Journal of Counseling Psychology
2008, Vol. 55, No. 4, 451– 462
Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association
0022-0167/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0012511
Moderating Effects of Three Coping Strategies and Self-Esteem on
Perceived Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms: A Minority Stress
Model for Asian International Students
Meifen Wei, Tsun-Yao Ku, and Daniel W. Russell
Brent Mallinckrodt
Iowa State University
University of Tennessee–Knoxville
Kelly Yu-Hsin Liao
Iowa State University
This study examined 3 coping strategies (reflective, suppressive, and reactive), along with self-esteem,
as moderators of the relation between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. International
students (N ⫽ 354) from China, India, Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong provided data via an online
survey. The role of perceived general stress was statistically controlled. Hierarchical regression analyses
indicated a significant direct effect of perceived discrimination, a significant 2-way interaction of
perceived discrimination and suppressive coping, and a significant 3-way interaction of perceived
discrimination, reactive coping, and self-esteem in predicting depressive symptoms. An increased
tendency to use suppressive coping appeared to strengthen the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. In contrast, the association between perceived discrimination and
depressive symptoms was not significant when reactive coping was infrequently used, but only for
students with relatively high self-esteem.
Keywords: perceived discrimination, self-esteem, coping, minority stress model, Asian international
students
Asian international students, like other U.S. racial minorities,
experience discrimination in the United States (e.g., Constantine,
Kindaichi, Okazaki, Gainor, & Baden, 2005; Rahman & Rollock,
2004). For example, a qualitative study of Taiwanese international
students’ adjustment (Swagler & Ellis, 2003) reported these two
typical students’ experiences:
When you don’t really understand what clerks mean, especially
when they talk very fast. I try to repeat their words. They just show
some impatience and treat you like, you an idiot or what? . . .. Then
they just talk like that and I feel very bad about it, I will think I will
never come here again. (p. 431)
Incidents like these appear to be fairly common for Asian international students. Klineberg and Hull (1979) reported that approximately 70% of international students either experienced or knew
someone who experienced discrimination. Sodowsky and Plake
(1992) further indicated that Asian international students perceived
more discrimination than did European international students.
Therefore, this study focused on Asian international students. It is
important to note that there is limited discrimination research on
Asian international students. Thus, the literature will be reviewed
for Asian immigrants and Asian Americans because these two
groups may share similar experiences of discrimination with Asian
international students.
When I first came here, sometimes I feel that there is a racial
discrimination. I was aware that I may be different skin color or
maybe English is not my first language. Sometimes I feel that I let
people intimidate me because I know that I’m not a native speaker and
I look different. (p. 432)
Editor’s Note. Karen O’Brien selected Helen Neville to serve as guest
editor for this article.—BSM
Meifen Wei and Kelly Yu-Hsin Liao, Department of Psychology, Iowa
State University; Tsun-Yao Ku, Psychology in Education Research Lab,
Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Iowa State University; Daniel
W. Russell, Department of Human Development and Family Studies and
Institute for Social and Behavioral Research, Iowa State University; Brent
Mallinckrodt, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee–
Knoxville.
An earlier version of this study was presented at the 114th Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Association, New Orleans,
Louisiana, August, 2006. We thank all Asian international students who
participated in this study and P. Paul Heppner for consultation.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Meifen
Wei, Department of Psychology, W112 Lagomarcino Hall, Iowa State
University, Ames, IA 50011-3180. E-mail: wei@iastate.edu
Perceived Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms
Meyer (2003) defined minority stress as “the excess stress to
which individuals from stigmatized social categories are exposed,
often as a result of their . . .minority position” (p. 675). Meyer
focused on the experience of gay, lesbian, bisexual, or transgender
persons. In a similar vein, Harrell (2000) argued that experiences
of racism are a unique source of chronic stress for ethnic minorities
distinct from other general life stressors. The perception that one
has been discriminated against may differ in impact from other
negative life events or daily hassles for some of the following
451
WEI ET AL.
452
reasons: (a) discrimination denies access to resources critical for
adapting to other stressors at all levels, as well as opportunities
necessary for personal growth and well-being (Clark, Anderson,
Clark, & Williams, 1999); (b) discrimination may be perpetrated
through individual interactions but also can be a matter of institutional policy (Harrell, 2000); and (c) the perception of both individual animosity and institutional discrimination may be an especially potent combination that leads to the development of learned
helplessness, damaged self-esteem, or depression (Alvarez, Sanematsu, Woo, Espinueva, & Kongthong, 2006; Greene, Way, &
Pahl, 2006; R. M. Lee, 2003, 2005; Liang, Alvarez, Juang, &
Liang, 2007; Liang & Fassinger, 2008; Liang, Li, & Kim, 2004).
