r
THE APPLICATION OF MUSIC IN INDUSTRY AND ITS EFFECT
UPON THE MORALE AND EFFICIENCY OF THE WORKER
by
John H. ScottJr.
W.
Scott Libbey
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Bachelor of Science Degree
from the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1 9 4 3
THESIS AUTHORIZATION
DateJanuary 54 1943
D
brLJ
Name
.tt,..Jr.
9 Te Appic.ato.n .. fMusc-in jrtduztxy-azcjJtsEffec.
upan-
_thLe M-rale-and-Eficlenay .of-the-Worker
This is your authority to proceed with the thesis investigation as outlined in your preliminary report. Please return
this sheet with the original copy of the finished thesis.
Signature of the Advisor, indicating completion of a sat-isfactory preliminary report.
Advisor
Signature of the Supervisor, indicating proper registration
fo-
redit, and generally satisfactory progress.
and gene l s
M. I. T. Graduate House
Cambridge, Massachusetts
January 11, 1943
Professor George W. Swett
Secretary of the Faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Dear Sir:
In accordance with the requirements for graduation,
we herewith submit a thesis entitled, The Application
of Music in Industry and its Effect upon the Morale
and Efficiency of the Worker.
We wish to express our
gratitude to Professor Douglas McGregor, who has been
extremely helpful in the organization of our material.
Sincerely yours,
QJ
Q4
John H. Scott, Jr.
W. Scott Libbey
TABLE OF CONTEINTS
Introduction
Purpose
Scope
Method
history
Sumiary
The Effects of Music
Psychology of Music
Rhythm
Morale
Fatigue
2
3
4
5
7
12
13
14
15
22
Physiological Fatigue
22
Psychological Fatigue
24
Decreased Capacity for Doing Wvork
26
Fatigue and the Production Curve
Stimulation
1Noise
Production
how Morale and Fatigue influence Cost
How Music Saves Time
Obtaining Reliable Data
Daily Production Curves
Possibility of No Effect on Production
Scientific Experiments on the Effect of Music
on Production Rate
The Operadio Experiment
Further Evidence of 1viusic's Effect
on Production Rate
Waste and Quality
Safety and health
The Application of Music
Conditions Under Which hiusic Can be Used
Physical Conditions 4hich Must Be Considered
Characterjstics of the Work and Worker
The Music Installation
Ways of Obtaining the Music
Equipment
Availability of Equipment
The Psychology of installation and Operation
The Operation of the System
Times and Types of Music
The Time to play Music
The Type of Music
The Music Program: Times and Types
in Combination
Conclusion
26
29
29
31
31
32
33
36
38
39
55
56
57
61
63
64
65
68
75
7b
78
81
82
83
85
86
95
107
109
-I
Further Uses for the P.A.
System
110
Difficulties iihich May Be Encountered
112
Conclusions
114
Recommendations for the Future
116
Appendices
A, Employer's Attitudes
B, Reported Effects on Production
C, The Music at Work Program
of Radio Otation WNYC
D, Record Lists
E, Case Histories
F, Views of the £vanagements of
British Industrial Companies
118
119
123
Bibliography
126
128
134
142
144
1
INTRODUCTION
2
PURPOSE
The purpose of this thesis is to prepare a report
which will set before a manufacturer considering the
use of music the facts relative to its application and
its effects upon the morale and efficiency of the worker.
It is our hope that all of our major premises will be
carefully weighed by the manufacturer in view of today's
existing knowledge, but we must first pass out the warning
that so little scientific work has been carried on in
this phase of industrial welfare, that no sure-fire
answer has been found for every question.
Our presenta-
tion attempts to correlate all available information as
of the present date.
Although we are undoubtedly preju-
diced toward the use of music, we shall try to maintain
a spirit of impartiality.
SCOPE
This investigation strives to include only music's
place in the industrial organization.
Instances of in-
creases in milk production by the use of music in barns
has come to our attention, but we feel that the limitations of our work will exclude the study of music on the
farm.
We have also placed restrictions upon the method
of transmission of music to workers.
All glee clubs and
band concerts, participated in by the worker, are eliminated.
Our sole concern is with the use of music played
to the worker, no matter how it is presented.
Although music played during working hours is our
chief interest, rest period and lunch hour music will
also be considered.
The factory worker receives most of
our attention, but the effect of music on the clerical
and mental worker will also be considered.
4
IMTHOD
For the gathering of our information, all available
literature for the past twenty years was first searched.
We were thus able to obtain about two hundred names of
persons, organizations, and companies displaying interest
in music in industry.
The main body of our material
has come mostly from our contacts with these two hundred
corresoondents.
5
HISTORY
For centuries music has been playing a significant
role in man's work life.
Old sea chanteys of the sailors
and the use of music in the building of the pyramids are
evidence of music's early prominence in history.
The first recorded case of the use of music in the
modern age is probably Thomas Edison's attempt to use
phonographs in a cigar factory.
The failure resulted
from too much noise which could not be overcome by the
weak volume of the phonograph.
The necessity of good
electrical reproduction was the temporary fly in the
ointment.
In 1925, Westinghouse Electric Co. at its
Newark plant, successfully introduced the playing of
records over its loud speakers, but the idea remained
rather dormant until the advent of the British studies
in 1937.
Studies of industrial music were made due to
the activities of equipment producers and the interests
of the British Industrial Health Research Board.
A
great impetus was given to music in industry in 1940
by the desire to improve morale and increase production
for the benefit of the war effort.
Foilowing the British
lead, manufacturers in the U.S. are just awakening to the
potential value of music in industry.
The timeliness of
our investigation may be shown by the estimate that last
April only 500 plants employed music, while in July, the
6
number had risen to almost 3,000.1
1. Antrim, Doron K., "IMusic for All-Out Production,"
Forbes, August 15, 1942, p. 16.
I
7
SUMMARY
8
kusic has two psychological effects.
A spirited
melody brings a feeling of gaiety, while a melancholy one
produces listlessness and somberness.
By the application
of the known effects of music, it is possible to use music
to advantage in the improvement of the morale and efficiency
of the industrial worker.
Morale denotes the worker's will to work and satisfaction in his job.
Because music provides a genial atmos-
phere and indicates to the worker that management is interested in the welfare of its employees, the worker feels
happy in his job and way of life.
Poorly chosen music
will not have beneficial effects, but good music, properly
reproduced will help form a bond of friendship between
workers and management.
The repetition of one task will soon result in fatigue.
Whether the fatigue be caused by physical inability or mental tiredness, a decrease in production will result.
Numerous scientific investigations have shown music's
effect upon us mentally and physically.
6tudy of these
findings in conjunction with an analysis of the periods of
highest fatigue lead to the choice of the most opoortune
hours to play music.
Management's ultimate interest in the value of music
usually concerns its effect upon production.
'The easiest
way to effect a production increase is to improve the morale
F9
and reduce the fatigue of the worker.
Any study of music's
effects on production entails the necessity that all other
working conditions remain constant.
controlled conditions have been made:
Only two tests under
(1) by Wyatt and
Langdon of the Industrial Health Research Board, Great
Britain, and (2)
of Technology.
by Prof. Burris-Meyer of Stevens Institute
In both instances, the use of music has
brought about an increase in production, while its elimination has been followed by a production decrease.
It
must not be assumed that music will always increase
production, however.
The application of music warrants a great deal of
consideration.
For maximum results music requires that
there be not too much noise, a concentration of workers,
and monotonous work.
Individual variances among employees,
such as musical training, proportion of men to women, age,
and nationality influence the type of music.
Employee
requests should be used if in accordance with the general
program of music.
Music in the industrial plant may be obtained in
numerous ways.
The Viuzak Corporation specializes in
"piped in" music while R.C-A. Manufacturing Company
puts installations in plants.
However, a number of com-
panies prefer to make their own installations.
WNYC
has a noon hour program for radio-equipped plants in the
New York area.
Operating costs under any of these
10
set-ups is insignificant.
reproduction equipment
Present shortages of Olectrical
raise difficulties in obtaining
a music installation, but the feat is far from impossible.
Workers sometimes get the idea that the music is being
introduced to cause them to work faster; this impression
should be discouraged.
Almost anyone can operate the music system.
task often falls to the telephone operator.
This
The record
library grows larger as it is kept alive with new tunes
furnished by the company, and additions
by the employees.
sometimes made
Control of the entire music program
and installation should be under the supervision of the
Industrial Relations Department.
Probably the most unexplored field in industrial
music concerns the times and types of music which should
be played.
Rules are few and conflicting, and are of doubt-
ful quality.
Yet, usually any music is better than none.
The worker is not interested in having music at the
times and in the amounts which will do him the most good.
But our main consideration is to give the worker what is
best for him.
of music a day.
One must not use more than one or two hours
One should preferably schedule music
only after ascertaining one's own production curve, and
determining where the music will do the most good.
11
A careful study of the characteristics of the workers in the plant is the first necessity in determining
the type of music to be pieyed.
Several "comimoln denom-
inator" types can be discovered which will suit almost
anyone in the plant.
There are a number of characteristics
of particular types of music which must be kept in mind
in order to use these types to best advantage.
Particular music periods require particular types of
music.
One's final program is obtained by determining
both the times at which
Lusic is to be played and the
music which is to be played at each of these times.
L4
12
TBE EFFECTS OF MUSIC
13
PSYCHOLOGY OF MUSIC
Music has a psychology of its own.
While it is one
of the least tangible arts that affect our sense organs,
it is also one of the most effective.
Everyone knows
that when certain pieces are played, old experiences are
recalled, emotions which were felt when the song was
first heart become attached to the melody of the song,
and an emotional surge is brought forth by the musical
strains.
1.
As we look at the effects that music may play upon
our mental-being, two changes of mood can be detected.
First, if a slow, lilting and rich melody is heard, the
tendency will be for a calming effect upon our nerves and
senses.
A feeling of peacefulness will overcome our minds.
On the other hand, a fast, highly spirited tune will awaken
our emotions to the point of gaiety and possibly bellicosAs we proceed to expand our thesis, the ways the
2.
above knowledge may be put to practical use may become
ity.
clear.
1.
Crane, G. W.,"Psychology, Applied,"p. 347.
2.
Scott, Cyril,"Ginger Up Your Brains With Music,
Etude, November 1931, p. 773.
14
RHYTHMA
Strangely enough, the first thing that we are going
to discuss about music is something which music does not
normally do.
There seems to be a rather prevalent miscon-
ception that the main reason for the use of music in
industry is to increase the speed of the worker by forcing
the rhythm of his operation to become faster.
This is supposed
to be accomplished by picking music with a rhythm slightly
faster than the operation rhythm, and playing this music to
the worker.
And the worker is then supposed to speed up so
he can keep in time with the music.
A few cases have been found where music has operated on
the worker in this way.
But look at the difficulties which
would face the arranger of the program.
It would mean
that all the music played would have to have precisely the
same rhythmic speed.
The music so picked would probably be
adapted to only one type of operation in the factory.
And this system could be used only where the operations
were of a one-two or one-two-three nature, which is seldom
the case.
In the following pages we are going to point out the
real reasons for the use of music.
15
MORALE
Morale is an idea that can not be properly defined
or measured.
One person will say that it is the general
spirit of mind and feeling expressed by the worker, while
another will argue that morale denotes the worker's attitude towards his employer and job after economic reasons
have been put aside.
If the worker enjoys doing his job,
his morale is high; if he hates his job, his morale is
considered low.
As David Sarnoff of RCA Manufacturing
Co. Inc., has said, "morale is a state of mind." 1
typifies the mood of the employee's thoughts.
Morale
Unfortu-
nately, morale is so intangible that no simple index can
be used to measure it.
Almost all conclusions must be
based on personal opinions, the exactness of which is
open to question.
The factors that may affect morale usually include
rank of employees, success of employee, supervision,
earnings and working conditions.
conditions that music is included.
It is under working
Music becomes part
of the atmosphere and surroundings that influence either
positively or negatively the employee attitude.
If music
can help to change tangible and measureable items of employee efficiency, it must be conceded that morale has
1.
"Building Morale for Increased War Production,"
E. C. Morse, R.C.A. Manufacturing Co., 1942
16
been influenced.
Professor Burris-Meyer's recent tests 1 . show that the
early departure of piece-work employees, free to leave
when they please, dropped from 22.75% to 2.85% when music
was introduced.
A graph of this is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Manufacturers have claimed that since music has been used
the rate of turnover and absenteeism has taken a definite
drop.
Monday morning absenteeism was decidedly cut by
the use of music in the test just mentioned.
the results.
Fig. II shows
Due to many possible changes of other condi-
tions and unknowns some skepticism is warranted.
Conse-
quently the desire to work must now be stronger than
previous to music--morale is higher.
To bear out our point that morale must be measured
more by opinions than by figures (except in above cases)
a few statements and facts are presented.
In one company,
an employee in a non-music department asked to be transferred to a music department because he considered music
essential to the happiness of his job.
Several companies
have granted employees' requests to bring in their own
radios.
Music installation at Westinghouse's East Pitts-
burg plant was made to fulfill the desire of employees.
At Botany-Worsted, 97-99% of employees voted after installation that they liked the music,
1.
"Music in Industry " Prof. Harold Burris-Meyer,
Stevens Inst. of ±ech., an address before the
A. S. M. E., Oct. 15, 1942.
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The following reactions are typical.
bright and cheerful atmosphere."
"Produces
'Brings general good
feeling between workers and management."
"I didn't mind
coming back from vacation, because of music."
makes time seem to go faster."
"Music
"Music is essential to
our war effort' says Air Vice-Marshall Sir David Munro.
Horace E. Baker, Assistant to Plant Manager of BristolMyers sums up music's morale effect as follows: "Music,
in my opinion, is just another intangible asset like a
pat on the back from your boss, when you do a good job,
or like the cheerful smile with which someone greets you
in the morning."
The Reuben H. Donnelley Corp. considers music to be
one of the factors which make the better type of employee
prefer to work for them rather than for competitors.
The
other factors are courteous treatment by supervisors, clean
orderly rest rooms, immaculate dressing rooms, scientifically
planned ventilation and lighting and venetian blinds.
Of all
the items mentioned as contributing towards improved morale,
music is rated last, and would be the first to go if it
were ever necessary to eliminate any of these things.
This
seems reasonable enough.
Granted that the worker's task is more pleasant, do
we have sufficient reason to make another investment?
will the union feel about this new idea?
How
Will labor think
that this is just another method of management to crack the
whip for more production.
