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Introduction
Peter Stine and Thomas Spies
In 1994, the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) Record of Decision amended and provided direction
to 19 national forest and 7 Bureau of Land Management resource plans within the range of the
northern spotted owl with the goal of maintaining healthy forest ecosystems alongside
sustainable, predictable supplies of timber and other forest products. The NWFP encompasses 24
million acres of federal land managed by the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, and
National Park Service in Washington, Oregon, and northwest California. Central to the NWFP
was a robust monitoring and research program, initiated at a regional scale to address important
questions about older forests, listed species (northern spotted owls, marbled murrelets),
watershed health, federal agency relationships with Tribes, and changing socioeconomic
conditions in communities closely tied to federal lands. The U. S. Forest Service Pacific
Northwest (OR, WA) and Pacific Southwest (CA) Regions have requested a synthesis to provide
a thorough, up-to-date review of the relevant scientific literature pertaining to key resource
management topics within the NWFP area. This synthesis is being prepared to provide a
scientific foundation for future plan revision efforts. We provide detailed reviews of the relevant
scientific literature on key topics and focused questions that pertain to the NWFP landscape.
Old-Growth and Forest Dynamics
Thomas Spies, (in alphabetical order): Paul Anderson, Ramona Butz, Ray Davis, Paul Hessburg,
Carl Skinner, Jeremy Littell, Klaus Puettmann, and Matt Reilly
This chapter will focus on the current scientific understanding of the ecology, conservation, and
restoration/resilience of old-growth forest ecosystems and other successional stages. Because old
growth is just one stage of forest succession, the chapter will examine succession and ecological
processes that drive forest development including fire, insects, disease, and climate. The chapter
will characterize how the dynamic mosaic of old-growth and other successional stages
(especially early seral) varies at landscape and regional scales and explore what is known about
the effects of management, wildfire, and climate change on old-growth ecosystems and
successional patterns and processes. The chapter will identify uncertainties, evaluate scientific
disagreements and discuss relevance of the science to the goals of conservation, restoration and
resilience in the face of global change and disturbance agents.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the structure, dynamics and historical range of variation in old growth, how does it
differ from other successional stages (e.g., early successional), and how do these
characteristics differ by forest type and disturbance regime?
2. What are the ecosystem service values associated with different stages of forest succession?
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3. What are the threats to conserving and restoring the different types of old-growth and other
important successional stages?
4. What are the needs for old-growth conservation (e.g., amount, connectivity, resilience to
disturbance and climate change) and relative merits of different conservation strategies for
old growth including reserves and dynamic landscape approaches?
5. What are alternative approaches to restoration and the role of history in setting restoration
goals, and how do the needs and ecological effects of restoration differ by stand conditions,
age, forest type, disturbance regime and spatial scale?
6. What are potential effects of climate change on vegetation and processes (e.g., succession
and disturbance) that regulate the amount, type, and pattern of successional stages?
Northern Spotted Owl
Damon Lesmeister, (in alphabetical order): Raymond Davis, Peter Singleton, David Wiens
This chapter will focus on the current scientific understanding of the ecology, conservation, and
management of northern spotted owls (NSOs). We will provide information about background
knowledge of the ecology and status of the species, and the expectations for NSOs in the
northwest forest plan (NWFP) area. In this chapter, we will examine the observed population
status and trends, with particular attention on meta-analyses of demographic monitoring and
population models. Populations of NSOs are influenced by multiple—and often interacting—
factors. We will detail the current knowledge of habitat trends, land protection effectiveness,
disturbance, and potential impacts based on projected change in climate and wildfire
occurrences. Barred owl populations have increased dramatically since the development of the
NWFP and have had significant effects on NSOs throughout their range. In addition to their
impacts on NSOs, we will synthesize barred owl population trends and range expansion in the
Pacific Northwest, as well as associations with habitat and prey. The chapter will identify
uncertainties, evaluate scientific disagreements and discuss relevance of the science and will
outline the considerations for management and needs for further research.
Guiding Questions
1. What is the current understanding about NSO rarity and will implementing the NWFP
reverse the downward trend in NSO populations?
2. Is the NWFP maintaining or restoring NSO habitat necessary to support viable populations?
3. What are the effects of various timber management practices and wildfire on habitats used by
NSOs?
4. How or do NSOs use treated habitats posttreatment and are there ways to modify treatment to
benefit NSOs? How do treated habitats compare to untreated habitat in terms of habitat use
and reproductive success?
5. How or do NSOs use postfire habitats? How do the risks of fire compare in treated and
untreated habitats, and are the impacts of treatments outweighed by the risk of habitat loss as
a result of fire?
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6. How effective are the management recommendations for habitat buffers in retaining NSOs
across treated landscapes? Are site buffers as effective as landscape-scale habitat
management in ensuring species persistence, dispersal, and habitat connectivity?
