find solutions
to problems, many respondents wrote something like this: "Examples are simply too numerous.
It is a day-to-day occurrence in the business world of China." U99DA
The expatriates who participated in this study were mature, energized individuals. They
were very much comfortable in their jobs and environments of their own choosing. They spoke
with pride of their accomplishments in the foreign business culture and identified personal
characteristics that promoted their success. They well understood their role as knowledge
transmitters. Acquisition of knowledge was not a simple by-product of the experience but was
an integral part of their working life.
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APPENDIX A
SURVEY QUESTIONS
KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER AND ACQUISITION BY EXPATRIATES
Instructions: The purpose of this study is to find the ways knowledge is transmitted between
expatriates and host-country coworkers. It is intended for an academic study. Please take your
time and answer all the questions.
Expatriate refers to people of any nationality not of the host country. Host-country nationals are
coworkers who hold citizenship in the country of your expatriate experience. If you have had
more than one experience working overseas, select just one for this survey.
Question Section 1 Knowledge transmission and acquisition
1. My closest coworkers are/were host-country nationals.
2. My closest coworkers are/were other expatriates. (Any non host-country persons)
3. I used English as the primary spoken and written language with my host-country
coworkers.
4. I sometimes feel/felt that I knew more than I could tell my coworkers.
5. I was sent on the assignment because of my expertise.
6. Host–country coworkers frequently came to me to ask questions.
7. I make/made an effort to find the places people congregate to find out the latest news.
8. What I learned on assignment overseas had benefit when I returned.
Describe an example of work-related knowledge that you felt you took (or expect to take)
back home with you.
9. I read novels set in or with characters of this country
10. I read nonfiction books about this country
11. I frequently read the local newspapers
12. I frequently share/shared the information I found with host-country coworkers.
Describe a situation when you shared knowledge with a host-country co-worker that you
surprised even yourself.
Section 2 Communication methods
13. I use Google or other search tool to find information on the internet.
14. I frequently use postal services or snail mail to communicate
15. I frequently use an Internet message board.
16. Name of message board or topic.
17. I frequently use the company's Intranet to find information
18. I frequently use e-mail to communicate with colleagues in my home country.
19. I use e-mail to communicate with host-country coworkers in country.
20. I use the telephone to communicate with coworkers who were host-country nationals.
21. I found I often had to go to see someone to explain what I needed or to find out
something.
84
22. The host-country nationals who worked with me learned from what I did as well as what
I said.
23. I thought I had a successful expatriate experience in my working life.
24. I discussed what I read in the local newspapers with other expatriates who worked with
me.
25. I discussed what I read in the local newspapers with host-country coworkers.
26. I learned how to do things at work from my host-country coworkers.
27. I learned how to do things at work from my fellow expatriates.
28. I was often frustrated on the job because I had difficulty explaining how to do things to
host country coworkers even though we spoke the same language.
29. My employer helped me to share what I know with others.
30. I think I would be a good teacher.
31. I found many times when a host-country co-worker and I found a solution to a problem at
work
Use the space provided to describe an example of an occasion when you and a hostcountry co-worker found a solution to a problem
32. I found many times when something a host-country co-worker did or said something that
caused me to have an "ah-ha" or "eureka!" experience.
Use the space provided to describe an example of an occasion when you had an "ah-ha!"
experience caused by something a host-country coworkers said or did.
Describe an example of work-related knowledge you acquired during the expatriate
experience?
What do you think are your strengths that make you good at working with host-country
coworkers?
33. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my work productivity as:.
34. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my achievement of work
objectives as.
35. Performance appraisals from my organization evaluated my interaction with people as
36. Host country coworkers evaluated my work productivity as
37. Host country coworkers evaluated my achievement of work objectives as
38. Host country coworkers evaluated my interaction with people as
39. Year of birth
40. Gender
41. Foreign country of current residence and length of stay
42. If you are currently living in the U.S. what is the year you returned from your last
international assignment?
43. What other foreign countries have you served? How many months each?
44. Highest degree attained
45. Job title and industry
46. Did you have a formative experience with foreign experience? For instance were you in
the Peace Corps or stationed overseas with the United States armed services?
47. Please comment on this survey. You may also send an e-mail to dissertation@cox.net for
any follow up questions or comments.
APPENDIX B
TABLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Frequency
Percent
What is the highest degree you have attained?
Bachelor degree
20
33.3
High school or equivalent
5
8.3
Masters degree
26
43.3
Ph.D.
7
11.7
Post doctoral work
2
3.3
Total
60
100.0
What is/was your job title?
None listed
1
1.7
Consultant
6
10.0
Management: Director/Manager/Supervisor/etc.
22
36.7
What is your age?
None
1
1.7
20 - 29
4
6.7
30 - 39
11
18.3
40 - 49
20
33.3
50 - 59
16
26.7
60 or older
8
13.3
Total
60
100.0
What is your gender?