A fourth reason that discrimination may have a uniquely negative
impact for international students is that the experience may shatter
their former idealized positive views of the United States (Sandhu
& Asrabadi, 1994).
Some studies failed to find convincing support for the hypothesis that perceived discrimination is a unique predictor of negative
outcomes, distinct from perceived general stress (SandersThompson, 2002; Taylor & Turner, 2002). In contrast, Dion, Dion,
and Pak (1992) found a positive association between experiences
of discrimination and distress after statistically controlling for
general stress among community members of Chinese heritage.
Pieterse and Carter (2007) also found that, after controlling for
general stress, racism-related stress accounted for a significant
increment in psychological distress for African American men.
Depression is among the most common presenting problems for
international students who seek help from university counseling
services (Nilsson, Berkel, Flores, & Lucas, 2004; Yi, Lin, &
Kishimoto, 2003). Wei et al. (2007) reported that about 30% of
Asian international students’ score above the cutoff point on
indicators of clinical depression. Perceived discrimination may be
a risk factor for depressive symptoms. Surprisingly, we could
locate only one published study that investigated and found a
positive association between perceived discrimination and depression among international students (Jung, Hecht, & Wadsworth,
2007). Therefore, we expected to find a positive relation between
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms for Asian international students.
Coping Strategies and Self-Esteem
According to Meyer’s (2003) minority stress model, variables
such as coping and social support serve as moderators to buffer the
relation between perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes (Meyer, 2003, p. 679). Also, Clark et al.’s (1999) biopsychosocial model describes self-esteem as a moderator for this
relation. In contrast, Harrell’s (2000) racism-related stress model
describes some of these variables, including coping, self-esteem,
and social support, as mediators. However, Harrell speculated that
“self-esteem. . .may buffer the impact of racism-related stress on
well-being” together with other factors that could “exacerbate. . .and increase the risk of maladaptive outcomes” (p. 51). Investigations of exacerbating and buffering effects almost invariably
explore moderation models. Thus, Harrell at times used language
that is compatible with both mediation and moderation models.
Moreover, the influential work by Clark et al. argued for the
importance of examining moderators and mediators and stated,
“The effects of general coping response. . ..may interact with so-
ciodemographic factors to modify risk for negative health outcome” (p. 809). This implies that the effect of general coping may
vary as a function of other moderators (e.g., self-esteem) that
buffer or exacerbate the relation between perceived discrimination
and outcomes (e.g., a three-way interaction of Coping ⫻ SelfEsteem ⫻ Perceived Discrimination on depression). For the
present study, we have adopted a moderator approach, following
the example of Meyer and focusing on the portions of other models
that emphasize buffering or exacerbating factors (Clark et al.,
1999; Harrell, 2000).
Researchers have sought to identify factors that might either
buffer or exacerbate the relations between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms or distress for minorities of an
Asian heritage (e.g., Cassidy, O’Connor, Howe, & Warden, 2004;
R. M. Lee, 2003, 2005; Liang & Fassinger, 2008; Noh & Kaspar,
2003; Yoo & Lee, 2005, 2008). In the present study, we hoped to
build on this line of research and expand it to Asian international
students. However, we could locate only two published studies that
examined moderator variables for international students. Jung et
al. (2007) found social undermining (i.e., a counterconcept of
social support––friends display negative affect, evaluation, or behaviors to hinder one’s attainment of goals) to be a moderator in
exacerbating the association between perceived discrimination and
depression for international students in general. Chen, Mallinckrodt, and Mobley (2003) found that perceived support from an
international student office was a moderator in lessening the
strength between perceived discrimination and psychological distress for Asian international students, specifically. Clearly, more
research is needed to identify potential moderators for Asian
international students.