Let us consider the questions.
20
In return for the general increase in morale, the
almost negligible cost is put into the background.
Music
is known to have attracted more and a better type of worker
to plants which experienced excessive labor troubles before
music.
The explanation is simple.
Workers sought a better
place to work.
Music has been heartily endorsed by most labor unions;
others have neglected to comment.
Probably the most widely
known interpretation of labor's attitude was issued by
A. F. of L. President, William Green, when he said, "A
friend of labor for it lightens the task by refreshing
the nerves and spirit of the workers."
Music is viewed
as another way in which management may provide for the
welfare of the employee.
Whenever music is installed in
a plant, management is careful to explain that the desire
for higher morale is the reason for the decision.
However,
we can not neglect the fact that an increase in morale will
tend to increase production and reduce costs and labor
troubles.
Not always does music divorce itself from labor
problems.
The abolition of music brought a recent sit-
down strike in a cigar factory.
Sometimes when music is
not played at the regularly scheduled hour, employee complaints are quick to follow.
Sylvania Electric Products,
Inc. of Danvers, Mass., had one employee remark, "If the
music is turned on again, you will have better workers."
Poorly reproduced music will be nerve wracking and will
21
do more harm than no music at all, but good music,
properly reproduced should inspire more will to work
and improve morale.
22
FATIGUE
Today's industrial tempo, which features machines
and a specialization of labor, has made possible great
increases in the speed of the worker.
Incentives further
augment the cause for greater output and resultant higher
pay, but because of improper management or the peculiarities of the task the worker experiences excessive and unnecessary fatigue.
Before any study may be made of the effects of music
on fatigue, the nature of fatigue must be discussed.
In-
dustrial fatigue may be classified into three related
phenomena:
1.
(1) A physiological change
(2) A feeling of tiredness
(3) A decreased capacity for doing work.
To determine how fatigue could be brought on and
combatted it is necessary that each element be carefully
explained.
Physiological Fatigue
The first consideration of industrial fatigue revolves around changes in the physiology of the body.
The
human body may be thought of as a machine, since fuel and
1.
Viteles, M.S.,"Industrial Psychology", p. 441.
23
energy must be stored up before the body will function.
A lactic acid accumulation due to an insufficient quantity of oxygen will produce local fatigue.
Fatigue also
produces changes in the blood, in the endocrine glands,
and in the nervous system, as well as transformations in
blood cells and chemistry and variations in pulse and blood
pressure.
Therefore, if music is going to reduce this
phase of fatigue, music must alter the conditions under
which fatigue is fostered.
With the use of a Moss dynamo-meter, Dr. J. Tarchanoff
found that a person could lift more than usual when spirited
music is played; and with melancholy music there is a decrease in lifting power'2. Numerous other studies have
given rise to many conclusions that may be drawn as to the
influence of music on the human body.
The work of Tarchan-
off and Dutton shows that music increases metabolism.
Fere,
Tarchanoff, and Scripture indicate that music increases or
decreases muscular energy.
It accelerates respiration and
decreases its regularity, as demonstrated by Binet, Weed,
and Giulbaud.
A marked but variable effect is also pro-
duced on pulse and blood pressure.
The researches of
Cannon have shown that Zausic influences the internal secretions.3. A good example of music's physiological effect
"Industrial Psychology", p. 450.
1.
Viteles, M.6.,
2.
Dardes, Earl, "Music'. How Its strains Inspire Us",
Musician, Sept., 1936, p. 136
3.
"How Music Affects the Human body," Musician,
July, 1938, p. 124
24
can be illustrated by the fact that in a six-day bicycle
race in Madison Square Garden the average speed under the
influence of music increased from 16 to 17 miles per hour.
As a result of the many physiological ohanges produced
by music, care must be taken in its choice or else the
music will adversely affect the fatigue instead of helping to reduce it.
Tarchanoff's experiment is a good ex-
ample of this.
When music of a lively type is brought to our ears,
This ten-
physio-motor reactions compel muscular tension.
sion of the muscles tries to release itself in bodily activity.' We realize this in the desire to spend our pent-up
energy.
When we have followed this urge, a sense of satis-
faction and relief is experienced.
If when hearing music,
you tap your feet or clap your hands, you give evidence of
true physio-motor reactions.
Psychological Fatigue
The second aspect of fatigue deals with a feeling of
tiredness and boredom.
Since it is subjective in nature,
the extent of tiredness cannot be determined.
This feeling
of fatigue normally acts as a protective device in preventing exhaustion, but often there is little correlation with
phsiological fatigue.
1.
A person may feel tired and yet he
Tiffin, J., "Industrial Psychology," p. 218.
25
may work as efficiently as ever, or he may feel normal,
and yet he may be actually working at a low rate because
of physiological fatigue.
Particularly in mental work,
the feeling of fatigue may be experienced when the figures of production show no amount of fatigue.
All psychological fatigue results from boredom and
the monotony of repetitive work.
As the boredom is in-
tensified the worker resorts to day-dreaming and talking
with fellow employees, and his production drops off.
This
type of day-dreaming usually concerns the unpleasantness
of the job and the wish for a better one.
It must be
pointed out that this day-dreaming is unlike that caused
by the thoughts of pleasant days brought back by the hearing of a familiar song.
In the case of intelligent workers
the problem is most acute.
In every instance management
should endeavor to keep the worker's mind on his job.
Since this approaches the impossible, a substitute for
mind wandering and relaxation of attention to the work
should be provided.
Music can fulfill the task of afford-
ing a diversion from the monotony of a repetitive cycle,
but, at the same time, work in such an unnoticeable manner
that the worker fails to realize the passing of his unpleasant job in favor of the delightful conditions under
which he has the opportunity to be employed.1 . Since any
1.
Crane, G.W.,"Psychology Applied,"
p. 347.
26
diversion of the eye will tend to affect production, and
because music causes reaction upon the part of tne ear
and not the eye, the worker's complete physical activity
may be devoted to his work.
Decreased Capacity For Doing Work
In addition to physiological and psychological fatigue
the industrial psychologist recognizes a third concept; this
one deals with the output of the employee.
Since the de-
creased capacity for doing work results from the effects
of physiological and psychological fatigue, the quantity
of output is used as the most practical measure of fatigue.
Of course, the manufacturer is concerned only in the changes
in production, and not in the degree of fatigue.
If we can
accurately judge the causes of the fluctuations in the production, we shall have progressed a long way towards answering the question, "When can music be used most effectively?"
Fatigue and the Production Curve
Fig.IM shows a typical production curve for an operation
where muscular movement is vital to production.
1.
An auto-
matic machine's production should not be affected by fatigue
on the part of the attendant.
An operation requiring only
slight use of the muscles will have a more smooth curve
than the following, since the physical fatigue will be less.
1.
Barnes, R.M., "Iotion & Time Study", p. 138
27
0
1.oo
9.oo
10o
.00
12.60
MORMiNG
1.Oo
2.oo
3.0.
' .0o
%.00
AFTER NOOW
Fig. m Typical daily production curve for heavy muscular work.
From BarnesR.k.,Motion and Time Study,p. 138.
Our typical production curve has several important characteristics which will bear study in order that we may know
what are the most opportune times to use music.
When the worker arrives in the morning his production
will be low for a short period until he gets back into the
rhythm of the operation.
In defense of our logic we must
say that this initial inertia is due to a lack of practice
while any production drop at the end or middle of the work
period must be attributed to fatigue.
Following the period
of "warming up" to the job there is a steady increase in
production until a leveling off period occurs.
Usually
about one hour is required to attain the maximum output
period which has a duration of a similar length of time.
It is at this point that a steady rate of decrease sets in.
Whether this be for the morning or afternoon session, there
is no essential difference in the general tendencies.
Slightly less time is required for attaining maximum
productiveness in the afternoon, but this is more than
28
offset by the afternoon's faster rate of decline.
It can
not be emphasized too much that Fig.D= is only a typical
curve of production output.
In cases where the hours or
working conditions are different, our curve will not
necessarily
hold true.
On piece-work operations not
infrequently does the production increase just before a
rest period or the end of the day.
Maybe the worker sud-
denly realizes the lag in production and puts on a last
spurt.
Only from experiment can the production curve of
the individual company, and sometimes even the department,
be ascertained.
Only in this manner may the best times to
use music for the relieving of fatigue be determined.
As the production curve is studied, the theoretical
times to use music become rather clear.
When the workers
first come on the job, peppy or martial music should go a
long way towards eliminating the initial inertia.
Since
our production has now supposedly reached its peak level
at a quicker rate, care must be taken that the decline in
production does not set in sooner than usual.
To handle
this situation music is played at the pre-fatigue period
just before the production begins to drop.
By the process
of experimentation the number of times that a musical
series of lifts need be given can be obtained.
In a later
section the actual times and types of music that have
proved most beneficial will be taken up.
29
Stimulation
Besides causing a decline in the over-all fatigue,
music can produce a stimulation.
A displacement of
fatigue, such as is the effect of coffee, is the evidence
of stimulation.
Although the worker may be psychologically
influenced to work harder, his physical body may not be
changed by music.
He is, therefore, confronted with a
temporary lift which will hold him until he gets home.
However, there seems to be little of this effect.
If
we can believe what workers say (we have no other choice
here, since no tests have been made), the fatigue reduction of music while at the factory is not a mere displacement of fatigue, since workers claim a permanently less
tired feeling and more joyful spirit than before music
was used in their plants.
Noise
Noise is credited with doing a lot of harm to employee efficiency by causing greater fatigue.
It is
hardly expected that noise in a steel mill can be eliminated, but there is no need to augment the noise and
consequent inefficiency and fatigue by the use of poor
reproduction facilities.
Many companies have found from
sad experience that music which blares and screeches is
more of a liability than an asset.
Not only does it
actually increase fatigue, but it is a source of
30
irritation which may anger the employee.
It is therefore
of utmost importance that the music be clear and distinct
if an efficient organization is to be maintained and labor
trouble to be avoided.
31
PRODUCTION
How Morale and Fatigue Influence Cost
The manufacturer is guided in almost all of his decisions by the one primary purpose of turning out a greater
amount of goods at a lower total cost.
In other words,
he is trying to (1) produce more goods with his present
facilities, (2)
cut down the costs below his present costs.
The ability of music to influence morale and fatigue
--
and perhaps to have a rhythmic effect--has been demonstrated.
Now, how can these effects of music help the industrialist
out his unit cost?
It has been explained how the industrial psychologist
has shown that as mental and physiological fatigue increases,
the individual's production rate decreases.
In fact, the
production rate is used as a convenient way of measuring
the degree of fatigue.
So we will argue no further the
point that lower fatigue means higher production.
How can better morale cut the unit product cost?
In
the first place, it is fairly obvious that the worker who
is happy can produce faster; that the worker who is on
friendly terms with his employers vill not hold himself
back, either purposely or subconsciously.
Most employers
claim that they use music to aid morale, and they are
undoubtedly sincere in this statement.
But when we look
at the situation realistically, it is clear that their
subconscious, indirect purpose is to aid production and
cut costs by means of a higher degree of morale.
Not only
can better morale increase output, but it can also decrease
the cost of operations, since (1)
less supervisory and
administrative work will be necessary with content workers,
(2)
it has been demonstrated (by Houser, e. g.) that
high morale results in less demands for increased wages.
In the present section, we will not consider the
lower total cost aspect further.
Music's effect here is
indirect, and has never been measured.
So music's effect
on production will be discussed from now on.
No attempt
will be made to differentiate between production increases
resulting from lower fatigue, stimulation, rhythmic effects,
or morale; rather, the over-all effects on production will
be investigated.
Actual controlled tests of music's
ability along this line will be cited.
How Music Saves Time
Though the increase in production rate is the main
contribution of music to higher daily production, there
is another way in which it is effective in achieving this
latter objective.
We refer to the ability of music to
keep the worker on the job for the full daily work period.
33
Mr. John C. Chevalier, general manager of the Palace
Laundry in Washington, D. C., describes their experience,
"We found that the get-together in the morning in the various departments was slowing and that there was lost motion
in production starting time, so a morning program of
marches, etc. was inaugurated, and this had a satisfactory
effect."
Workers often find various pretexts to cease
work, so as to talk with neighbors, watch visitors, etc.
Music has been found to cut down this non-productive time.
Obtaining Reliable Data
Before discussing the actual production results which
have been obtained with music, let us consider some of the
difficulties which are faced in measuring these output
changes.
This will make it clear why no figures on this
subject are perfectly reliable, and why any figures obtained
by any means other than scientifically controlled experiments are particularly open to suspicion.
We do not mean
to imply that such figures do not prove what they pretend
to prove, but rather that it must be borne in mind that
they may possibly be erroneous, quantitatively at least.
In making comparisons between production rates with
and without music, it is necessary to hold constant a
large number of factors which might influence the produc-
34
tion rate, either upward or downward, and make the apparent
results false.
Most comparisons fail in this respect,
allowing some of these causative factors to vary.
A
change in the group of workers being tested is a good
example.
If a new worker took the place of an experienced
worker, and music were tried shortly thereafter, the production rate figures with music would be misleadingly low,
.relative to the non-music figures obtained while the experienced worker was on the job.
would be:
Other variable conditions
pay rate, light, temperature, humidity, venti-
lation, noise, weather, quality of materials, number of
machine breakdowns, etc.
Also, obviously, changes in pro-
cess, product and machinery would invalidate results.
Employer-employee difficulties would cause erratic ouiGput.
Another factor to bear in mind is that if music is
taken away from workers who are used to it, there may be
much more of a drop in.production at first than can be
expected after the shock of their loss has worn off.
Like-
wise, when music is played to workers for the first time,
the pleasant surprise may produce temporary results
greater than will be obtained in the long run.
test periods must be of sufficient duration.
Therefore,
But the
longer the test period, the greater the changes in variable
conditions.
A dilemma is faced.
35
If the subjects of the experiment realize that a test
is being made, and if they are told that music is expected
to increase their output they may subconsciously drive
themselves to greater efforts while the music is being
played.
Morale:
disguise the experiment as somethIng else.
The experimenuir is clvarly faced by a numour of
difficulties, and error in his results is almost something
to be expected.
Errors are, therefore, not to his dis-
credit if he makes a reasonable attempt to conduct a significant test.
He has the further problem of choosing a unit
of measurement of production.
this is almost impossible.
In a shipyard, for example,
In cases such as this, pure
opinion has had to be resorted to in judging relative production rates.
Too often, however, this type of guesswork
is used to avoid the trouble of making a serious test.