7. Which provides a higher level of assurance of NSO presentence, the current NSO critical
habitat or NWFP late-successional reserve network?
8. Considering wildfire, insects, disease, and climate change, are NSOs more likely to persist in
treated or untreated late-successional habitats?
9. What are the effects of barred owls on NSOs? What is the relationship of fires to barred owl
encroachment?
10. What are the management considerations and research needs for NSOs?
Marbled Murrelet
Martin G. Raphael, Gary A. Falxa
This chapter will focus on the current scientific understanding of the ecology, conservation, and
management of the marbled murrelet (MAMU). We will provide background information about
the ecology and status of the species, and the expectations for MAMUs in the Northwest Forest
Plan (NWFP) area. In this chapter, we will examine the observed population status and trend at
the scales of Conservation Zones, states, and entire range within the NWFP area. Populations of
MAMUs are influenced by amount and distribution of terrestrial nesting habitat and also the
effects of the marine environment on foraging habitat. We will detail the current knowledge of
habitat trends, land protection effectiveness, disturbance, and potential impacts of projected
climate change on the species and its marine and terrestrial habitats, including potential effects of
future wildfire activity. We will also review the state of knowledge of other threats to the
species, notably the threat of increased nest predator populations and potential linkages with land
management. We will examine evidence of marine influences on MAMU distribution and trend
and assess the relative influences of marine and terrestrial factors. The chapter will identify
uncertainties, evaluate scientific disagreements and discuss relevance of the science and will
outline the considerations for management and needs for further research.
Guiding Questions
1. What is the current understanding about MAMU rarity and will implementing the NWFP
reverse the downward trend in MAMU populations?
2. What is the relationship between amount and configuration of old growth and potential to
sustain a variety of disturbance regimes and late-successional dependent species?
3. How might management and conditions on other ownerships affect the above relationship
with the understanding that old growth is only likely to persist on federal lands?
4. Is the NWFP maintaining or restoring MAMU habitat necessary to support viable
populations?
5. What are the effects of various timber management practices and wildfire on habitats used by
MAMUs?
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6. How or do MAMUs use treated habitats posttreatment, and are there ways to modify
treatment to benefit MAMUs? How do treated habitats compare to untreated habitat in terms
of habitat use and reproductive success?
7. How or do MAMUs use postfire habitats? How do the risks of fire compare in treated and
untreated habitats, and are the impacts of treatments outweighed by the risk of habitat loss
resulting from fire?
8. How effective are the management recommendations for habitat buffers in retaining
MAMUs across treated landscapes? Are site buffers as effective as landscape-scale habitat
management in ensuring species persistence, dispersal, and habitat connectivity?
9. Which provides a higher level of assurance of MAMU persistence, the current NSO critical
habitat or the current NWFP late-successional reserve network?
10. Considering wildfire, insects, disease, and climate change, are MAMUs more likely to persist
in treated or untreated late-successional habitats?
11. What are the management considerations and research needs for MAMUs?
Aquatic and Riparian Ecosystems
Gordon H. Reeves, Pete Bisson, Dede Olson, and Jason Dunham
This chapter will focus on an assessment of the current scientific understanding of the ecology,
conservation, and management of aquatic and riparian ecosystems and selected biota and the
expectations for them across the area of the Northwest Forest Plan. Particular focus will be given
the review of relevant science pertaining to the principles of the Aquatic Conservation Strategy
(ACS), delineation and management (passive and active) of riparian reserves, in-stream
restoration, including fish passage, watershed and landscape management, and potential impacts
of climate change. The chapter will identify uncertainties, evaluate scientific disagreements and
discuss relevance of the science and will outline the considerations for management and needs
for further research.
Guiding Questions
1. What is the current assessment of the curves of ecological functions developed by the Forest
Ecosystem Management Assessment Team?
2. Can size of the Riparian Reserve (RR) network be adjusted and still achieve the goals of the
ACS?
3. What is the role of the RR in the movement and dispersal of nonaquatic organisms?
4. What is the current science on watershed and landscape management and analysis?
5. What is the current science on the role of natural disturbances on the long-term productivity
of aquatic ecosystems?
6. What is the current science related to thinning in RRs?
a. What are the pros and cons of passive vs. active management?
b. What are the potential tradeoffs between short- and long-term effects?
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c. What are consequences of changes in the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS) model
to the results and implication of them in past and future studies that used FVS?
7. Can results of recent studies of the effect of the Oregon State Forest Practices Act be applied
to federal lands?
8. What is the effectiveness of fish passage restoration?
9. What are the potential impacts of climate change on aquatic and riparian habitats and biota?
a. How do potential effects differ across the area of interest?
b. What are potential mitigation and adaptation strategies?