Coping strategies have been studied as protective factors against
discrimination for Asian Americans or Asian immigrants. Unfortunately, within the coping literature, there is no measure that
directly assesses coping with discrimination. Most researchers
adapted a situational coping scale and specified the stressful situation as a discrimination event (e.g., Liang et al., 2007; Noh,
Beiser, Kaspar, Hou, & Rummens, 1999; Yoo & Lee, 2005). In the
current study, we assessed coping from the dispositional coping
perspective. Dispositional coping measures are based on the
premise that people have general coping responses that can be
applied to different problems and stressors (Carver & Scheier,
1994). Some researchers have begun to test this premise, and the
results consistently show strong associations between dispositional
and corresponding situational coping strategies for stressors other
than racial discrimination (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1994; Rutherford & Endler, 1999; Schoen, Altmaier, & Tallman, 2007). The
findings thus provide evidence for the argument that “people
develop habitual ways of dealing with stress and that these habits
or coping styles can influence their reactions in new situations”
(Carver & Scheier, 1994, p. 185).
From the dispositional and problem resolution perspective, Heppner, Cook, Wright, and Johnson (1995) developed a coping
measure that assessed three styles of coping (i.e., reflective, suppressive, and reactive coping). This is a new way of conceptualizing coping in terms of the outcome of the coping action. These
three coping strategies fit well with Meyer’s (2003) minority stress
model, which holds that coping is an important resource for
dealing with discrimination. Recent empirical studies have affirmed that coping strategies are effective in helping Asian Amer-
COPING WITH DISCRIMINATION
icans and Asian immigrants cope with discrimination. For instance, Yoo and Lee (2005) found that problem-solving coping
lessened the magnitude of the association between perceived discrimination and negative affect among Asian Americans who have
a strong ethnic identity in the low-discrimination condition. Noh
and Kaspar (2003) found that frequent use of passive acceptance
and emotional distraction strengthened the relation between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among Korean
immigrants. From these findings, it appears that coping strategies
would likely serve as moderators to either buffer (lessen) or
enhance the negative impact of perceived discrimination on depressive symptoms for Asian international students. Heppner et al.
indicated that indices of psychological distress were negatively
related with reflective coping but positively related with suppressive and reactive coping. Therefore, we anticipated that reflective
coping might buffer the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms, whereas reactive and suppressive
coping might enhance the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms.
Self-esteem has also been studied as a protective factor against
perceived discrimination for people with an Asian heritage
(Cassidy et al., 2004; Dion et al., 1992; Liang & Fassinger, 2008).
Based on the self-esteem theory of depression (Brown & Harris,
1978), a positive view of the self plays a role in buffering the
relation between negative events (e.g., perceived discrimination)
and depressive symptoms. Specifically, Asian international students with high self-esteem may have more psychological resources (e.g., externalizing discrimination events) than do those
with low self-esteem to help ameliorate their depressive symptoms
associated with perceived discrimination. Indeed, Asian international students often experience decreases in self-esteem during
their adjustment period in the United States (Swagler & Ellis,
2003). Low self-esteem is often associated with depressive symptoms. For example, Dion et al. (1992) found that hardiness (a
combination of high personal self-esteem and high personal control) weakened the association between perceived discrimination
and distress among people with a Chinese heritage. Thus, we
anticipated that high self-esteem would buffer the association
between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms for
Asian international students.
Furthermore, for Asian international students faced with discrimination, the level of self-esteem may interact with specific
coping strategies to predict depressive symptoms. That is, different
coping strategies may be effective depending on the student’s level
of self-esteem (i.e., three-way interactions). For example, Asian
international students who have high self-esteem and frequent use
of reflective coping may be likely to think about the short-term and
long-term consequences of possible solutions to discrimination.
Instead of devoting their cognitive resources to dwelling on how
they are negatively affected by discrimination, students with high
self-esteem may use their cognitive resources to engage in reflection or to think about a systematic plan in the face of discrimination incidents. Students with high self-esteem may thus utilize their
psychological resources constructively to protect themselves from
discrimination. Thus, high self-esteem and high use of reflective
coping may interact in a positive way to reduce the strength of the
association between perceived discrimination and depressive
symptoms.
453
In contrast, low self-esteem and high use of suppressive coping
may enhance passivity in response to discrimination. In particular,
Asian international students with low self-esteem may take incidents of discrimination personally (e.g., blame themselves) instead
of taking actions to do something about these incidents (e.g.,
complaining about the incident). For these students, suppressive
coping may be a temporary solution to avoid hostility and other
unpleasant feelings. However, coping literature (Heppner et al.,
1995) has indicated negative implications of suppressive coping on
psychological outcomes. Thus, the combination of low self-esteem
and high use of suppressive coping may enhance the association
between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms relative to the effects of either variable alone.