Wherever someone's opinion as to production changes is
given, it must be treated as such, and its degree of reliability borne in mind.
-~nI
-
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36
Daily Production Curves
The manner in which fatigue affects the daily production curve has been explained.
The way in which
music affects the curve must now be discussed.
shows a series of daily production curves.
Figure IV
Series I is
the curve of a worker doing work requiring considerable
muscular effort and being paid by time. 1
Series II is
that of a worker performing an operation where less effort
is necessary, pay still being by time.
the first one.
It is flatter than
Series III shows how a worker produces
when he is on piece work.
Toward the end of the morning
and of the afternoon he puts on a last spurt of speed,
and his curve acts accordingly.2
It must be emphasized
that these curves are theoretical curves only.
Seldom do
workers have smooth curves; usually they are quite jagged;
but when the fluctuations are smoothed out the resultant
curves are like those shown.
The placing and duration of music periods follow no
standard model.
This aspect of the problem will be con-
sidered later in this report.
One of the most common
schedules, for an 8:00 to 5:00 day with no rest periods
"Motion and Time Study", p. 138
1.
Barnes, Ralph M.,
2.
Anderson, A. G., "A Study of Human Fatigue in Industry",
an abstract of a thesis, pp. 20-22, University of
Illinois, 1931.
H
37
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Theoretical Daily Production Curves With and Without
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38
except noon hour, supplies music thus:
8:00 to 8:15;
10:45 to 11:10; lunch period; 3:20 to 3:45; 5:00 to 5:15
(this latter period covers the start of the next shift,
and the clock punching of the first shift).
These periods
of music give the worker a "lift", much the same way a
short nap would, and act accordingly on production.
When
the music schedule mentioned is used, the result is shown
approximately by the red curve in each series.
Of course,
the reaction of every worker is not the same, but this
represents a typical one.
Note the quicker pick-up in
the morning and the slowing of the downward trend in late
morning and afternoon.
The objective, of course, is to
make the area under the final production curve as great
as possible.
The playing of music at any given time will
result in a spurt of output at that time; but the placing
of these music periods during the fatigue periods adds
more area under the production curve than as if they were
placed at the high point of the curve.
Possibili. y of No Effect on Production
Under certain conditions, music may not increase the
production of the worker--even assuming accurate measurement.
There are four possible reasons for this
three will be taken up in detail later):
(1)
(the first
poor music
system or program, i.e., reproduction, time, or type of
music; (2)
work of such a type that no increase is pos-
39
sible, e.g., automatic machine operation;
(3)
music
applied to workers for whom it is not adapted, e.g.,
those who must mentally concentrate on their work;
(4)
work artificially held down by the workers.
This
last situation may be caused by workerst fear that a
piece rate will be changed, or it may be the result of
poor labor relations, wherein the employees are purposely
slowing down.
If the workers believe that the music is
being introduced to cause them to work faster, they may
take this latter course.
In none of these cases can industrial music be
blamed for its failure.
Proper study of the situation,
proper choice of method, and good labor relations come
first.
There is still the likelihood that the music will
aid morale,
just the same.
Scientific Experiments on the Effect of Music on Production Rate
Having discussed several theoretical aspects of the
effect of music on production, let us investigate the
actual scientific, controlled experiments that have been
made to discover the influence which music has on production rate.
Only the results of tests dctually made in the factory,
rather than in the laboratory, can be taken as conclusive
proof of music's effect on the worker.
odmbft
l
___
-
___
____
40
We know of only two such series of experiments that
can be classified as truly scientific.
In other words,
the experimenters have seriously attempted to control
the various variable factors previously mentioned, and
have taken other precautions to make the results valid.
Because of their importance, these two experiments will
be discussed in some detail.
The first of these was
performed in 1937 in Great Britain by S. Wyatt and J. N.
Langdon of the Industrial Health Research Board.
It is
reported as a section of "Fatigue and Boredom in Repetitive Work", Report #77.1
The second series of experiments
were performed in 1942 by Professor Harold Burris-Meyer
of Stevens Institute of Technology under a Rockefeller
Foundation grant.
He was assisted by Mr. R. L. Cardinell.
Though a final report of their investigations has not
yet been made, enough has now been announced to show that
it is a comprehensive study. 2
It must be borne in mind that what is found true
for one type of worker in one type of industry is not
necessarily true for another type of worker or another
type of industry.
In the British study, the subjects
l.
Wyatt and Langdon, "Fatigue and Boredom in Repetitive
Work", pp. 30-42.
2.
Harold, Burris-Meyer, "Music in Industry", an address
before the A. S. M. E, October 15, 1942.
41
were 68 girls, aged 14 to 35.
intensive study.
Twelve were selected for
They were engaged in making crackers
(party favors which explode when you pull them apart),
a repetitive operation.
They were paid by piece-work
and were working on the day shift.
Music was played to the workers between one and
two hours a day.
For the first six weeks, there was no
music, but production records were kept.
For the next
three weeks, music was played on a certain schedule; for
another three weeks, on a slightly different schedule;
and for two more weeks, on a third schedule.
five weeks, music was not played.
Then for
Each of these groups
of from two to six weeks is known as a "period".
Two parts of this investigation are significant from
the production point-of-view:
(1)
music's effect on
the average hourly output over a long period, (2)
variations in output within the daily spell of work.
Figure V is a graph of the average hourly output during
the experiment.
The average hourly output with music is
clearly higher than that without music.
When music was
discontinued, the average hourly output did not immediately
fall back to the old level, but rather
tthe
decrease was
gradual and suggested a progressive change in attitude
towards the changed conditions of work".
1.
Op. cit., Wyatt and Langdon, p. 34.
Hence the
42
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43
average hourly output during this period should not
be compared with the average hourly output during the
rausic periods.
The A. H. 0. (average hourly output)
during the period before music was installed can,
however, be safely compared with the A. h. 0.
each of the three different music periods.
during
The A. H. 0.
under each type of music schedule was different.
The
A. H. 0. for each of these periods was compared with
the A. H. 0.
before music was installed.
The
results found were:
The average increase over the original, nonmusic period was 6.Oo for the first music
period.
The increase was 2.6yo during the second music
period.
The increase was 4.4a during the third music
period.
These results are statistically significant.
They
really prove that the introduction of music does
increase Droduction, for these particular workers on
this particular operation.
The efIect of the music
may not have been precisely that indicated by tlLe
figures, but the qualitative effect of the music is
undeniable.
The second significant result of this investigation
is the findings concerning variations in output within
the spell of work.
Figure VI shows this graphically.
First, a daily production curve was obtained for a typical
44
no-music day.
This was a composite of the daily pro-
duction curves of each of the days in the original
period before music was tried.
Then a similar composite
curve was obtained for each of the three music periods.
Each of these three curves represented a typical, average
production curve for a day in that period.
These curves
of the three typical musical days were superimposed on
the curve of the typical no-music day.
It is obvious at
a glance that the music had a definite effect on the
production.
A. H. 0. climbs rapidly when the music is
turned on in every case, and drops when it is turned off.
The increase in output during the minutes while the music
is actually being played over the output during these
same minutes on a no-music day was calculated.
The lowest
increase during any music period (where we are now using
"music period" to mean the thirty or forty-five minutes
during which music is played) was found to be 6.2%; the
highest increase, 11.3%.
We must keep in mind that these figures indicate
just one thing:
that while the music was actually being
played there were production increases of 6.2 to 11.3%.
We must beware lest we jump to the conclusion that music
can give us production increases of 6.2 to 11.3% per
day.
While the music was off, the production curve
dropped.
counts.
It is the total gain for the day that really
And the gain for the day was considerably less
45
than 6.2 or 11.3%.
In fact, if we assume their figures
to be accurate, the daily gain was precisely 6.0%,
2.6%, or 4.4%, depending on the type of music schedule.
These latter figures are the really significant and
important ones in this experiment.
Probably the first
thought that would come to mind would be that by playing
music all day long the 6.2 to 11.3% increase could be
realized for the whole day.
But for reasons which will
be explained later, one to two hours per day is about
all the music that can safely be played.
So our 6.2 to
11.3% figures help strengthen our theory as to the effects
of music on production rate, but they prove nothing as
regards the quantity of over-all gain that may be obtained.
The second series of significant experiments were
those carried out by Professor Burris-Meyer of Stevens.
His results are particularly valuable in that he worked
with a number of different types of workers, in a number
of different industries.
Though complete data on his
experimental set-ups is not yet public, 1 the results are
available. 2
Five of his tests are important from the
production point-of-view.
The results of the first test, as shown in Figure VII,
1.
A complete report is scheduled to appear in Jan., 1943.
2.
Op. cit., Burris-Meyer.
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show the unit output rate (average of the group tested,
of course) of an individual on an afternoon when music
was played superimposed on the output rate of an afternoon without music.
Though both curves are very erratic,
the output curve of the afternoon with music is clearly
the higher.
The average output for the entire afternoon,
in units per employee per quarter-hour, is:
Without music, 46.5 units
With music,
49.6 units
Music has raised the afternoon's total production 6.25%.
The results of the second test (Figure VIII) show
the output per 100 man-hours on each day of a typical
five day week with music, this curve being superimposed
on that of a typical week without music.
Again it is
clear that output with music is far above that without
it.
The average production for the whole week, in output
per 100 man-hours, is:
Without music, 301.2
With music, 335.6
11.4% more units were turned out during the music week
than during the no-music week.
The third test (Figure IX) shows how weekly output
changes when music is installed.
Average production per
100 man-hours was calculated for an entire week without
music.
Then the same average was obtained on eight later
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weeks, music being played during these eight weeks.
In
only one of these eight weeks was production lower than
during the no-music week; it was considerably higher in
the other seven.
The production decline during the third
week is undoubtedly attributable to some subtle variation
in one of the conditions of work, the experimenters being
unaware of the change.
Because of the fact that data was
obtained for only one week without music, and since it is
fairly obvious that this test was of such duration that
all variable conditions of work were not held constant,
it should probably be given less weight than the others
in the series.
The fourth test (Figure X) is very similar to the
third test.
The experiment was performed in another fac-
tory, however.
It is of greater significance than test
#3 in that the production rate without music was observed
for three weeks.
Furthermore, the music was tested for
only three weeks, thus giving the variables less chance
to change drastically.
The average output per man hour
was:
Before music, 270
After music, 281
The output was 4.07% higher while the music was used.
The results of the last test concerning output are
illustrated in Figures XI and XII.
The dotted curve of
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Figure XI shows the afternoon production curve of a typical
individual in a certain factory before music was installed.
The solid curve shows what happened when music was added.
When a slightly different music schedule was tried in
the same factory an even higher production curve resulted.
This is shown in Figure XII.
The average for either of
the curves obtained with music is higher than the average
before music.
The efficiency of the worker for the after-
noon averaged:
Without music
.
.
72%
Music schedule shown in Figure XI
.
.
80%
Music schedule shown in Figure XII .
. 86.80
Under the first music schedule output is 11.1% (of
the no-music output) higher than it is without music;
under the second schedule, 20.6, higher.
Professor Burris-Meyer makes one other statement
which carries considerable import, though he has not yet
offered figures to substantiate it.
In referring to tests
such as his first one he says, "In more than 75% of the
measurements of this sort in all the factories studied,
we have found the area under the curve,
or total produc-
tion, to be greater when music was used than when it was
not used."1
1.
Op. cit., Burris-Meyer.
~
55
From a study of the experiments of the British
Industrial Health Research Board and of Professor BurrisMeyer, there can be no denying the fact that music can
be utilized to increase the productivity of the worker.
It must be emphasized again that findings in one industry are not necessarily transferable to another.
But
the types of workers which have now been studied are
varied enough, and the findings are general enough so
that there is every reason to believe that music could
be profitably used in a large percentage of the manufacturing establishments of this country.
The Ogeradio Experiment
The two series of experiments which have just been
discussed are the only truly scientific studies of which
we know.
There is, however, one other experiment which
appears to have been carried out under fairly well controlled conditions, and which should, therefore, give
reliable results.
The work has been carried on on pro-
duction line of the Operadio Manufacturing Company of
St.
Charles,
at this time.
Illinois,
and tests are still
continuing
The music was introduced gradually, so there
would be no question of "forcing" production, and so the
music would not be too much of a surprise to the workers.
Let us quote from a letter received from Mr. F. D. Wilson
of Operadio:
56
"We have one production line producing Interphone
Control Boxes which had been running for some months
on this same item previous to these tests. This line
had been carefully trained and selected and employees
exchanged, and had reached a high level of production.
All of us were extremely skeptical as to whether
the music would help this particular line, as we had thought
it had reached its peak of production. Our employees
are paid on a bonus system and for the six weeks prior
to the beginning of the music this production line
had averaged 45.15% bonus. During the week ending
November 7, when rest period music only was played,
their production dropped to 43.66% bonus. During the
following week ending November 11 when two half-hour
Deriods of music were played, production jumped to an
all-time high of 48.25o. It was 47.8j the following
week. Our program reached-its full swing in the week of
November 26 and production took a corresponding increase
of 49$o. This dropped to 46.41% the following week
and jumped to 49.27% during the week ending December 12.
This figure was held closely and during the week ending
December 26, was 49/o exactly.
"We illustrate this one production line because,
as above mentioned, it had reached a very high level
of production and we were extremely skeptical that it
could be improved by the use of music alone. le have
checked all contributing factors and we can find no
other reason for it."
Further Evidence of biusic's Effect on
Production Rate
There is a good deal of further information available as to alleged production benefits obtained from music,
but very little of it can be said to have been obtained
from controlled experiments.
Companies which have been
contacted, or concerning which information is available
1
have had varying results with music.
1. Compiled in Appendix B.
British manufac-
57
turers have made a number of statements of significance. 1
Most companies are sure that their production is being
increased by their music, and a few actually give figures.
The quality of these figures may be good or it may be
bad; but since there are a goodly number of such numerical
results, and since these figures almost invariably show
production increases, they are probably qualitatively
correct.
And even the statements which are backed by no
figures at all must be considered to carry some weight;
the judgment of the business man has not completely failed
him yet.
Waste and Quality
The amount of wasted and poor quality material turned
out in a manufacturing process decrease the net amount of
satisfactory production.
Experiments and observations
have shown that under some conditions music cuts down the
amount of waste and improves quality.
This phenomenon
will not necessarily appear in every industrial music
installation, of course, since the product and operation
are probably of primary importance here.
The theoretical reasons for the reduction of waste
again stem back to fatigue and morale.