None listed
1
1.7
Female
19
31.7
Male
40
66.7
Total
60
100.0
If you are currently living in a foreign country, give the name of that country.
None listed
14
23.3
Australia
1
1.7
Austria
1
1.7
Belgium
1
1.7
China
31
51.7
Czech Republic
1
1.7
France
1
1.7
Germany
2
3.3
India
1
1.7
Puerto Rico
3
5.0
Singapore
2
3.3
Suisse
1
1.7
Thailand
1
1.7
Total
60
100.0
APPENDIX C
INDUSTRY GROUP
Accounting
Aerospace
Apparel manufacturing / sourcing
Architecture
Audio visual equipment / outdoor media
Auto industry
Banking and finance and non profit
Banking application systems
Banking, consulting
Building Materials
Chemicals
Collections/Call Center
Computer science
Computing
Consulting
Consulting & Training
Consulting Communications
Consulting/petroleum
Consumer products
Development company
Diversified - Chemical, Fibers,
Manufacturing
Electronic Components distribution
Engineering; energy; power
Factory electrical equipment manufacturer
Financial Software
Human Resources
Industrial Machinery
Information Technology
Labor Relations
Large multinational
Legal Consulting
Management consulting, manufacturing
Manufacturing
Manufacturing - Air Filtration for Gas
Turbines
Manufacturing/consumer products
Marketing / Manufacturing
Marketing/Advertising
Media, journalism
Microelectronics
Multiple
OEM Consumer and Industrial
Pharmaceutical
Public / government relations
Software
Sports
Telecommunications
Textiles
Trade
Transportation
Wine importing/distributing
APPENDIX D
COUNTRIES REPRESENTED
In what other foreign countries have you served? How many months each?
None reported n = 15
Brazil - 168 (14 years) Chile - 48 Hong
Kong - 36
Canada - 8 months
Chile, 30 months; Argentina, 14 months
China - 12 mos., Vietnam 12 mos.,
Singapore 36 mos., Kazakhstan 13 mos.,
England 24 mos., Switzerland 6 mos.,
Netherlands 10 mos., Hong Kong 4 mos.,
Indonesia
China - 60 months
China - over 7 years Hong Kong - 3 1/2
years Taiwan - 2 years
Czech Republic - 6 months France - 9
months Guinea - 4 years
England - 18 months, Thailand - 18 months,
Singapore - 30 months, Australia - 6
months, Poland - 18 months and Bulgaria - 3
months.
England (48 months)
France; 24 months
Germany 36 Vietnam 12
Germany 48 months
Germany. 3 years
Hong Kong years
Hong Kong-5 years
Hong Kong (60)
I routinely visit about 12 countries where we
run programs but do not reside in these
locations
I was in England for a year in '88.
Indonesia - 24 months China - 3.5 years
Italy 6 months
Japan 48 months New Jersey 60 months
(just kidding)
Japan 48 months Taiwan 24 months China
13 months
Lived in England with regional
responsibilities in Europe and Middle East -3 years Lived in India for 3 years
lived in Germany - 36 months but served all
of Western Europe
London - 6 months - Hungary - two years.
Malaysia 24; Thailand 36; Taiwan 6;
Singapore 6; France 3
NL = 52, D=26
Philippines - 4 ; Australia - 4
Russia
Russia (24 months) Kazakhstan (12 months)
South Africa (4 months) Tunisia (24
months) Brazil (12 months)
Russia 5, Ukraine 2, Germany 1, Poland 1,
Kosovo 2, Macedonia 3, Bangladesh 1,
Ecuador 1, Kazakhstan 3
Saudi Arabia
Singapore 48
Singapore 3 1/2 years
Singapore 7 months, Australia 3 months,
France 1 month
Spain 1 year; England - 6 mos.
studies in Spain - 6 months
Switzerland - 1 year 8 months
Taiwan five years
Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam, China,
The Netherlands for 3 1/2 years
Venezuela 1 year, Mexico 1.5 years, Iran, 6
months Indonesia 2 years, Japan 2 years,
Taiwan 8 months, Hong Kong 2 years, PRC
18 years
Vietnam, 6 months.
APPENDIX E
TABLE RESULTS OF SPSS NON-PARAMETRIC TESTS
* HYP
Two
Questions
*
05 x 22
05 x 30
06 x 12
06 x 22
06 x 24
06 x 25
06 x 30
09 x 28
11 x 12
11 x 22
11 x 25
12 x 17
12 x PCi
13 x 30
17 x 29
19 x 20
19 x 21
19 x 22
25 x PCi
05 x 08
05 x 31
06 x 07
06 x 31
06 x 32
10 x 27
10 x 32
11 x 21
17 x 26
17 x 31
19 x 26
21 x PCi
26 x PCi
32 x PCi
05 x 23
05 x SEi
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1A
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H1B
H2
H2
Kendall's
tau-b
Value
0.447
0.262
0.259
0.547
0.251
0.248
0.257
0.243
0.398
0.301
0.298
0.268
0.335
0.245
0.286
0.506
0.343
0.303
0.297
0.260
0.234
0.263
0.529
0.240
0.415
0.219
0.340
0.325
0.392
0.465
0.226
0.223
0.218
0.433
0.272
Gamma
Value
Approx.