In the Asian culture, emotional self-control is an important
cultural value and is viewed as a sign of maturity (e.g., Kim,
Atkinson, & Yang, 1999; Kim, Li, & Ng, 2005). Asian international students with low self-esteem and a tendency to react with
strong emotions may experience an internal conflict (e.g., reacting
with a strong emotion may be viewed as an inability to control
their emotions) in the face of discrimination. Also, the use of
reactive coping is incongruent with Asian cultural values. It is thus
anticipated that students with low self-esteem and frequent use of
reactive coping may be most vulnerable to depressive symptoms,
whereas students with high self-esteem and infrequent use of
reactive coping may be less vulnerable to depressive symptoms
when facing discrimination.
The model tested in this study is shown in Figure 1. Given the
mixed findings on whether discrimination-related stress is different from general perceived life stress, the first purpose of this study
was to examine the role of perceived discrimination on depressive
symptoms in Asian international students after controlling for their
general level of perceived stress. It is necessary to measure and
control for variance in general perceived stress in order to establish
that stress related to discrimination is a qualitatively different
experience than perceived general life stress is. The finding that
perceived discrimination accounts for a significant increment in
the explained variance of a mental health criterion would constitute support for the special status of discrimination-related stress.
The second purpose of this study was to examine how coping
strategies and self-esteem serve to moderate the effect of perceived
discrimination on depression for Asian international students. Specifically, we hypothesized that coping strategies and self-esteem
Self-Esteem
Perceived
Discrimination
Coping
Strategies
Depression
Perceived
General
Stress
Figure 1. The conceptual model of our study.
WEI ET AL.
454
would moderate the association between perceived discrimination
and depression, symbolized by the downward-pointing arrows in
Figure 1 (and revealed statistically as significant two-way interactions). Second, we speculated that perhaps a particular preference
for a specific coping strategy would depend on a student’s level of
self-esteem. This research question is symbolized by the dashed
line in Figure 1, in which the proposed moderator relation for
coping strategy is itself moderated by level of self-esteem. This
relationship would be revealed as a significant three-way interaction among perceived discrimination, coping strategies, and selfesteem in predicting depression.
Method
Participants
Usable surveys were obtained from 354 Asian international
students who responded to an online survey at a large, public,
Midwestern university. Participants consisted of 207 (58%) men
and 147 (42%) women with a mean age of 26.58 years (SD ⫽
4.09). The countries of origin were China/Hong Kong (n⫽ 158;
45%), India (n⫽ 104; 29%), Korea (n⫽ 61; 17%), and Taiwan (n⫽
29; 8%); 2 participants did not indicate their country of origin.
Participants reported living in the United States for an average of
2.61 years (SD ⫽ 2.11). The majority of participants (81%) were
graduate students. Over half of the participants were married
(55%), with the remaining participants either being single (33%) or
in a dating relationship (10%).
Instruments
Perceived stress. The Perceived Stress Scale (S. Cohen, Kamark, & Mermelstein, 1983) is a 10-item self-report measure
designed to assess the degree to which situations in one’s life are
perceived as stressful. The Perceived Stress Scale is a measure of
global perceptions of stress (e.g., “In the last month, how often
have you felt you were unable to control the important things in
your life?”). Participants are asked to reflect on their thoughts and
feelings during the previous month and indicate on a 5-point rating
scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often), how often they felt
the way described in each item. The range of possible scores is
0 – 40, with higher scores indicating greater perceived stress. The
original developers reported a coefficient alpha of .78 for adults.
Coefficient alpha was .77 in this study. The construct validity was
supported by a positive association with depressive symptoms
among Chinese college students (Hong & Jian-Hong, 2004) and
physical symptoms among Hong Kong undergraduate students
(Lai, 1996).1
Perceived discrimination. Perceived discrimination was measured by the Perceived Discrimination subscale of the Acculturative Stress Scale for International Students (Sandhu & Asrabadi,
1994). A sample item is, “I am treated differently because of my
race.” Each of the eight items is rated on a 5-point Likert scale that
ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Total
scores range from 8 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater
perceived discrimination. Coefficient alpha for the Perceived Discrimination subscale was .90 (Jung et al., 2007) for international
students and .92 in the present study. Evidence for the construct
validity was provided by a negative association with depressive
symptoms (Jung et al., 2007) among international students.