The worker who
is physically and mentally fresh, who is taking an inter-
1.
Appendix A.
58
est in his job rather than day-dreaming, and who wants
to do good work for his employer, will certainly turn out
more goods which meet specifications.
A few years ago music was played to 55 clerks in the
Minneapolis Post Office during the Christmas rush.1
On
a day without music they made 420 errors; on a music
day they made only 366 errors in handling the same amount
of mail.
This was a 12.86% decrease.
And they actually
completed the same amount of work in less time too.
The
elimination of talking and wise-cracking was one of the
main factors in this case.
A New York mailing service
found that errors were higher at the fatigue periods.
Though no figures are available, they are said to have cut
the errors by the use of music.
In a cigarette factory,
rejects were cut by two-thirds when music was played to
girl packers. 2
In the office of the Oklahoma Natural Gas
Company, of Tulsa, errors of billing clerks were reduced
by 8% when music was used.3
The music schedule and pro-
gram here were far from ideal; a better use of music
might have obtained more spectacular results.
1.
Deardorff, Robert, "Can Music Increase Production?",
American Business, p. 28, June, 1940.
2.
Antrim, Doron K., "Music-For All-Out Production," Forbes,
p. 16, August 15, 1942
3.
"Billing Clerks Work to Music - and Do More", Gas Age,
July 16, 1942.
59
One scientific study of the effect of music on waste
has been made. 1
The work was done by Professor John F.
Humes of Pennsylvania State College.
The subjects were
88 women making radio tubes of three sifferent types.
Music was already employed in the factory investigated,
but Professor humes desired to discover what would be the
results of using various types of music programs, and of
stopping the music altogether.
The mean hourly per cent
of scrapoage for each of the three types of tubes with
each of the different music programs is as follows:
~
o
;-
^1
Mean hourly
per cent
scrappage
-..4-)
S
A
2.55
1.75
2.00
2.36
2.27
R
4.89
3.30
2.85
3.64
4.70
Z
3.43
3.48
3.78
4.39
4.94
The per cent of scrap is lower where the music is
being played, in general.
Some of the figures do not
agree with this; but these figures have no statistical
significance.
Only figures which show a very definite
change one way or the other can be considered to have
statistical significance.
And in every case where there
1. Humes, John F., "The Effects of Occupational Music
on Scrappage in the Manufacture of iiadio Tubes,"
Journal of Applied Psychology, 1941, p. 573.
|
60
is a very definite change apparent, the indication is that
scrappage is reduced by the music.
It is to be understood, of course, that a proper
music program and schedule, and good reproduction are
essential if one is to reap the benefits here.
Music
with strong rhythms which conflict with the rhythm of the
operation will probably increase scrappage.
Overloud,
poorly chosen music might possibly have the same effect.
61
SAFETY A1)
HEALTH
The safety and health of the employee are of vital
concern to everyone.
Any way that can be used to reduce
the number of accidents will be gladly accepted by management, especially if the treatment involves the use of
something beneficial in other ways.
role.
Music plays that
Accidents are known to increase considerably at a
period of high fatigue.
"25% of all accidents are caused
by fatigue," according to the figures of the Travelers
Insurance Company.
Since we have shown that music is
very useful to reduce fatigue, it follows that the number
of accidents will also be reduced.
No definite statistics
are available to indicate less accidents when music is
used, however, because no attempt has been made to gather
such statistics.
Once again caution must be used in the type of music
employed.
Music which is peppy enough to make the worker
boisterous is liable to lead towards inattention to the
job.
In the case of a machine tool operator, any inatten-
tion might result in physical damage to the employee.
Since so many machines perform in repetitive cycles, a
rhythm for the operator is built up.
If the music's
rhythm is pronounced and different, a great chance will exist
for a conflict of rhythms.
Although the danger of acci-
dents is probably small, we cannot lose sight of the fact
that the elimination of pronounced rhythmical music will
be another preventive
of accidents.
62
At Johnson & Johnson in Bloomfield, N. J., music
played too loudly produced a very irritating and nervewracking effect upon the worker.
Figures from the First
Aid Department, over a period of three days, showed approximately a 300% increase in headaches due to nervous
irritation caused by loud music.
In consideration of.
the health of the worker, music and physical equipment
must be periodically checked to insure that there are no
adverse effects on the physical health of the employees.
63
ThE APPLICATION 0P 1IUiIC
-i
64
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH MUSIC CAN BE USED
It is almost impossible to make any very definite
statements as to when and where music can be used.
How-
ever in this section we shall try to bring out a few of
the considerations which may influence the decision.
Again we must warn that what has been found true in one
case may not be true in another.
Thus, if music has been
overwhelming successful in one textile mill, it may not
necessarily have equal results in another.
It really proves practically nothing to recite the
various types of industries which have successfully used
music.
It is the type of worker that is more important.
However, it is an interesting fact to note that music has
been used in practically every type of industry imaginable:
metal working, shipbuilding, textile, glass, electric
goods, baking, tailoring, rubber goods, mailing, medicines, toys, banking, leather goods, instruments, laundering, aircraft plants, jewelry, printing plants, and
many others.
The size of the plant or department seems to have
no bearing on the use of music.
It is used for any num-
ber of employees from a score to several thousand.
The important thing is that the conditions be such
that music can be used.
If music cannot be adapted to
65
an entire plant, there is no reason why it cannot be
used in the departments where it is feasible.
Also, just
because a plant cannot use music during working hours,
it need not go entirely without it; there are still lunch
and rest periods.
Though the maximum gain from music
will not be obtained in this way, it may still be well
worth the effort and expense.
However, the remainder of
this section will deal mainly with worktime music.
Physical Conditions Which Must Be Considered
Concentration of the Workers
The first factor to consider is the area over which
a given number of employees are spread.
It is economi-
cally unfeasible to put in a plant broadcasting system
if the employees are too far apart.
Some semi-automatic
plants, such as almost workless chemical plants, would
have a very high cost per employee if they used music.
Noise
The factor which seems to receive the most attention,
and looms as the greatest obstacle in the potential music
user's mind is noise.
It is, to be sure, one of the
limiting factors, but should not be considered unconquerable.
In their survey on music in industry the British
National Institute of Industrial Psychology found that
66
in a great majority of the cases where factories did not
use music it was because of the belief that noise made
it impossible. 1
Most of these cases were probably unjus-
tified; music could probably have been used.
To go into the entire theory of noise at this point
would be impossible.
Suffice it to say that it is usually
possible to make music audible through what sounds like
a solid wall of noise.
Sound experts can usually find
a "hole" in the wall of noise, and put a reasonable type
of music through it.
So the use of music should never be
given up immediately because of noisy conditions.
Call
a sound man first.
Music is aided by a psychological peculiarity of the
ear.
The ear is supposed to become immune to the steady
noise, to refuse to hear it.
Everyone has noticed how a
loudly ticking clock is seldom actually heard; when the
ear becomes immune
music.
to the steady noise, it can hear the
(This is an example of the phenomenon.)
Some of the noise conditions under which music can
be heard are really amazing.
As much as 100 decibles of
noise can be handled without too much trouble.
In a
weave room at the Botany Worsted Mills music comes through
102 decibles of noise.
1.
Someone has figured out that this
J. Ramsay andER. E. Rawson, "Rest Pauses and Refreshments in Industry", British Nat. Institute of Industrial Psychology, 1939, p. 48.
67
is more noise than is created by a pneumatic drill ten
feet away.
Anyone who has ever been in a weave room
will state that the pneumatic drill is not a very close
second.
At the Vanadium Corporation of America, music
is successfully used where it is "next thing to a boiler
factory."1
The battleship "Alabama" was built to music--
a shipyard is hardly a quiet place.
It seems pretty clear, therefore, that music can be
made to cut through a good deal of noise.
This is true
where the noise is steady; where it is intermittent the
problem is much more difficult, though far from impossible.
Another thing to consider is that the installation
must be so made and music so chosen that the music itself will not simply add to the over-all noise.
must come through the noise.
The music
If not, it will be confusing.
Machine operators have been known to find pretexts to
stop their machines to listen to the music.
This is
another good reason for making the music clear and audible, rather than simply having it compete with the noise.
It has been pointed out how the ear becomes used to
noise, and hears it less loudly.
One phenomenon which
sometimes occurs is the apparent further subduing of the
1.
Richelsen, John, "Without a Song - a Sit-Down,"
Iron Age, March 3, 1938.
68
noise by the music.
In other words, the ear picks up
the music, and the noise psychologically drops even
further into the background.
Silence
A deathly silence can be just as oppressive as an
all-consuming noise.
In some plants there are rooms
where sound is damped out by the material being produced.
A textile inspecting room is a good example of this.
The workers welcome music as a particular blessing under
these conditions.
Characteristics of the Work and Worker
The Time of Work
Whatever is said about the worker on the day shift
will be true also of the worker on any other shift.
In
fact, the gain to be achieved by the use of music on
night shifts is probably greater than that to be achieved
during the day.
Most of the data which is available on
the use of music has been collected during the day,
since many plants have no night shifts, and since the
data compilers usually work during the daytime.
Also,
it makes no difference whether the worker has a four
hour day or a twelve hour day; he will still gain from
the use of music.
69
Characteristics of the Work
Monotony--The value of music in combatting monotony has
been pointed out.
Of course, this does not imply that
non-repetitive work cannot benefit by music; it simply
means that with work of a repetitive type some of the
greatest gains can be made.
It has been found that on
jobs where practically no concentration is required,
such as is often the case with automatic machines, the
worker's mind can wander so easily that he does not become bored.
On jobs where a very high degree of concen-
tration is required, the worker is too busy to get bored.
But the real problem occurs on jobs where a medium amount
of concentration is required; here boredom is pronounced.
And a large percentage of the tasks of industry are of
this type.
Hand Work--Whether the worker be on hand or machine work,
the use of music should have a production benefit.
Of
course, if a worker is running a group of automatic machines, the application of music will not speed up the
machines.
But it may pep him up enough so he can handle
an extra machine.
However, it is on hand work, particu-
larly of the small assembly type, that the greatest,
and most immediate gains should be apparent.
70
Mental Work--The value of music to the mental worker is
a moot point.
The mental or clerical worker is not our
chief consideration in this thesis, but the effect of
music on him is of interest.
Music in the production de-
partments may reach some of the workers in the mental
Or there may be the question of deliberately play-
class.
ing music to certain of these workers.
Of course, the primary difficulty is that music may
distract the mental worker, and lower his efficiency.
On the other side of the argument there are the proved
beneficial effects which music has upon the degree of mental fatigue.
Music can give a lift to the mental worker
as well as to the physical worker.
The question is whether
the increase in efficiency caused by these lifts will more
than make up for the loss in efficiency caused by the
distraction.
It is impossible to argue this out on theoretical
grounds, and very little study of the subject has been
made.
About all we can do, therefore, is cite a number
of cases where music is used for mental or clerical
workers.
Music is used in the offices of the Bell Tele-
phone Company of Philadelphia, of the First National Bank
of Pikeville, Kentucky, of the Norfolk Navy Yard, of the
Reader's Digest, of Selmer, Inc.
The corridors of the
71
Insurance Building in Oakland, California are music
equipped.
The main idea of this installation was to
speed up traffic in the corridors, and to make coming
and going pleasanter; but many office doors are left open
to hear the music.
The president of one financial insti-
tution in this building said, "Our office never functioned more smoothly."1
Music is supplied to billing
and
clerks at Botany Worsted,/at the office of the Oklahoma
Natural Gas Company.
In all these cases music was more
of an advantage than a disadvantage, and was considered
worth having.
It would seem, therefore that there is a
use for it with the mental worker.
Care must be taken to keep the music unobtrusive,
in the nature of a background, or it may become distracting.
Piece Work--It seems to make absolutely no difference
whether the worker is being paid on a piece-work or daywork basis.
Theoretically, one might reason that because
the piece-worker will probably be working more nearly at
this capacity, there would not be much production gain
possible.
Keep in mind, however, that all of the exper-
iments mentioned in the section on the effect of music
1.
Burke, Earl, "A New Experiment with Music in Business,"
Etude, August, 1939, p. 503.
72
on production were performed where piece-work was in use.
yt~hmic Work--We have already pointed out that music is
seldom used in order to speed up the worker by forcing
him into a faster rhythm.
But, will there not be a
possibility of conflict between the rhythm of the music
and the rhythm of the work?
This is a very likely pos-
sibility, and must be guarded against.
It has been found,
however, that this trouble is not as bad as one would
imagine, that there is little confusion caused.
In order
to guard against it, horever, where operations are very
definitely rhythmic,
music should be chosen which does
not have a very strong rhythm.
Skilled Workers--The skilled worker has to concentrate on
doing a good job, and it could therefore be argued that
music should distract him,
and cut down his production.
In actual practice, however, it has been found that music
can be played to the skilled worker, as well as the unskilled worker, with good results.
The only rule to be
observed here is that the music must be particularly well
chosen, of high quality, and well reproduced, since the
skilled wiorker is undeniably more easily distracted.
Variations in Music's Effect on Different Workers
Two different workers of the same age,
sex, nation-
ality, color, and musical training may have entirely dif-
---- ------
73
ferent reactions to music in general, and to a particular
piece, or a particular type of music.
The associations
which that worker has with a given piece or type of
music may be entirely different from the associations
of his neighbors.
This is one of the reasons why it is
impossible to be sure that workers in one group will
receive music successfully just because an apparently
identical group did so.
'However, in a case like this,
the odds would be that music would be successfully received, and in such a situation this assumption would be
warranted.
Of course, when there are differences in age, sex,
nationality, etc. one would never expect to get similar
results.
So the make-up of each work group must be
studied before music is -pplied, and the right kind of
music chosen.
If this is done properly (one of the
following sections will discuss this), music should work
successfully.
A certain number of workers will always be found
who do not want any music at all.
If the percentage is
too high, the use of music is impossible, since the disruptive element will defeat its purpose.
It is very,
very seldom that such a sitiuation occurs, however, and
music can usually be installed without such an unfortunate result.
74
If
there are a number of types of workers in the
group to receive music, one might worry about the possibility of pleasing them all.
It is almost invariably
possible, however, to find types of music which will be
satisfactory to them all.
This fear should not, there-
fore be any deterrent to the installation of music.
75
THE MUSIC INSTALLATION
Ways of Obtaining the Music
Types Available
There are a number of different ways in which one
may obtain music, and a number of different services
available.