Tb
Spearman's
rho
Approx.
Sig. (p)
0.664
0.395
0.374
0.775
0.354
0.384
0.399
0.338
0.562
0.450
0.463
0.375
0.439
0.432
0.425
0.781
0.572
0.510
0.408
0.378
0.379
0.397
0.721
0.348
0.592
0.330
0.478
0.473
0.541
0.746
0.295
0.258
0.279
0.671
0.350
3.949
2.142
1.895
5.237
1.759
1.851
2.185
2.020
3.328
2.568
2.533
2.070
2.948
2.350
2.413
4.683
3.058
2.571
2.523
2.232
2.063
1.992
4.211
1.865
3.289
1.989
2.834
2.989
3.985
4.165
1.961
1.724
1.899
3.828
2.622
0.476
0.238
0.279
0.585
0.268
0.268
0.283
0.265
0.431
0.331
0.329
0.286
0.392
0.269
0.318
0.525
0.373
0.322
0.344
0.292
0.263
0.283
0.558
0.257
0.452
0.255
0.372
0.370
0.451
0.493
0.265
0.249
0.360
0.453
0.327
0.000
0.032
0.058
0.000
0.079
0.064
0.029
0.024
0.001
0.010
0.011
0.038
0.003
0.019
0.016
0.000
0.002
0.010
0.012
0.026
0.039
0.046
0.000
0.062
0.001
0.047
0.005
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.050
0.085
0.058
0.000
0.009
* HYP
Two
Questions
*
06 x 23
06 x SEi
10 x 23
11 x SEi
11 x 23
19 x 23
19 x SEi
23 x Gi
23 x PCi
Gi x SEi
PCi x SEi
07 x 33
07 x 34
07 x 37
07 x SEi
21 x 23
21 x 34
21 x 35
21 x 36
21 x 37
21 x 38
23 x 26
23 x 31
31 x 33
31 x 34
31 x 35
31 x 36
31 x SEi
*
*
*
*
*
*
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H2
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
H3
Kendall's
tau-b
Value
0.408
0.443
0.307
0.354
0.375
0.497
0.291
0.208
0.364
0.360
0.237
0.268
0.357
0.244
0.242
0.364
0.274
0.276
0.355
0.335
0.362
0.312
0.561
0.371
0.347
0.317
0.238
0.294
Gamma
Value
Approx.
Tb
Spearman's
rho
Approx.
Sig. (p)
0.669
0.570
0.525
0.433
0.589
0.788
0.411
0.306
0.527
0.392
0.264
0.430
0.579
0.389
0.318
0.593
0.425
0.414
0.529
0.493
0.486
0.532
0.884
0.604
0.576
0.479
0.381
0.393
3.689
5.316
2.587
3.373
3.288
4.260
2.732
2.023
3.575
3.947
2.337
2.552
3.456
2.251
2.631
3.441
2.485
2.563
3.298
2.729
3.103
2.719
6.022
3.304
3.006
2.449
2.064
2.716
0.428
0.540
0.323
0.424
0.471
0.513
0.356
0.247
0.413
0.326
0.301
0.300
0.394
0.275
0.303
0.389
0.308
0.314
0.397
0.368
0.370
0.332
0.550
0.403
0.377
0.343
0.265
0.354
0.000
0.000
0.010
0.001
0.001
0.000
0.006
0.043
0.000
0.000
0.019
0.011
0.001
0.024
0.009
0.001
0.013
0.010
0.001
0.006
0.002
0.007
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.014
0.039
0.007
Note. * Results described in chapter 4
APPENDIX F
SAMPLE E-MAIL INVITATION
Dear Mr. S.:
I am conducting research for my dissertation for a Ph.D. in Organization and Management from
Capella University in Minneapolis. The participants for my study are Americans who are
currently working or who have worked in a foreign country for a for-profit corporation for at
least nine months.
Please complete my survey. It should take about 20 minutes. Here is the link to the secure
server:
https://www.empliant.com/survey/F5FFB7ECD-B0D0-E1B3-41CF/
I am very excited about this project and look forward to analyzing the results. The topic of my
dissertation study concerns the types of knowledge transferred and acquired by expatriates. At
Capella, I adapted my doctoral coursework and comprehensives to study expatriates working for
American multinational corporations. Capella University requires empirical research for
completion of a Ph.D.
I was a Peace Corps volunteer teacher in Malaysia in the 1970s and have degrees from Duquesne
University and the University of Pittsburgh. I have 25 years experience as a college faculty
member in business administration. My faculty Web page is available at:
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/psmith/.
If you know of others who would be willing to participate, please forward this message with my
thanks.
Thank you,
Patricia
===================
Patricia Matisz Smith
ADDRESS
City, ST Zip
================