Coping strategies. Coping strategies were measured by the
Problem-Focused Style of Coping measure (Heppner et al., 1995).
The Problem-Focused Style of Coping measure is an 18-item
self-report measure that assesses the extent to which individuals
believe they are able to effectively resolve and cope with their
problems. Each question asks respondents to indicate how often
they engage in the described coping activity on a 5-point Likert
scale that ranges from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost all of the time).
The Problem-Focused Style of Coping measure consists of three
subscales: Reflective, Suppressive, and Reactive Style of Coping.
Reflective Style of Coping (7 items) taps into activities, such as
planning and exploring causal relationships, and systematic steps
in coping (e.g., “I think ahead, which enables me to anticipate and
prepare for problems before they rise”). Suppressive Style of
Coping (6 items) represents a tendency to avoid coping activities
and deny problems (e.g., “I spend my time doing unrelated chores
and activities instead of acting on my problems”). Reactive Style
of Coping (5 items) is defined as a tendency to have strong
emotional responses, distortion, impulsivity, and cognitive confusion (e.g., “I act too quickly, which makes my problems worse”).
A higher score indicates a greater utilization of reflective (score
range: 5–35), suppressive (score range: 5–30), or reactive (score
range: 5–25) styles of coping. Coefficient alphas were .77, .76, and
.73 among college students (Heppner et al., 1995) and .75, .70, and
.81 in the present study for the reflective, suppressive, and reactive
styles of coping, respectively. D.-L. Lee (2003) provided evidence
of construct validity through a negative association between depressive symptoms and the reflective style of coping and positive
associations between depressive symptoms and the reactive and
suppressive styles of coping among Korean college students.
Self-esteem. Self-esteem was assessed by the Rosenberg SelfEsteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem
Scale is a widely used measure of global self-esteem (a sample
item is, “I feel that I have a number of good qualities”). The scale
consists of 10 items, with a 4-point response format ranging from
1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). Total scores range from
10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater self-esteem. Coefficient alpha for the total self-esteem score was .92 for Korean
Americans (R. M. Lee, 2005), .82 for Taiwanese college students
(Wang, Slaney, & Rice, 2007), and .78 in the present sample.
Construct validity has been supported by a negative association
with depressive symptoms for Korean college students (D.-L. Lee,
2003) and Taiwanese college students (Wang et al., 2007).
Depression. Depressive symptoms was assessed by the Center
for Epidemiological Studies––Depression Scale (CES–D; Radloff,
1977). The CES–D is a 20-item self-report scale developed to
assess current levels of depressive symptoms (e.g., “I did not feel
like eating,” “My appetite was poor,” “My sleep was restless”).
Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely
or none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time), based on the
frequency with which participants have experienced each symptom during the previous week. Total scores can range from 0 to 60,
1
We have reported reliability and validity information for a measure
when such information was available from published studies of Asian
international students. Otherwise, we report psychometric information for
populations that share some similarities to the present sample, such as
Asian college students or Asian Americans.
COPING WITH DISCRIMINATION
with higher scores indicating higher levels of depressive symptoms. Scores of 16 or higher imply a possible risk for clinically
significant depression (Mulrow et al., 1995; Zich, Attkisson, &
Greenfield, 1990). The mean depression score for this sample was
12.86. A total of 30% of the students in this sample scored 16 or
higher on the CES–D in the present study, which is consistent with
the percentage reported by Wei et al. (2007) for Chinese international students. The CES–D was selected because of its sound
psychometric properties and the fact that it has been used previously to assess depressive symptoms in Asian international students (e.g., Constantine, Okazaki, & Utsey, 2004; Rahman &
Rollock, 2004; Wei et al., 2007). Radloff (1977) reported that the
CES–D has a coefficient alpha of .85 for the general population
and .90 for a psychiatric population. Coefficient alpha was .86 in
the present sample. Support for the construct validity has been
provided by the positive association with acculturative stress (Constantine et al., 2004; Wei et al., 2007), as well as the negative
association with social self-efficacy (Constantine et al., 2004) and
intercultural behaviors (Rahman & Rollock, 2004) among Asian
international college students.