We will not go into this exhaustively, since
it is assumed that the manufacturer will survey this
angle very carefully before he puts out any money.
The
different methods will be listed; if any companies which
offer services are left out it will be because we have
only chosen one representative of each class.
Muzak Corporation--The Muzak Corporation offers two types
of service:
(1) music piped to the plant of the customer,
(2) built-in systems which use transcriptions rented from
Muzak.
Central studios are located in a number of im-
portant cities; if the manufacturer is beyond the convenient range of one of these studios, the built-in type
of system is used.
There are relatively few of this latter
type in existence, however.
In either case, the music is
chosen carefully by the Muzak Corporation, and adapted
to the particular plant.
The transcriptions which are
used by Muzak give better reproduction than an ordinary
phonograph record, and since they are used with an
amplifying system of equal quality, the final broadcast
76
is of very high fidelity.
They maintain that their
system is superior in cutting through noise.
R. C. A.--This company, and its representatives engineer
and install equipment, and plan programs for industrial
music systems.
First they survey the plant, and put in
a complete amplifying system.
They have a programming
department which studies the conditions in the plant and
decides the types.and times of music which should be
played.
The customer may obtain his own records, from
the recommendations of R. C. A., or if he desires, he
will be supplied with Victor Records by the company.
He is supplied with an initial library, and about twenty
per cent of this library is exchanged each month.
All
the operating of the system is actually done by the
customer.
The Compnyts Own Installation--It is possible to have
one's own installation put in by any one of a number of
companies which make radio and P. A. installations.
These
companies usually have sound engineers who will plan out
the best system for satisfactory plant broadcasting.
After they have the physical system in, however, their
service stops.
It is up to the customer to plan his
own music program.
We hope that this thesis will be an
aid in doing precisely that.
77
Special Program Wired in from Radio Station--A unique
system is employed by the Oregon Shipbuilding Corporation.
The company has arranged with a nearby radio station to
have specially prepared programs piped in to the shipyard.
News, music, etc. is broadcast in the shipyard much as
a radio program would be, except that the program is
prepared specifically for Oregon Shipbuilding.
Radio Programs Intended for Industrial Consumption--Two
radio stations of which we know, WNYC and WJZ, broadcast
special programs of music for use in industry.
for example,
a week.
offers music from 12:00 to 1:00,
WTYC,
six days
There is no advertising, and the music is spec-
ially chosen so as to be appropriate for industrial use. 1
Instruments--Some companies offer piano music at lunch
and rest periods, one of the talented employees often
supplying the necessary musical ability.
music is used in other places.
Electric organ
During the past summer
the Wheeler Shipbuilding Corporation enjoyed noontime
concerts by the WPA War Service Music Project unit.
Such cases as these are uncommon, however, and merely go
to illustrate the point that music in industry does not
necessarily signify electronics.
The Workers' Own Radios--Some companies allow the workers
to bring in small radios of their own.
This system has
1. See Appendix C for a typical one week program.
78
obvious disadvantages.
The quality of the program cannot
be controlled, advertising slows down the worker, he
must take time out to dial.
When the company supplies
the radio for a group of workers, the situation is the
same.
The Cost of Industrial Music
This is a subject where it is impossible to give
specific costs.
Every plant will be different.
If one
operates his own system, the cost of operation is negligible, and the first cost the only important factor.
Systems can be put in which cost anywhere
$50,000.
from
25Q to
One estimate has put the cost at between 3'
and 71 cents.per square foot.
The employees sometimes
help pay for records, or lend records of their own.
If
one rents records from R. C. A. there is a charge which
must be met.
Muzak charges for the time that the ser-
vice is given.
One company estimates that it costs less
than ten cents per week per employee to retain Muzak
service.
Another company obtains music for less than
five cents.
Eqguimen~t
The Psical Set-U3p of the System
The Plant BroadcastinE System--This includes three parts:
79
the phonograph pick-up or radio or microphone, the
amplifier(s), the loud-speakers.
Sometimes a number
of pick-ups are available, often two or three microphones, and usually radio receiving apparatus.
matic record changers are common.
Auto-
Plant broadcasting
systems are almost always used for paging.
It is possible to have a number of different circuits leading to different groups of loud-speakers.
This makes it possible to page someone or broadcast a
certain program of music in just one section of the plant.
The number of speakers which may be used is virtually
limitless.
At The Curtiss-Wright plant in Buffalo there
are six hundred.
It is possible to have outdoor installa-
tions; this is common in shipyards.
The Record Library--It is impossible to give a definite
size for the record library.
The governing factor is the
frequency with which it is desired to repeat a given
record.
It is best to repeat no oftener than about
once in two weeks, and if possible less frequently.
Of
course, this is not true for the more popular tunes.
Just as an example, an R. C. A. supplied library usually
consists of 300 to 500 records, with a twenty per cent
monthly turnover.
It is also now possible to obtain transcriptions.
Sometimes records are obtained by borrowing from employees.
80
The quality of the music is likely to deteriorate under
these conditions, and strict control of the type of
records played must be maintained.
Several Important Considerations in a System
It must be remembered that conditions for listening
to music are not normal in the factory, and performance
must be governed accordingly.
reproduction be obtained.
It is essential that good
Poor reproduction is just so
much more noise; and noise means fatigue and ragged nerves.
It is necessary that the entire installation be engineered
as a unit.
There is no point in having high quality
records, pick-up, and amplifier if loud-speakers are used
which are too small to handle the load.
stronger than its weakest link.
A chain is no
It is important that the
intensity of the music be distributed evenly throughout
the plant.
Loud spots and dead spots each have their
obvious faults.
By using a large number of smaller speak-
ers, and by careful planning, an even sound level can be
obtained.
8r
Availability of Equipment
In these times of shortages and priorities, the
possibility that equipment may be unavailable must be
considered.
Electrical equipment is hard to obtain.
Shellac for making records is scarce.
Substitutes will
probably solve this latter problem, however.
The WPB
is taking considerable interest in the possibility of
increasing the country's war production with the aid of
music. 1
And one very good argument to obtain priorities
for equipment at the present time is that the P. A.
system is needed for air raid purposes.
Its use for
music is purely incidental (?).
1.
Mr. Wheeler Beckett of War Production Drive Headquarters is now making a nationwide survey of music
in industry.
in
82
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INSTALLATION AND OPERATION
As we explained before, the ultimate desire behind
the installation of industrial music is to increase the
over-all efficiency of the business, both from a production and an organizational point-of-view.
And one of the
important factors in the situation is employee morale.
It is absolutely necessary that one foster the impression
in the workers that the music was introduced to improve
their morale.
It is allright to be realistic and frank,
and let them know that you believe that the improved
morale will result in a more efficient, more productive organization.
But what must be avoided at all costs
is allowing them to acquire the erroneous belief that
music was installed with the prime objective of stimulating them to greater output.
This belief could cause the
whole music plan to backfire.
One very valuable technique is to let the employees
help pick out the records that are to be played.
This
strengthens their conviction that the music is for their
benefit.
The playing of the full schedule of music from the
very beginning is not so good as a gradual increase in
the amount of music.
Music may first be played at lunch
only, then the rest periods may be added, and finally
L
83
work-time music.
Before music has actually been played
during work the employees will probably have requested
that it be played at this time, as well as during lunch
and rest periods.
Thus, it appears in their minds that
the music during work hours is their idea.
83
THE 'OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM
Supervision and Operation
So little time is spent in the actual operation of
the system that the question of who shall do the work
is really not of great importance.
of different arrangements.
places by:
There are a number
It is operated in various
the telephone operator, the infirmarian,
the foreman of a department, a specially appointed hember of the office staff or maintenance department, 'eto,
It usually comes down to a question of who can run the
apparatus most conveniently, since little skill is required.
In the New England Confectionery Company music is
used in only one department, and the music is chosen
and played by the woman foreman.
If she is so busy
she forgets to put on the music at the regular time, her
girl workers start singing to remind her.
A Very diplo-
matic method.
The programming is often under the supervision of'
the personnel department, sometimes under the control
of a department foreman, and sometimes all decisions
are made by whomsoever happens to have been appointed
to operate the system.
At Botany Worsted Mills there is
a special Music Department, but this is seldom necessary.
84
One thing must be emphasized: decisions must be freely made
by the person who handles the programming, and who
presumably is acquainted with the rules which should be
followed; the likes and dislikes of miscellaneous executives
should have no influence.
Choice of Records
The choice of the records obtained and played is
generally handled by the person who has supervision over the
system.
As explained before, if some company,such as, R.C.A.
or Muzak is supplying the service, programming is almost
entirely in their hands.
Even under these conditions,
however, the customer can make requests.
It is impossible to please everyone in the choice of
music.
The workers are reasonable enough to understand this;
just explain it to them.
Many companies try to give the workers some choice
in the records to be played.
It gives the worker a feeling
of importance, and gives him the music he wants.
boxes are usually provided.
Request
In some cases the music which
is picked by the employees is played only at lunch hours;
in other cases it is played during work, after the undesirable requests have been weeded out.
The former system
is probably the best.
In many companies records are loaned by the workers,
and,therefore, obviously are chosen by the workers.
However,
84
some companies have a rule that only company--owned records
may be played.
This avoids the embarrassment of telling an
employee you do not want his records.
Woodward Governor Company has a unique system whereby
a number of records are kept in their "popular" category,
two leading new ones being added and two old ones dropped
every week..
85
T IES AND TYPES OF IVILY6 IC
Now we are entering into the most unexplored
field of all, where no two people agree.
Miany of the
rules which we have here are the result of theorizing;
most have been obtained empirically; practically none
have been proved experimentally.
which much work must be done.
It is a field in
Some of the rules which
we will give are tempered by our own personal beliefs,
as determined from a study of present practice.
Practice is extremely varied as regards the kind of
music to play and when to play it because of the conflicting results which have been obtained by the use of identical techniques in apparently identical situations.
The
tryth of the matter is that the situations are not truly
identical.
Until we have a good way of measuring the
situation, it is going to be difficult to determine what
kind of technique to use for given conditions.
Many
rules as regards times and types have been called rules
when they never should have been.
The result at the
present is that no one seems to be very sure of anything,
since for every rule there are numerous exceptions.
So
if the rules we cite do not work out in a given company,
it is because we have put forward unsound rules, or because the situation in your company is not what it seems
to be.
86
There is one bright spot in the darkness, however,-and perhaps this bright spot has been the cause of many
unsound rules.
No matter how bad the choice of music,
no matter how bad the timing, the results still seem to
be good.
This is true of most companies, at least.
For example, at the Oklahoma Natural Gas Company Music
was supplied in one of the worst programs imaginable-production still went up.
At Botany 7orsted Mills
"all types of programs and records have been tried,
and all have been received satisfactorily.
The Time to Play Music
Times to play music are divided into the two
divisions: music during work, and music during rest and
lunch.
We are particularly interested in the former,
and stress will be placed upon it.
What Good Scheduling Is
The worker does not necessarily want good scheduling.
He wants the music he likes, and would preferably have it
immediately and more or less continuously.
He is not
interested in having the music come on at the times and
in the amounts which will do him the most good.
"A poll was recently conducted in a factory and
1.
"Paging & IMusic System in Botany Worsted Mills,"
a two page paper prepared by 7otany.
87
suggestions from employees, regarding types of music
and hours of playing, were solicited. The total number
of ballots returned were approximately 1500, comprising a cross section of the total employees in the
plant-,
"One question asked employees was: 'How many hours
in the working day should music be played?'
"Response to the inquiry: 1
2 hours- - - 7.0
3 hours- - -13.51
4 hours- -
-26.0%
5-6 hours- -17.01
all day- - -23.5
When we consider that one to two hours of music per day
is considered enough(this will soon be discussed), it
is clear that the worker's ideas are not necessarily too
good.
Our main consideration should be to give the worker
what is good for him, and not primarily what he likes.
Of course, where he very definitely does not like what
is good for him, it is best to temper the treatment with
his desires.
A happy medium can usually be reached which
will please the worker, and do him considerable good too.
A very slight change in programming may be of great
importance,
though this is not generally the case.
We
cited one of Burris-Meyer's experiments where two different
music schedules were used, and the daily production curves
under each obtained.
The solid curve in Fig. XI was ob-
tained with one schedule; the solid curve in Fig. XII was
1. "Music
in Industry,"
pamphlet by R.C.A.
IfS. Inc.
88
obtained with an improved schedule which was planned
specifically to knock the bottom off the 2:15 dip.
The
improvement is obvious.
How Much Music to
y
If music cuts down fatigue and increases production
to the greatest degree while it is actually playing
(Fig. VI shows this clearly), why not play music all
day long?
In some cases this may be justified, but in
general it is bad practice.
The music under these con-
ditions becomes just so much more noise.. Even if it
does not always do this, it nevertheless loses its
effectiveness after awhile.
The worker becomes immunized
to it, and no longer gives evidence of a lift from the
music.
In actual practice-it has been found that the
greatest benefit is obtained by giving the music in short
periods.
This keeps the employee hungry for more.
is picked up every time the music comes on.
He
It has been
found a good general rule to play between one and two
hours a day, which includes lunch and rest period music.
One case has come to our attention where it seems
that a certain company is justified in playing music almost continuously.
It is a photographic film manufacturer,
and the girls who do the work have to work in absolute
darkness.
89
Difficulty of Choosing a Schedule
The number of types of schedules is almost without
end.
Some companies cannot use music during the period
of work, and,therefore, use it only at lunch and rest
periods.
Many companies do not have rest periods, and,
of course, cannot have music at such times.
Some firms-
play music only 'at the morning and afternoon fatigue
periods.
Some users play their music continuously;
some play a given number of records every hour; some
play music whenever it occurs to the person in chargeof the apparatus.
In other words, there is no general
rule.
There are several reasons f or this confusion.
First of all, no one has done much research in the
field, and most scheduling is a result of judgment.
In
the second place, conditions in different plants vary so
greatly that it is impossible to formulate any one
ttright"
way. Practically anything is better than nothing.
Specific Times at Which Music May Be Played
Noon Period--Music should certainly be played during lunch.
The noise of the machinery is gone; distracting music
can be played without hurting production.
The music will
result in a more complete recovery from fatigue,
main value at this time is to raise morale.
music always makes food taste better.
but its
Pleasant
Jazz, vocals, in
90
fact anything the workers want can be safely presented
at this time.
This is also the time to give news and
bulletins, if any.
Broadcasting may or may not be
continued for the full lunch period.
Rest Periods--What is true of lunch periods are also
more or less true of rest periods.