Other Species and Biodiversity of Older Forests
Bruce G. Marcot, Dan Luoma, Pat Manley, Karen Pope, Keith Slauson, Hartwell Welsh
In this chapter, we evaluate the scientific basis of the Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) approach to
conserving old-forest associated species other than northern spotted owls, marbled murrelets, and
salmonids. We review research findings since 2005 proving new information on the rarity of
survey and manage species; effectiveness of old-forest and riparian-buffer management for
retaining these species across treated landscapes; and if new information could contribute to
changing the conservation status of these species. We also explore recent research findings on
effects of prescribed fire and wildfire on rare and uncommon species and overall biodiversity;
effectiveness of site buffers and habitat connections at the landscape scale; and recent progress
from the Interagency Special Status and Sensitive Species Program. We summarize new research
and evaluations specifically of old-forest species of fungi; invertebrates; nonvascular and
vascular plants; amphibians and reptiles; carnivores including fisher and marten; small mammals
including red tree vole; bats; and birds. We review findings also on the role of early seral
vegetation environments and other issues and challenges such as climate change and other
disturbances influencing or contributing to overall old-forest biodiversity, and new tools and
syntheses for biodiversity evaluation. We end with how the science might relate to management
of old-forest species and overall biodiversity. The chapter will identify uncertainties, evaluate
scientific disagreements and discuss relevance of the science and will outline the considerations
for management and needs for further research.
Guiding Questions:
1. What is the current scientific understanding about the rarity of survey and manage (S&M)
species, and how effective are the management recommendations for habitat buffers in
retaining these species across treated landscapes?
2. Is forest management under the NWFP providing habitat for rare and uncommon species as
planned?
a. Are rare and uncommon species maintaining populations under NWFP management?
b. Have we accumulated enough information to change the conservation status of these
species?
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c. Are there species originally ranked as having low potential for persistence that are
now of less concern, particularly with the reduction in harvest levels of old-growth
we’ve seen under the NWFP?
What is the effect of prescribed fire and wildfire on rare and uncommon species?
Are known site buffers as effective as landscape-scale habitat management in ensuring
species persistence, dispersal, and habitat connectivity?
Do the current S&M species list truly represent currently rare species with population
persistence questions dependent upon late-successional old-growth (LSOG) habitat?
How has the Interagency Special Status and Sensitive Species Program served to provide
information on LSOG-associated species under the NWFP?
Socioeconomic Well-Being and Forest Management in Northwest Forest Plan Area
Communities
Susan Charnley, Elisabeth Grinspoon, Jeff Kline, Cass Moseley, Eric White
The Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) Record of Decision posed a monitoring question that has
guided NWFP socioeconomic monitoring over the past two decades, and that persists today as a
key question of interest among regional managers and stakeholders: Are local communities and
economies experiencing positive or negative changes that may be associated with federal forest
management? This chapter synthesizes the state of the science on rural community well-being in
the NWFP area, how it has changed over the past three decades, how these changes may be
linked to federal forest management, and how federal forests contribute to rural community wellbeing. We also synthesize the science about how rural communities and their assets contribute to
the management of federal forests in the plan area. We consider communities of place, and low
income and minority populations (except for tribal populations, addressed in another chapter).
These populations are of particular interest to managers because the Executive Order on
Environmental Justice requires them to identify and address any disproportionately high and
adverse human health and environmental effects of agency programs, policies, and actions on
minority and low income populations. Furthermore, the forest uses by, contributions to federal
forest management of, and impacts of federal forest management on these populations may be
underrepresented in forest management decisionmaking processes. We conclude by discussing
the implications of our findings for future management of federal forests in the NWFP area, and
by identifying gaps for future research.
Guiding Questions
Rural Community Well-being and Federal Forest Management
1. How have social and economic conditions in rural communities in the NWFP area been
changing over the past three decades?
2. What have been the main drivers of change in rural communities?
3. How does federal forest management contribute to rural communities and economies?
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4. How have changing social and economic conditions in rural communities affected federal
forests and their management?
Environmental Justice Populations
5. What are the trends in low income and minority populations in the NWFP area?
6. How do low income and minority populations use and value federal forests in the NWFP
area?
7. How are low income and minority populations affected by federal forest management?
8. How do low income and minority populations engage with and contribute to federal forest
management?
9. What are the forest management issues of concern to low income and minority populations
that managers should be aware of, and how might these populations be better incorporated
into decisionmaking processes?