Procedure
A list of Asian international students from China/Hong Kong
(n⫽ 665), India (n⫽ 345), Korea (n⫽ 281), and Taiwan (n⫽ 81)
was obtained from the registrar’s office at a Midwestern university. Students from these nationalities were chosen because these
countries either sent the largest number of students to the Unites
States or have shown strong increases in sending students to the
United States over the past few years (Institute of International
Education, 2007). An e-mail message was sent to these students
inviting them to participate in an online survey. The online method
was selected because participants may feel more comfortable in
giving anonymous answers to a sensitive topic such as discrimination. Students were told that the purpose of the research was to
examine Asian international students’ experiences in coping with
stress. After completing the survey, they were told that they could
send a separate e-mail with their contact information (i.e., name
and phone number) to Meifen Wei in order to be entered into a
drawing for a $100 cash prize, a mountain bike, or a bread maker.
Two follow-up reminder e-mails were sent to nonrespondents.
In survey research, the response rate for minority students has
been found to often be lower than that of European Americans
(Wei, Russell, Mallinckrodt, & Zakalik, 2004). In the case of
Asian international students, there is often a lower response rate
for web-based surveys (e.g., Sills & Song [2002] reported a 22%
response rate) than there is for surveys that offer students a course
credit for return of the surveys after they are completed. Of the
1,372 students contacted, a total of 480 responded to the online
survey (representing a response rate of 35%). However, data from
49 (10%) students were incomplete and so were not included in the
analyses. We included a validity item that instructed participants to
enter the number “1” in answer to this specific question. A total of
77 (16%) of the participants responded incorrectly to this validity
item. We therefore removed these participants’ responses from the
data. Thus, a total of 354 completed surveys (26% of the students
originally solicited) were retained for later analyses.
455
Results
Preliminary Analyses
We first examined whether the data met regression assumptions
of normality, linearity, and homoscedasticity (see J. Cohen, Cohen,
West, & Aiken, 2003, pp. 117–141, for a discussion). We conducted three separate regressions for reflective, suppressive, and
reactive coping, respectively. Our analyses indicated that there was
no violation of the assumption of linearity or residual homoscedasticity. The skewness in the residuals ranged from 0.57 to 0.71
(Zs ⫽ 4.39 to 5.43, ps ⬍ .001) and the kurtosis of the residuals
ranged from 1.18 to 1.77 (Zs ⫽ 4.56 to 6.81, ps ⬍ .001) for the
three separate regressions. These results indicated a statistically
significant departure from normality. Because multiple regression
analyses can be adversely affected by substantial departures from
normality, a square-root transformation of the dependent variable
(i.e., depressive symptoms) was used (J. Cohen et al., 2003). When
the transformed depressive symptom variable was employed in the
regression model, it resulted in a decrease in the skewness of the
residual scores, ranging from ⫺0.18 (Z ⫽ ⫺1.38, p ⬎ .05) to
⫺0.09 (Z ⫽ ⫺0.72, p⬎ .05), and a decrease in the kurtosis of the
residual scores, ranging from 0.33 (Z ⫽ 1.25, p ⬎ .05) to 0.35 (Z ⫽
1.37, p ⬎ .05). These results indicated that there was no statistically significant departure from normality, meeting the residual
normality assumption in the regression analysis. When we used the
transformed variable in analyzing the data, the pattern of results for
the three regression analyses was identical to that found using the
original depressive-symptoms variable. Therefore, the original
depressive-symptoms variable was used in the present analyses as
it is easier to interpret regression coefficients based on the untransformed dependent variable.
A second analysis was conducted to test whether the sample
(N ⫽ 354) was representative of the population of Asian international students who were invited to participate in this study (N ⫽
1,372) in terms of gender and nationality. A chi-square analysis
indicated that female students (42% vs. 37%) were overrepresented in the sample relative to the population of students we
invited to participate, ␹2(1, N ⫽ 354) ⫽ 759.27, p ⬍ .001.
Similarly, a chi-square analysis indicated that students from Taiwan (8% vs. 6%) and India (30% vs. 25%) were slightly overrepresented in our sample relative to the proportion of students from
these countries we invited to participate, ␹2(3, N ⫽ 352) ⫽ 760.50,
p ⬍ .001. It is not uncommon that female students are more likely
to participate in research studies than are male students. Also,
regarding nationality, due to the large sample, relatively small
differences in the actual versus expected percentages are statistically significant.