The objective of the
music at these times is to aid the worker to recover
from his fatigue.
At the Beginning of the Shift--When the worker first
arrives he is usually half asleep; stirring music at
this time will get him up to maximum production faster.
The whole day will seem better if it is well begun.
Just Before the End of the Shift--This period usually
consists of music during about the last fifteen minutes
of the shift.
It is probably tco late to pick the
workers' production up much, though this aspect must
not be overlooked.
The main idea of music at this time
is to put the worker in a happy frame of mind, so he will
go hOme feeling satisfied and refreshed.
great disadvantage of music at this time.
There is oneWorkers often
interpret it as the signal to start cleaning up, and the
beginning of the music oftens means virtual cessation of
work.
Just After the End of the Shift--Music just after the
quitting whistle can also serve as beginning music for
the next shift.
It performs much the same task as the
91
music just before the end of the shift, sending the
worker home happy, without causing him to stop work early.
It usually takes a worker very little time to punch the
clock and leave, however, so this music can be effective
on the departing worker for a couple of minutes only.
Whether this is enough to do any good is the question.
Fatigue Periods--It has been explained how there is a
period in the morning and in the afternoon(and correspondingly on night shifts) when fatigue becomes high*
In
the average plant, with the average man, this
usually begins about the middle of the morning, and
slightly before the middle of the afternoon.
For an
8:00 to 5:00 day these occur at about 10:00 and 2:30.
Music is usually played about 10:30 and 3:15 to combat
this fatigue.
Provided it
during working hours,
is possible to use music
these times should certainly
receive their share.
Pre-Fatigue Periods--Music is often played about an hour
before the fatigue periods, with the purpose of giving the
worker a boost before he has a chance to slump in production.
This slows up the onset of fatigue.
When pre-
fatigue music is used, fatigue period music is usually
played a little later than otherwise.
The arguments for
using music at these times are not so strong, but it will
certainly do some good.
Anytimea-Some plants use music without any attempt to
adapt it to the production curve.. They just count on
giving the worker a continual series of lifts all day
long.
Whether this is the most effective way is debatable,
but it certainly does a lot of good anyway.
Types of Schedules
It is hard to classify schedules into types, but
we will try to do so anyway.
Continuous--It has been explained that some companies
keep the music on all day long.
this have been mentioned,
seemed justified.
The disadvantages of
and one case cited where it
This is not a common method, however.
Adapted to the Production Curve--This usually includes
music at the beginning of the shift, at lunch, at the
fatigue periods.
Often pre-fatigue music is used.
Following is a typical music schedule which R.C.A.
recommends for an 8:00 to 5:00 day:
8:00 A.M. to 8:15 A.M."Opening" Music
10:45 to 11:07Work---"fatigue"--Music
12:00 noon to 12:45"Luncheon" Music(and Radio News)
3:20 to 3:44Work--"fatigue" --Mu sic
5:00 to 5:15"Opening" music for second shift,etc.
Cyclic--Some companies merely play two or three records
93
every hour on the hour, or one or two every half hour.
The music has a fatigue-reducing effect,
helps morale.
andof course,
This method is far less scientific than
the last method mentioned, however.
It is a less
realistic method, too, since it does not admit that
fatigue varies as the day progresses.
It is a less
effective method, and merely offers an easy way of
supplying music without taking the trouble to do much
plannring.
Length of Periods
Practically no scientific work has been done to
determine the proper length of periods.
We believe that
what has been done does not have much significance.
So
one's periods must be set by keeping in mind that a'
maximum music time of about two hours a day should be
used, and ap 'ortioning this time between the various
periods chosen according to their importance.
Usual'y
periods are between fifteen minutes and half an hour.
Decidin
on a Schedule
There is only one really good way to determine
what would be the best schedule to use: to deterinine
one's production curve, and to adapt the music to it.
If it is impossible to measure production so as to
obtain the curve, then judgment will have to be used to
obtain a rough approximation to the curve.
94
If one's production curve varies from the typical
ones, if it has strange dips and rises, then music must
be applied so as to bring up these dips.
A period of
music should be arranged to begin on the declining side
of the dip and continue until the dip starts up again.
The lower the dip, the longer the period of music which
should be applied there.
Where labor is light,
and the worker does not
physically fatigue much, we get a fairly flat fatigue
curve, as was shown in Fig. IV, Series II.
Scheduling
of the cyclic type may almost be justified in such a
case.
Byt where heavy muscular labor is involved (Fig. IV,
Series I),
it
is more important that music be applied at
the fatigue period to raise the curve.
These are about
the only rules to offer.
Do's and Don'ts of Scheduling
Several rules can be mentioned which had best be
followed.
Music periods should be on time.
The workers
look forward to them and are provoked if they do not arrive
on schedule.
Do not use continuous music, or periods of
too long duration.
If you find that music near the end
of the shift means "clean up" to the workers, change
your schedule to avoid this difficulty.
rainy days,
On dark and
give the workers more music to cheer them up.
95
Music on the Night Shift
The value of music on the night shift should be
tremendous, but no one has done much to prove this yet.
Night shift music is coming more and more into vogue
now, however.
Sometimes the night shifts are given music on
a schedule which corresponds with that used for the
day shift.
It
has been found, however,
that the
night worker requires more music than the day worker,
schedules are usually expanded for him.
so
Some companies
play music almost continuously for the night shift,
while having a normal schedule for the day shift.
This
is probably going too far.
One rather amusing but troublesome result of music
at night is that people in nearby homes have trouble
sleeping.
This is particulatly bad in the summertime,
when factory windows are open.
No good solution has been
thought up for this problem yet.
The Type of Music
We have already pointed out how the worker does not
necessarily want his music scheduled in the way that would
be best for him.
With regard to the type of music to be
played this is more than ever true.
96
There is a huge mass of conflicting information
available in this field.
One company reports that
vocals are poison; the next one finds that they are
desirable, and offer variety.
And so it goes.
Much
of this confusion is caused by downright error in
interpretation of results by some music users.
Their
error soon becomes a rule, and is published as such.
Further confusion is caused when different results are
obtained in apparently similar situations.
It is
possible to find some plants where the workers will
like or dislike any kind of music you may care to name,
to find some companies which have had success and others
which have had failure with absolutely any type of
music.
Adapting the Music to the Worker
It is impossible to put too much stress upon the
necessity of adapting your music to your workers.
This
is one of the most important steps in the entire
installation of the system.
If this is properly done,
the music should succeed in its purpose to a very large
degree.
We must repeat ad nauseam that all workers must not
be considered the same as regards their reaction to
music. 1
Two apparently similar workers may have
1. MJyeretC.S.,Individual Differences in Listening to Music
97
entirely-different likes and dislikes.
And workers- of
different ages, sexes, nationalities, etc. can hardly be
considered to have the same reactions to a given musical
selection.. Now, how does this effect our choice of music,
how do we go about deciding the proper thing to play?
It
has been pointed out before that differences in age, sex,
and nationality are the most obvious points to attack
first.
We will leave until later the attempt to fulfill
the worker's personal likes, since they are more difficult
to measure.
Our first step is to make a very close
study of the workers in the plant.
a number of questions.
workers in the plant?
range?
We ask ourselves
What is the average age of the
Do these ages spread over a wide
What is the proportion of men to women?
any outstanding nationality groups?
Are there
What kind of music
have these groups been brought up on, American or music
of the homeland?
What about the intelligence and skill
of the workers?
Everyone likes a different type of music,
although
several different kinds will satisfy the same person.
gives us the key we need.
This
Having made a study of the
groups in the factory, and knowing the types of music
which each group will tolerate, our task becomes simply
that of picking out the "common denominator" types which
are acceptable to a large majority.
Of course, this large
majority need not take in the whole plant, different music
98
can be played to different
sections of the plant at
different times.
To aid in finding the "common denominator" we are
giving a brief and debatable list of the music that is
effective with various classes of workers.
We can make
generalizations only, of course, and refer to the "average"
worker of a class.
By teffective" music is meant music
which the workers like, yet which is good for them too.
The Mental Worker--He usually prefers to have his music
soft and distant, to be in the nature of a background.
If
it is obtrusive, it distracts him., For this reason vocals
are out.
Complicated orchestrations should be avoided,
just a simple melody being sufficient.
The music may be
either classical or popular, though the former is probably
best.
Symphonies are very acceptable.
The Skilled Worker--Because of the fact that he has to do
a good deal of mental work too, his music should lean toward that used for the mental worker.
so conservative, however.
It need not be quite
Reproduction must be of the best
quality.
The Old versus the Young Worker--The old worker likes
waltzes, polkas, marches, and plenty of the "good old songs."
Both Viennese and Yodern waltzes are satisfactory.
The
99
young worker likes principally popular songs, marches,
and Modern waltzes, in fact anything with a good swing to
it.-*
Men versus Women--Men like marches, while women like them
less.
Men like to have music serve as a background,
while women prefer to have the melody stand out fairly
strongly.
Both seem to like waltzes.
The Worker on the Rhythmic Operation--He very definitely
does not want the music to have too strong a rhythm, since
it may conflict with the rhythm of his operation.
The Worker of Foreign Nationality--Obviously
such a
worker likes to hear songs of the old country once in
awhile, though he usually has heard enou±h American music
so he can enjoy it,.
Some "Common Denominator" "'usic
There are several types of music which fit into
the role of the common denominator almost always.
Almost all workers will accept music of the semiclassical type, Victor Ferbert's work being a good
example. Waltzes, marches, and unobtrusive choral
numbers are liked by practically everyone.
Conservative
renditions of popular music bring few complaints.
Of
course, it must be emphasized that overdoing any of
these types removes them from the common denominator
100
classification.
And it must also be rembered that there
are certain to be a few workers who will complain loudly
for any given type.
Do not be frightened too much by
the loud noise created by a very few.
Their fellow
workers will usually quiet them down..
The Characteristics of the Musici
Vocals--There are a number of objections which are raised
to the use of vocals during the hours of work.
more distracting than instrumental music.
through the background.
They are
They intrude
They require too much of the
worker's attention, and, therefore, sometimes decrease
production.
A good example of this occurred in Necco.
After a vocal one of the workers requested, "Please play
that one again.
We didn't get the second line."
mental workers they are definitely out.
For
Another dis-
advantage of vocals is that they do not reproduce well.,
If used properly, vocals need not be left off the
list
altogether. Then sung by very clearly enunciating
singers like Bing Crosby they distract the worker very
little.
If the song is very familiar, the worker does
not have to concentrate upon the words.
choral numbers are satisfactory.
ful in their effect on people
2
,
Familiar, soft
Vocals are very powerand may therefore be more
1. See Appendix D wbich contains record lists.
2. Schoen, M. and Gatewood, E. L., "The Mood Effects
of Music".
101
effective in aiding morale and fatigue.
Botany Worsted
Mills re-ports that vocals are very satisfactory, and offer
variety.
Everyone has found that sopranos must be left
off the list.
At lunch, of corse, vocals can easily be used.
Rhythm--Where operations are cyclic,
it
has been exnlained
that the rhythm of the music should not be too strong.
Many manufacturers are afraid to use music because they
fear there will be a rhythm conflict.
are chosen,
it
If proner pieces
is possible to use music with the most
rhythmical operation.
Where there are no complications of this type,
fairly strong rhythms are best,
warker more of a pick-up.
since they give the
The young folks react partic-
ularly well to rhythmical numbers.
Classical versus Popular--In general, popular music
receives a better response than classical music.
parade numbers are well liked.
Hit
But it is really amazing
how many workers like really good music.
And practically
all workers enjoy semi-classical works to a certain degree.
Selmer, Incorporated found that they "had more
requests for good music than for popular numbers from
the employees--which was a surprising thing".
workers usually nrefer classical music.
Mental
Attempts to
102
play symphonies to factory workers bring imiediate reoercussions, however.
Slow versus Fast--Fast music has a very stimulating effect;
slow music calms one down.
usually rests
The choice between the two
upon the purpose for which the music is
intended at the particular time.
tremendously.
one nervous,
Hymns can cut production
Music which is too fast irritates and makes
and therefore brings on fatigue.
Such music
is also rather distracting.
Orchestrations--This type of music is just so much more
noise added to an already noisy environment.
Straight
melodies reproduce much better, and are less confusing
to the worker.
Sammy Kaye is to be preferred to Benny
roodman, for example.
At lunch,
of course,
Benny can be
used.
Associative Music--It is usually better to use music
which is familiar to the worker.
Associations with fami-
liar music are usually pleasant, and hearing the familiar
tune brings back pleasant memories.
Marches,
for examnle,
are more stirring if they have some personal significance,
memory of a certain narade, perhaps.
There is one diffi-
culty: a particular worker migit have very strong associations with a particular piece, and hearing it would
distract him.
The use of unfamiliar or non-associative
music is not useless, of course.
Any pleasant melody can
103
be enjoyed.
Prof.
Burris-Meyer tried out unfamiliar music
on workers with satisfactory results..
Foreign Music--For Americans, American music is the best,
with the addition perhaps of very familiar foreign music.
But the use of Scandinavian music might be rather futile,
except on a group of Scandinavians..
Brassy Music--All music of the jazzy, brassy type classes
as noise after passage through the typical reproduction
facilities.
If it
It merely confuses and irritates the worker.
must be used, play it
at lunch.
News-.It is argued that in these days the poor worker gets
more than enough news without having more given to him
when he goes to work.
It is found,
however,
that most
workers like to have the opportunity to hear a summary of
the latest developments at some time during the day.
News
should not be given during work, but only at lunch and rest
periods.
Announcing World Series scores at the end of every
inning is allowable, however.
Relaxing versus Invigorating Music--Again it is a question
of whether you want music at a particular time to pick the
worker up or quiet him down.
to be picked up.
down.
Early in the morning he needs
At noon he probably needs to be quieted
If work is of the sort which can make one nervous, use
relaxing music; if the work puts the worker to sleep, use
104
peppy music..
Background Music--Men usually prefer music to serve as a
sort of background, while women like their music to stand
out clearly.
Mental workers prefer the background type.
Talking Records--Do not use them during the work hours.
Christmas Carols--Most workers like to hear these at
Christmas time, and very often requests are received for them.
They do not cut down production unless they are too slow,
Marches--These are very good. They pick the worker up when
he needs such treatment.
not indulged in to excess.
Almost everybody likes them, if
There is one trouble which may
arise:marches tend to make a worker tap his feet, and one
company found that this annoyed the workers on the floor
below.