Collaboration, Public Engagement, and the Public Values of Citizens and Stakeholders
Lee Cerveny, Clare Ryan, Debra Whitall, Rebecca McLain, Eric White
The past 20 years have seen a shift in public values, uses, and practices related to forest
landscapes and changing perspectives about the management of forests in the Northwest Forest
Plan (NWFP) Area. At the same time, there has been greater public demand for an expanded role
in natural resource decisionmaking. The proliferation of collaborative groups in the NWFP area
reflects this trend. National forests are seeking new ways to expand public engagement, include
traditionally underrepresented groups, and reach the “missing middle.” This chapter focuses on
current scientific understanding of (a) the effectiveness of collaboration and collaborative
processes in engaging communities and stakeholders and achieving resource objectives; (b) the
effectiveness of public engagement processes for involving citizens and stakeholders in resource
management decisionmaking; (c) the nature of public values, attitudes and beliefs toward forest
landscapes and resource management and the value of “place”; and (d) changing dynamics of
public interactions with forest landscapes, particularly recreation. Examples from the NWFP area
will be emphasized.
Guiding Questions
Collaboration
1. What kinds of collaborative groups and processes are engaged in the NWFP area? How is
collaborative forest management changing?
2. What elements contribute to successful collaboration in forest management?
3. How much has collaboration contributed to achieving objectives in resource management
and socioeconomic well-being?
Engaging the Public
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4. What strategies are effective in engaging communities and the public in forest plan revision
in the NWFP area?
Public Values, Attitudes, and Beliefs about Forests, Landscapes, and Place
5. How have public values, attitudes and beliefs toward the natural environment and their
relationship to the landscape shifted over the past 30 years?
6. What has been learned about the importance of valuing place?
7. How have values, attitudes, and beliefs of the public toward resource management and use
changed over the past 20 years?
Public Interactions with Forest Landscapes and Recreation Patterns
8. How have public uses and interactions with forests and grasslands changed over the past 20
years?
9. What are the drivers that shape public uses of forestlands for recreation? How have
recreation values and uses changed in the past 20 years?
Tribal Values
Jonathan Long, Frank Lake, Kathy Lynn
This chapter will focus on the current scientific understanding of the ecology, conservation, and
restoration of forests, rivers, and other ecosystems that support values of special interest to tribes.
This chapter will synthesize recent published, peer-reviewed findings on how changes in climate,
fire, hydrologic, and resource management regimes have affected natural and cultural values of
tribes, as well as current stressors on those values. The chapter will identify areas of agreement
and uncertainty in guiding strategies to sustain tribal values as part of land and resource
management in the NWFP area. It will integrate findings from other chapters while also
featuring recent peer-reviewed publications that have focused on tribal values and trust resources
of special significance.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the significant concerns for tribes in managing federal lands in the NWFP area,
including government-to-government relationships and consultation with federally
recognized tribes?
2. What are current stressors on values of interest to tribes, including climate change and related
disturbances?
3. What does recent science indicate regarding management strategies to promote
natural/cultural resources and associated tribal values, including influences of
indigenous/tribal management practices on historical ranges of variation?
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4. How do those strategies integrate with management, research, and monitoring for economic,
social, cultural, terrestrial and aquatic systems more broadly?
Integration
Thomas Spies, Peter Stine, Damon Lesmeister, Martin G. Raphael, Gordon H. Reeves,
Johnathan Long, Bruce G. Marcot, Susan Charnley, Lee Cerveny, Matt Reilly, and others
The ecological, social and economic components of forest planning under the goals of the
Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) do not exist in isolation; actions to conserve, restore or promote
one component may positively or negatively affect other components. The conservation
strategies for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems and species can interact across watersheds.
Efforts to conserve or restore ecosystems and species will have effects across biological
levels/hierarchies (e.g., species to ecosystems) and spatial (e.g., reaches to watersheds) and
temporal scales. This chapter will examine what is known about interactions (e.g., synergies and
tradeoffs) within and between biophysical and socioeconomic components. The chapter will also
look at cross-cutting issues such as climate change and scale effects as they might influence
species, ecosystems, and people. Finally, it will examine the science through the perspective of
socioecological systems, identifying what is known about interactions, resilience, and adaptation
and identifying key uncertainties and strategies (e.g., adaptive management) for dealing with
them.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the synergies and tradeoffs associated with managing for ecosystem, species, and
socioeconomic goals?
a. How does riparian reserve management affect the terrestrial species that use them and
vice versa?
b. What are potential tradeoffs of fire salvage treatments in providing socioeconomic
benefits or impacting ecological values associated with leaving snags and downed
wood?
c. What are the interactions of ecosystem restoration activities and conservation and
restoration of habitats for individual species?
d. What are the connections between forest management capacity (mills, workforce) in
landscapes and ecological restoration at ecosystem and species levels?
e. What are the tradeoffs between forest management and carbon sequestration?
2. What is the ecological basis and need for considering regional scales and multiple
ownerships in planning and management?
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3. What does the scientific literature say about strategies for dealing with uncertainties
associated with climate and socioeconomic changes and interactions of climate and social
change?
4. What are the implications for monitoring and adaptive management?