Means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among
the variables are presented in Table 1. A multivariate analysis of
variance was conducted to examine whether these seven variables
(i.e., perceived general stress, perceived discrimination, three
styles of coping, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms) varied as
a function of participants’ gender, marital status, and country of
origin, and whether there were interactions among gender, marital
status, and country of origin. Results indicated that there were no
significant main effects, two-way interactions, or three-way interactions (all ps ⬎ .05). In addition, the length of time in the United
States was not significantly related to any of the variables (all ps ⬎
.05), except for perceived discrimination (r⫽ .13, p ⬍ .01); stu-
WEI ET AL.
456
Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero-Order Correlations of Variables (N ⫽ 354)
Variable
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Perceived general stress
Perceived discrimination
Reflective coping
Suppressive coping
Reactive coping
Self-esteem
Depressive symptoms
ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .01.
ⴱⴱⴱ
M
SD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1.55
2.60
3.20
2.07
2.46
3.07
0.64
.44
.80
.70
.68
.70
.39
.41
—
.20ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.23ⴱⴱⴱ
.42ⴱⴱⴱ
.39ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.43ⴱⴱⴱ
.64ⴱⴱⴱ
—
.00
.20ⴱⴱⴱ
.20ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.08
.29ⴱⴱⴱ
—
⫺.26ⴱⴱⴱ
.06
.38ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.17ⴱⴱ
—
.56ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.48ⴱⴱⴱ
.50ⴱⴱⴱ
—
⫺.27ⴱⴱⴱ
.41ⴱⴱⴱ
—
⫺.48ⴱⴱⴱ
—
p ⬍ .001.
dents who had lived in the United States for a longer period of time
reported higher levels of perceived discrimination. Because students’ gender, marital status, country of origin, and length of time
in the United States were not significantly related to the dependent
variable (i.e., depressive symptoms), none of these variables were
used as covariates in subsequent analyses.
Analyses of Moderator Variables
Based on procedures recommended by Aiken and West (1991)
and Frazier, Tix, and Barron (2004), we standardized the predictor
and moderator variables before computing the interaction terms to
reduce multicollinearity. Three parallel hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted, one for each of the three coping
strategies.2 For a given coping variable, such as reflective coping,
two-way interaction terms were created through the multiplication
of reflective coping and perceived discrimination, and reflective
coping and self-esteem. In addition, in each analysis, the interaction term of perceived discrimination and self-esteem was included. Similarly, a three-way interaction term was created
through the multiplication of reflective coping, perceived discrimination, and self-esteem. A similar procedure was used to create
interaction terms for the other two coping strategies.
For each hierarchical regression, perceived general stress was
entered as a covariate in Step 1. Perceived discrimination was
entered in Step 2. Self-esteem and one of the three coping strategies (i.e., reflective, suppressive, or reactive) were entered to test
the main effects in Step 3. The 3 two-way interaction terms were
then entered as a block in Step 4. Finally, the three-way interaction
term was entered in Step 5. Thus, a total of 10 significance tests
were conducted (one for the main effect of perceived discrimination, three for the two-way interactions of coping strategies, three
for the two-way interactions of self-esteem, and three for the
three-way interaction). In order to reduce the impact of Type 1
error on these significance tests, we conducted a Bonferroni correction. The criterion for statistical significance was calculated to
be .05/10 ⫽ .005. However, several experts have indicated that it
is difficult to detect interaction effects in general and have stated
that the contribution of interaction effects over and above the first
order or main effects is typically small (Frazier et al., 2004;
McClelland & Judd, 1993; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991; Wampold & Freund, 1987). Therefore, it has been recommended that
researchers use a more liberal criterion when evaluating the significance of interaction effects (McClelland & Judd, 1993; Pedhazur & Schmelkin, 1991). Thus, the criterion of a p value of .01 was
set to evaluate the significance level of the interaction effects. In
each analysis, the increment in R2 for Step 4 provides the critical
test of simple moderator effects, and the increment in R2 at Step 5
provides the test for complex moderation effects involving threeway interactions.
Reflective coping. In Step 1, results indicated that perceived
general stress accounted for 41% of the variance in depressive
symptoms (see Table 2). In Step 2, perceived discrimination accounted for an additional 3% of the variance in depressive symptoms (please note that Steps 1 and 2 results are identical for the
analyses of each of the three coping strategies). Also, perceived
discrimination accounted for variance in depressive symptoms
over and above perceived general stress. In Step 3, reflective
coping and self-esteem accounted for an additional 6% of the
variance in depressive symptoms. Self-esteem (but not reflective
coping) uniquely predicted depressive symptoms. In Steps 4 and 5,
neither the 3 two-way interactions nor the three-way interaction
added significant increments in the explained variance for depressive symptoms beyond the main effects.