This was probably the fault of building construct-
ion.
Rhumbas--Typical versions are hard to reproduce.
If they
can be reproduced without getting into the category of noise,
however, they can be used perfectly well, and many companies
do use them.
Waltzes--These are almost universally well-liked, whether
Modern or Viennese.
find objection.
Only a very few of the "hep-cats" could
105
Old versus New--The older folk prefer oldtime music like
"My Gal Sal" and "A Bicycle Built for Two," while the young
folk like the popular numbers better.
But each group also
tolerates the other's favorites, and usually gets a 7ood
deal of enjoyment from them.
Organ Music-Organs usually "boom" when amplified and add to
the noise of the shop.
Pieces with Undesirable Content--Some pieces have words
which outlaw them immediately.
The song which is always
quoted in this connection is "Deep in the Heart of Texas."
It is undesirable to have the workers stop to clap their
hands at the proper place, or pound their work with their
tools, to the mutual destruction of both.
"The Strip
Polka" is another good example.
Do's and Don'ts in Choosing Music
1. Do not repeat a given record more than every week
or two.
Also avoid too many records of one type.
2. Use records which have a constant volume level, so the
music will not first be lost in the noise of the
machines, and then return to deafen the listener.
3.Get variety into the program.
4. Do not mix too vividly contrasting types.
It is a
shock to the listener, and is distracting.
5. Do not play any music at all if 7ood, clear rereproduction can not be provided.
106
What the Workers Themselves Want for Music
It is necessary to measure the desire of the workers
in some way, so as to please them insofar as possible.
"request box" can help accomplish this.
A
Workers will request all types, without exception.
However, in general they choose very sensbly and conservatively. 1
They do, however, have too strong a liking for vocals.
What is Best for the Workers
Workers are,
in general pretty sensible.
They
realize that their own personal desires are not the only
things that count, and that plant efficiency is a necessity.
If one number would be too distracting for them, it is usually
necessary only to tell them so.
Practically every type of musical group has been
used on the records which the workers hear.. Dance bands,
accordion solists, light concert orchestras, etc. have
been used,411 with varying degrees of success.
Provided
the music can be reproduced clearly, and the tune is of
the proper type, it-makes little difference what kind of
a musical group supolies it.
Workers often like to sing along with the music.
seldom leads to complications.
does not serve as a distraction.
boisterous,
it
This
Care must be taken that this
If the singing becomes
is dangerous.
1. In App. D.,records chosen at the Harvard Univ. Bookbindery illustrates this.
107
The Music Program: Times and Types in Combination
e Types Which should be Played at Particular Times
Here again we are on. incompletely explored ground.
A
little theorizing will be done, however, and present practice
explained.
First Thing in the MorAirg--Use invigorating music, marches,
for example, to wake up and pep up the worker.
Lunch-.This is the time to work in the types which are
undesirable during work hours.
numbers, etc. can be olayed.
News, vocals, request
Theoretically, soothing music
should be played so the worker can rest and digest his food,
and this should be done insofar as possible.
Rest Periods--Use relaxing music so the worker will recuperate faster.
Morning Pre-Fatigue Period--Use music which is neither too
invigorating nor too relaxing,
type music.
in other words,
a good medium
This holds production and keeps the slump from
starting as soon.
Morning Fatigue Period--The pangs of hunger are beginning
to make themselves known.. Music of a somewhat soothing type
helps allay this pain, and at the same time has considerable
fatigue-reducing ability.
Afternoon Pre-Fatigue Period--Again medium type music to hold
up the production curve.
108
Afternoon Fatigue Period--The worker is beginning to get
physically tired at this point.
be fairly invigorating,
The music applied should
fast and rhythmic.
End of Shift--The majority of opinion seems to indicate that
a quick tempo should be used at this time, so the worker
will receive a final pick-up before he starts for home.. He
will then look back upon the day's work with more satisfaction.
However, some plants use songs like "Going Home"
at this period.
This practice is probably not the best.
The Complete Schedule
Following is the program used by the Woodward Governor
Company.
It illustrates many of the points we have
mentioned.
8:30-8:40 a.m.9:30-9:40 a.m.Lunch periods 2:00"2:10 p.m.3:30"3:40 p.m.-
Band Music
Popular tunes
Dinner concert music, light classics
Band Music
Piano tunes, organ melodies, Hawaiian
or Spanish guitars,etc.
Popular music
p.m.4:30-4:40
Adapting the Program to Special Conditions
As has been mentioned, conditions at night are somewhat different from those in the daytime. More music should
be played, and a more invigorating type should be used..
Dark and rainy days call for more music, and music of
a peppier type.
Hot days call for invigorating music.
The noon hour program is very flexible.
Happy
birthday greetings, marriage congratulations, etc. should be
given at this hour.
109
An Aid in Programming
It has been found very helpful to divide one's records
up into groups to be played in a given period.
All the
records for the early morning period are put in one place,
all
the morning fatigue period records in another,
etc.
This
makes programming much easier, since one can be certain
that all
the records in a group can be used at the time f or
which they are specif ied.
Less planning is required.
Conc lus ion
We trust that, after having waded through t1 is section,
you are convinced that choosing the proper times and
types of music is no simple matter to be left more or less
to chance.
Let us repeat again.
First, derive your
production curve ard fit your music times to this.
Then
study your workers, and find the "common denominator" types
of music which will be most satisfactory for all concerned.
And lastly, keep a close watch on results at all times;
when changed are needed,
make them.
110
FURTHER USES FOR THE P.A. SYSTEM
ill
Out of the realm of music in industry, but defi.nitely concerned with the economic point of view is the
use of a loudspeaker system for other purposes than
music.
In most companies the public address or ampli-
fying system is used for more than music.
listed some of the more common uses:
Below are
bond rallies,
happy birthday greetings, air raid and fire drills,
paging system, company bulletins concerning production
and social programs, safety news, news comments, and
World Series baseball scores.
Although this list is
far from complete, an indication is given of the many
beneficial opportunities that may accrue to the user of
a public address system.
112
DIFFICULTIES WHICH AY BE ENCOUNTERED
113
In order to present clearly to the prospective music
user both sides of the question of industrial music, and
to remove any possible suspicions as to our prejudice, we
are presenting here in one place the outstanding difficulties which the user of industrial music may encounter:
1. If for some reason the music has to be discontinued, labor trouble may result.
In one
case where this occurred, there was actually
a strike.
2. If it is impossible to use music in all departments, those without music may be resentful.
3. There are always a certain number of employees
who will not like the music, and may make
trouble.
4. Some workers persist in talking while the music
is playing, annoying their neighbors who wish
to listen to the music.
This can result in
internal strife.
5. The workers may get the erroneous idea that
the music is intended to whip them on to
greater production, and the whole program may
backfire.
114
CONCLUSIONS
115
Under conditions suited for music, good music adapted
to the workers will result in better morale, less fatigue,
and greater production.
The converse of this statement
is also true.
The original intention of many manufacturers who
install music is to increase morale and reduce fatigue,
while production benefits remain in the background as a
secondary reason.
Neverthless, the final analysis shows
that better morale and less fatigue mean higher production.
Not all employees enjoy music while they work, but
the great majority do and would be extremely displeased
if it were removed.
No strict rules and theory have yet been formulated
in this difficult and confusing field.
Although everyone
connected with the subject of music in industry considers
himself to be an authority, there are only a few who
know very much except that music is usually a good thing
for an industrial plant.
Finally, music for industrial use is gaining in favor
every day, and it is our opinion that more managements
will come to realize that music should be a part of their
organizations.
116
RECOMaENDATIOMS FOR THE FUTURE
.I
I
117
The subject of music in industry is so unexplored
that we feel there is much room open for research and investigation.
Only in the past few months has the United
States begun to take notice of its potentialities, and
since the changes brought on by the war are so great no
statement that holds true today will necessarily be valid
tomorrow.
It is almost impossible at this time to make
any comprehensive tests to prove or disprove the value
of music.
Other environmental conditions are not static
enough to allow music full credit for any change in morale
or efficiency.
Our only suggestion for the future is that
there be made a long run series of tests in different types
of plants, under controlled conditions, to prove what benefits and difficulties the manufacturer may encounter if he
installs music in his plant, and to discover the best ways
of obtaining these benefits.
118
APPENDICES
119
APPENDIX A
Employers? attitudes
In a report, Rest Pauses and Refreshments in Indust
by J. Ramsey and R. E. Rawson of the National Institute
of Industrial Psychology, made in England in 1937, the
following were included as employers' attitudes to music
at work.
Employers' Attitudes to Music at Work
Of the 47 respondents in whose factories music was
provided at work, 37 (74.5 per cent.) stated that it had
beneficial effects on efficiency, while 12 (25.5 per cent.)
stated that it had no effects, or that they were unable
to observe any effects.
None found that music had bad
effects.
Unfortunately, few respondents were able to produce
evidence of the effects of music, but the following typical comments indicate general experience:-1.
"Installed against monotonous work; keeps mind
off work and occasional short pauses to listen to an interesting or 'pretty' piece of music all helps to keep up
standard and rate of work."
2.
"Music, provided to please employees, is popular
with majority and incidentally seems to have good effects
on efficiency.
3.
"(Music during overtime.)
ficial without minute investigation.
Convinced it is beneEmployees doing
120
hammer work keep time to swingy music.
Manager has noticed
work quicken up with the introduction of music."
4.
"Rest-periods tried and found too unsettling.
Music found more satisfactory."
5.
"More attention paid to work with music.
Intro-
duced to avoid boredom and succeeds here."
6.
"Find in summer people not so tired mentally at
end of day."
7.
"Output increased."
8.
"Useful to have installed wireless (1) to give
the girls something as it is difficult to get the labour,
(2) to counteract the monotony."
9.
"Effect in workroom stimulating.
surprisingly apparent.
Swing of work
Music has the effect of stopping
chatter and work improves in consequence."
10.
"Especially in evening, when workers are tired,
it bucks them up, and they work better for it."
11.
"Music instituted in warehouse where an increase
in output of 10-15 per cent occurred over and above
increase due to institution of rest-pauses.
The girls
prefer work in the warehouse with music to work in other
departments where higher wages are earned."
12.
"Music merely to ease the monotony--more harmon-
ious atmosphere."
13.
"In the warehouse, it is found that slow and
fast music affect the speed of work correspondingly.
121
They work to the beat."
14.
"Singing is allowed and they work better, be-
cause it stops them talking, and people can work and sing,
but they cannot work and talk."
15.
"Very great help--improves production.
Staves
off the tired period during morning and afternoon."
16.
"Output has definitely increased since intro-
duction of music (but no statistics)."
17.
"Has been found that music has a definite calm-
ing effect.
Found that the fatigue peA od is deflnitely
lessened with introduction of rest-pauses and music, especially music in some departments."
18.
"Good effect noticed.
Steadier work generally.
Monotony of piece-work operations relieved."
In contrast to these favourable remarks, the following, which were made by respondents in factories which
had tried music but found it unsuccessful should be
considered: -1.
"Processes too noisy."
2.
"Used to have it at meal times, but privilege
was abused.
Questionnaire was later issued on music,
but most workers were against it."
3.
"Wireless was tried, but electrical interference
too great."
122
4.
"Music was introduced, but almost instantly
rejected as employees were against the idea."
5.
"Music stopped because women became depressed
and the authorities thought music out of place while the
workers were on short time.
95 per cent wanted music to
continue, when asked whether they liked it.
said they didn't want it."
5 per cent
123
APPENDIX B
Reported Effects on Production
Herein are listed the effects on production which
have been experienced by a number of companies contacted
or concerning which information is available.
The
accuracy of any figures which are cited is not guaranteed,
but the results should nevertheless carry some weight.
In certain cases the figures may have been obtained
under controlled conditions, but such is probably not the
general case.
Raytheon Production Corporation, Newton, Mass.
7.8 to 11% production increase in a two week test
involving over six hundred assemblers.
Oklahoma Natural Gas Company, Tulsa, Okla.
12% increase in output of billing clerks.
The Reuben H. Donnelley Corp., N.Y.C.
No increase with typists and letter mailers.
Champion Spark Plug Co., Detroit, Mich.
No increase.
An obstinate labor union is probably
the reason for the lack of increase.
Duvernoy & Sons, Inc., Bakers, N.Y.C.
"Production has been more consistent, has definitely
increased."
124
Appendix
Elite Hand-Painting Corp., N.Y.C.
Increase of between 5 and 10%.
A. C. Gilbert Co., New Haven, Conn.
Music "definitely increases the efficiency of our
operators".
Kastar, Inc., Automotive Proucts, N.Y.C.
10% increase.
Lewyt Metal Products, Inc., Brooklyn, N.Y.
No increase.
However, "this may be due to the
special work that our people are doing".
Swank, Jewelry and Accessories for Men, Attleboro, Mass.
9 to 14% increase.
Novel Products Co., N.Y.C.
Production increase.
Harry Latz Service, 242 W 55 St., N.Y.C.
A long run increase of 2 to 4%.
For awhile increases
as high as 10% were made.
Minneapolis Post Office
Without music a given amount of work took 50 hours;
with music , 43 hours.
Arden Rayshine Co., Watertown, Mass.
15 to 20% increase in output of girl assemblers.
125
Appendix
Baker Bros., Tailors, Los Angeles, California
Production increase between 2:00 and 5:00 P.M.
Most companies do not attempt to take any production figures, but are sure that music is a good thing,
and that it must help their production.
126
APPENDIX C
The "Music at Work" Program of Radio Station WNYC
Daily except Sunday, Radio Station WNYC of New York
City presents a one hour noon-time program of music for
war workers in radio-equipped arms plants and shipyards.
There is no advertising.
Below will be found a list of
records similar to those that the manufacturer could expect to hear on a one week program.
I
Barry Wood-March For The New Infantry
Gershwin-Selections from Lady Be Good and Tip Toes
von Suppe-Light Cavalry Overture
Lena Horne-I Gotta Right to Sing The Blues
Suk-Sokol March
Pryor-Lights Out: March
Berlin-Selections from As Thousands Cheer
Rubinstein-Kammenoi Ostrow
Thornhill-I'm Thrilled
Kaye-Let's Bring New Glory to Old Glory
II
Victor-Crash Ont Artillery: March
Weill-Songs from Lady In The Dark
Adam-If I Were King: Overture
Maxine Sullivan-If I Had A Ribbon Bow
Verdi-Grand March-Aida
U. S. Army Band-American Spirit: March
Duke-Songs from Banjo Eyes
Smetana-Dances from The Bartered Bride
Ellington-I Got It Bad And That Ain't Good
Smith-My Great Great Grandfather
III
Goldman-On The Hudson: March
Rodgers & Hart-Songs from Pal Joey
127
Herold-Zampa Overture
Spivak-Yesterday's Gardenias
Chopin-Polonaise Militaire
B. B. C. Band-Castaldo March
Porter-Songs from Panama Hattie
Ponchielli-Dance of The Hours-La Gioconda
Goodman-Dearly Beloved
Shore-I'm Saving A Dime
IV
Legion Band-March Salutation
Gilbert & Sullivan-Selections from Princess Ida
Flotow-Stradella Overture
James-A Poem Set To Music
Tchaikovsky-March Slave
Grenadier Guards Band-Liberty Bell: March
Romberg-Songs from New Moon
Johann Strauss-Songs of Love Waltz
Kirby-Bounce Of The Sugar Plum Fairy
Douglas-Everybody Every Pay Day
V
Coldstream Band-Lords Of The Air: March
Kern-Selections from Show Boat
Auber-Masaniello Overture
Shore-Mad About Him Blues
Schubert-March Militaire
Goldman-Happy Go Lucky March
Cohan-Songs from Little Nellie Kelly
Weinberger-Polka And Fugue-Schwanda
Wilder-Seldom The Sun
Red, White And Blue
128
APPENDIX D
Record Lists
1. R.C.A. List
list
HFere is a partia/2bf records-that R.C.A.
Manufacturing Co. has found suitable for use in the
industrial field, a list which is based on the actual
choice of employees:
Title
Record No.
Dream Tango
Fate Tango
20454
God Bless America
Star Spangled Banner
26198
The Woodpecker Song
I Walk With Music
26531
Smoke Gets In Your Eyes
Zigeuner
24609
Stars and Stripes Forever
Fairest Of The Fair
20132
Blue Danube Waltz
Tales From Vienna Woods
15425
In A Persian Market
Parts 1 and 2
4338
Skaters Waltz
Estudiantina Waltz
35798
Indian Love Call
Ah! Sweet Mystery of Life
Imagination
Charming Little Faker
4323
26581
129
Appendix
2. Harvard University Bindery
This list of records was chosen by the employees
of the Harvard University Bindery of Cambridge, and,
therefore shows the type of music they want:
Songs by
Kate Smith
Johnny Doughboy
Somebody Else Is Taking My Place
God Bless America
When Irish Eyes Are Smiling
Shores of Tripoli
I Threw A Kiss To The Ocean
Dear Mom
Give Me One Dozen Roses
I'll Pray For You At The Close Of The Day.
Bing Crosby
Camptown Races
Meet Me Tonight In Dreamland
My Old Kentucky Home
By The Light Of The Silvery Moon
Please'
Deep In The Heart Of Texas
Dear Old Dad
A Little Bit Of Heaven Fell
From Out Of The Sky One Day.
Glen Miller
Sunrise.Serenade
This Is A Story Of A Starry Night
Moonlight Cocktail
Indian Summer
Skylark
Tommy Dorsey
April And You
Jimmy Dorsey
Tangerine
Nelson Eddy
Waters Of The Minnetonka
~~1
130
Appendix
3. List recommended by Mr. Mischa Tulin
This list was compiled by Mr. Tulin, who is
in charge of industrial music installations for the
Eastern Company (RCA representative) of Cambridge.
It was for use with the installation in the
Harvard University Bindery.
following pages.
The list is on the
131
Appendix
COLUMBIA RECORDS
WALTZ TIME IN VIENNA
-
SARI
"
if
"
"
-
MERRY WIDOW
if
U
if
if
-
ESTUDIANTINA WALTZ
if
if
if
gi
-
THE SKATERS
if
if
if
if
-
WALTZ DREAM
if
if
if
if
-
CARMEN SYLVA
if
if
if
if
-
COUNT OF LUXEMBOURG
if
if
if
if
-
YOU AND YOU
SILVER THREADS AMONG THE GOL D.
LOVE'S OLD SWEET SONG.
WHEN DAY IS DONE.
-
MOONLIGHT AND ROSES
-
if
-
"f
INSTRUMENTAL
ROSES OF PICARDY
LITTLE GREY HOME IN THE WEST
ALEXANDER' S RAGTIME BAND
LADY OF THE EVENING
SAY IT WITH MUSIC
REMEMBER
SAY IT ISN'T SO
BLUE SKIES
"f
ALWAYS
"f
132
Appendix
-
COLUMBIA RECORDS (conit.)
ALL ALONE
-
INSTRUMENTAL
MIGNONETTE
-
FLEURETTE
CAPRICE VIENNOIS
VIENNA, MY CITY OF DREAMS
-
JALOUSIE
AY, AY, AY.
-
JUST A COTTAGE SMALL
MY HEART STOOL STILL
I'M ALWAYS CHASING RAINBOWS
THE WORLD IS WAITING FOR THE SUNRISE
DECCA RECORDS
LOOK FOR THE SILVER LINING
THE LAST TIME I SAW PARIS
MAKE BELIEVE
WHY DO I LOVE YOU?
OL'
MAN RIVER
THEY DIDN'T BELIEVE ME
YESTERDAY
SMOKE GETS IN YOUR EYES
III
I
I
II
-
--
133
Appendix
DECCA RECORDS (con't.)
GOIN' HOME
WHEN DAY IS DONE
A PERFECT DAY
LITTLE GREY HOME IN THE WEST
THE PERFECT SONG
WHEN THE ORGAN PLAYED AT TWILIGHT
THE OLD REFRAIN
LA ESTRELLITA
VICTOR RECORDS
'TIL REVEILLE
DAWN
THE WHITE CLIFFS OF DOVER
MADELAINE
134
APPENDIX E
Case-. Histories
1. Weston Electrical Instrument Corp., NewarkN.J.
The combination paging and music system for
the entire plant was originally-installed by R.C.A.
This system is excellent for paging and has considerably
cuttdown the time involved in locating any individual
anywhere in the plant..
There are regular musical programs in all of
the manufacturing and assembly departmentstas well as
the lunch room.
Music is not provided to the ad.-
ministration and engineering departments, but the
system is so arranged that they may receive the paging
calls only.
Weston makes use of 17 individual
circuitS4 terminating at a switching panel wherein
any of the circuits may be connected on both music
and paging, paging only; orrcut out entirelyIt is impossible to measure any speed-up
in production traceable to the music programs.
This
is due -to the rapid expansion in-attempting to meet
the demands required in the war effort.. Employees
are being added every day and additional whole departments every week so that it
is impossible to
break down the production and measure the speed-up
due to the musical programs.
135
Appendix
However, in the new departments before music is
provided, there are definite demands from the employees
to put it in, and also if failures occur on certain of
the circuits and departments are cut out for a day or
so,
there is a request from the union group to make
quick repairs and get the music system for their department back in operation as soon as possible.
These
demands are even stronger on the night shifts where
the hours often seem long.
Weston operates on several shifts so that the
hours may seem unusual, but the system operates from
seven in the morning until midnight, six days a week.
The different periods and the number of records played
are listed as follows:
Periods
Records
Opening
7:00-7: A.M.
5
Pre Fatigue
8:50-9:14
8
Fatigue
10:15-10:30
5
Luncheon
(2 separate lunch periods)
11 each
Fatigue
2:00-2:24
8
Closing
3:30-3:45
5
Pre Fatigue
(night shift)
5:45-6:00
5
Fatigue
7:15-7:40
8
Luncheon
(night shift)
8:30-8:t4
11
136
Appendix
Pgriods
Records
Fatigue
10:00-10:24
8
Closing
11:30-11:24
5
The type of music depends upon the time of day.
Programs are made up by the week to avoid repetition
as much as possible.
Requests from employees indicate
their preference for the more moderate dance music or
popular records such as those usually played by WayneKing, Guy Lombardo, Sammy Kaye, Shep Fields, Etc.
They also like the older popular tunes such as Roses
of Picardy, Smiles, My Gal Sal, etc.
Apparently
jitterbug music is out and opinion is that everybody
has enough of the jitters trying to push production
to the limit so that the more peaceful music is
appreciated.
Vocals do not work too well as- it is
difficult to distinguish all the words where high
noise levels are encountered such as in the screw
machine and punch press departments..
A commercial record changer is used, but it will
not stand up under the service demanded several hours
a day.
Records are received monthly by virtue of a
contract with R.C.A.
137
Appendix
2. Botany Worsted Mills, Passaic, N.J.
The system was originally installed for the
bolstering of employee morale, and making Botany
Worsted Mills-a
pleasanter place to work in.
There-
was no thought of increasing production, although
that should possibly be a natural consequence of
happier working conditions. Production figures have
never been checked.. Only a check of one program
against another has been made, this by observation.
For instance, the effect of vocal selections-...they
found that the use of vocals makes no difference in
the operating rate of workers and,.in fact, they like
to break the monotony of pure orchestral selections
with frequent injections of vocals or chorus numbers.
The music broadcast system, since its original
conception, however, has developed into, primarily,
apaging and Air Raid protection device, and from
this angle it is unbeatable.. The system has been so
set up that the paging occurs in all the plant, but
the music is sent only to the manufacturing areas.
All types of programs and records have been
tried, and all have been received satisfactorily.
There are some very high noise areas, probably as
high as can be found in any industry, but by specially
designing the loud speaker mechanisms, and by a proper
138
Appendix
selection of music with regard to frequency and
continuity of volume,-the music is looked forward
to even under the worst noise circumstances.. A
short news program at lunch hour is appreciated,
and selections are played a full hour for those who
have the lunch hour.
This music usually consists
of requests of the employees.
In actual operation,
one or two sections have
been chosen to have music put in at one time,
it
and
has been characteristic of all of these--operations
that the first
day the music is received with some
surprise and astonishment, while on the second day
factions are formed of those who do and those who
do not like the music, butjif you can just get your
people to listen for two weeks, Botany has found
that the lowest percentage in any department of those
desiring the music is 97%, and has ranged as high as
99-
in other departments.
One of main considerations of system should be
to not give too much music at any one time, but to
keep your people asking for more.
It is always possible to figure out the peak
fatigue periods, and run music accordingly.
Fore
instance the people are brought in with a march in
the morning and sent home with a lilting tune at
night, and during fatigue periods the attempt is made
139
Appendix
to have the music seep into their consciousness in
a softer way, until they become accustomed to it so
that they can get a lift
out of it
again.
Due to the variety of programs because of the
various noise levels and the tremendous expanse of
the.plant, it has been found necessary to set up aspecial music department, for the operation. However,
asmall plant should not find this necessary, as the
playing mechanism can be readily operated by a parttime operator, and the programs can be set up on a
rotation basis, so that they can practically be played
without repeat for three or four weeks, and yet go
along in perfect sequence without any specific laying
out of individual programs.
The system was serviced, installed and engineered
by R.C.A.
140
Appendix
3. Cluett, Peabody.&
Co.,Inc., Troy, New York
Sometime ago the Muzak Corporation was asked to
collaborate in making a music installation in some of
the departments; no idea of what results could be
expected were known.
It was not approached with the
idea of speeding up production, but they did want to
do everything to make this a "nice" place in which
to work.
The first installation covered about twelve or
fourteea departments.
The music comes- from a control
studio, where it is produced from "transcriptions"
furnished monthly by Muzak.
Schedule worked out by
management and Muzak whereby the music is played for
a few minutes at a time, four or five times during the
day.
This schedule could be varied to meet the needs
and desires of different companies.
Once when a remark was made that music was to be
taken out of a department, it took only a few minutes
time for a petition asking that "we have it from now on."
There have been some complaints, but the causes
were blamed in program selection.
Sometimes there-have
been too many repetitions of the same piece. However,
the number of times a piece is played is now watched
very carefully, and requests are confined to just oneF
141
Appendix
period during the day.
Sometime ago a vote was taken to determine
whether or not the employees would like to Iave
Muzak continued, and the results of this vote are
given below:
Enrollment-
871
Yes
No
679
36
No Reply
136
The large number indicating no reply was dueto the fact that the music had not been installed
throughout an entire department and in various
departments men were occupied in different locations-:
of the factory..
142
APPENDIX F
Views of the Managements
of British Industrial Companies
The following is adapted from a very complete survey,
conducted under the auspices of the British Government,
on the use of industrial music in Great Britain.
It was
entitled "Music While You Work", and signed by Mr. Wynford
Reynolds of the British Broadcasting Company.
dated November 30, 1941.
(next page)
It was
143
Appendix
Here are some of the views of managements that have been received in
letters and reports:
'When, owing to a breakdown, music was discontinued, production
dropped 13%. When music was re-introduced not only was normal
production regained but output increased by 5%.'
'For an hour or hour and a half after a programme of music,
production is increased by 121 to 15%.'
'You will be interested to know that production figures, for the
period covered by the Music While You Work Progranmes, are
constantly higher than those for other periods of the working day.'
'The introduction of music has been a marvellous thing for us and
we have been more than repaid for the cost of installation.'
'The importance of Music While You Work in war production is
probably incalculable.'
'The introduction of music has undoubtedly helped production if
only by eliminating a considerable amount of the talking that takes
place between the workers.'
'There is an excellent reaction to music throughout the works that
is bound to increase production. It is one of the finest things
ever introduced into Industry for the benefit of the workers.'
In the four years that we have been playing music in our factory
we have found that the effect on our work people has been to make
them much more mentally alert. We are convinced that those who
are engaged on repetition work do not make as many mistakes when
compared with the pre-music stage; also, that our workers leave
at the end of the day much fresher and brighter.'
The application of music is an excellent method of boosting the
tired worker.'
'Music is a mental stimulant. It has a humanizing effect which
helps to counteract the evil effects of the mechanization of the
workers. This, indirectly, is a decided benefit to production.'
'Radio takes away most of the boredom caused by repetitive work.'
'Suitable music has a definite pleasant mental effect and a tendency
to dispel gloom and boredom. When gloom and boredom have once been
dispelled an operator is much more alert and more likely to operate
a machine, at its maximum possible capacity, for long periods.'
'In the absence of music there is a great tendency to discuss the
doings of the night before and to talk across the machines.
Immediately music is heard conversation tends to fade away.'
'Before the introduction of music, female workers used to wander off
to the cloakrooms towards the end of the day and were absent for 15
or 20 minutes. Since the introduction of music this practice has
ceased.'
144
BIBLIOGRAPHY
145
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