Suppressive coping. In Step 3 of this analysis, suppressive
coping and self-esteem accounted for an additional 8% of the
variance in depressive symptoms. In Step 4, the 3 two-way interactions significantly predicted depressive symptoms (⌬R2 ⫽ .02).
According to J. Cohen (1992), an R2 value of .02 indicates a small
effect size. However, Champoux and Peters (1987) and Chaplin
(1991) reviewed much of the social science literature and reported
that interaction terms typically account for approximately 1% to
3% of the variance. In addition, the regression coefficient for the
two-way interaction of Perceived Discrimination ⫻ Suppressive
Coping was statistically significant (see Table 2). In Step 5, the
three-way interaction did not significantly predict depressive
symptoms over and above the main effects and the two-way
interaction effects.
To further explore the two-way interactions, we followed J.
Cohen et al.’s (2003) recommendations for plotting the results as
an aid in interpreting the nature of the interaction between the two
predictor variables. Specifically, the relation between the first
predictor variable and the dependent variable (i.e., depressive
symptoms) was plotted when levels of the second predictor vari2
The patterns of the significant results were identical when perceived
general stress (covariate), perceived discrimination (predictor), three coping strategies and self-esteem (moderators), and their interactions were
included in one regression analysis instead of three separate regressions.
COPING WITH DISCRIMINATION
457
Table 2
A Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Depressive Symptoms From Perceived Discrimination, Coping Strategies,
Self-Esteem, and Their Interactions (N ⫽ 354)
Variable
B
␤
SE B
sr2
R2
⌬R2
⌬F(dfs)
.413
.413
247.19ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.438
.026
18.22ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 351)
.493
.055
18.79ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.499
.006
1.37(1, 351)
.500
.001
0.44(1, 351)
.413
.413
247.19ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.438
.026
18.22ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 351)
.516
.078
28.00ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.536
.020
4.85ⴱⴱ(1, 351)
.536
.001
0.42(1, 351)
.413
.413
247.19ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.438
.026
18.22ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 351)
.506
.068
24.03ⴱⴱⴱ(1, 352)
.515
.008
1.93(1, 351)
.524
.010
7.09ⴱⴱ(1, 351)
Reflective coping
Step 1
Perceived stress
Step 2
Perceived discrimination (PD)
Step 3
Reflective coping
Self-esteem
Step 4
PD ⫻ Reflective Coping
PD ⫻ Self-Esteem
Reflective Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
Step 5
PD ⫻ Reflective Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
5.24
.33
.64ⴱⴱⴱ
.41
1.34
.33
.17ⴱⴱⴱ
.03
0.37
⫺2.20
.34
.36
.05
⫺.27ⴱⴱⴱ
.00
.05
0.29
⫺0.31
0.52
.33
.31
.30
.04
⫺.04
.07
.00
.00
.00
⫺0.18
.28
⫺.03
.00
Suppressive coping
Step 1
Perceived stress
Step 2
PD
Step 3
Suppressive coping
Self-esteem
Step 4
PD ⫻ Suppressive Coping
PD ⫻ Self-Esteem
Suppressive Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
Step 5
PD ⫻ Suppressive Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
5.24
.33
.64ⴱⴱⴱ
.41
1.34
.33
.17ⴱⴱⴱ
.03
1.54
⫺1.52
0
1.20
0.42
⫺0.41
.36
.36
.19ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.19ⴱⴱⴱ
.03
.03
.35
.33
.28
ⴱⴱⴱ
.15
.06
⫺.06
.02
.00
.00
0.16
.25
.03
.00
Reactive coping
Step 1
Perceived stress
Step 2
PD
Step 3
Reactive coping
Self-esteem
Step 4
PD ⫻ Reactive Coping
PD ⫻ Self-Esteem
Reactive Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
Step 5
PD ⫻ Reactive Coping ⫻ Self-Esteem
ⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .01.
ⴱⴱⴱ
5.24
.33
.64ⴱⴱⴱ
.41
1.34
.33
.17ⴱⴱⴱ
.03
1.11
⫺1.92
.34
.34
.14ⴱⴱ
⫺.24ⴱⴱⴱ
.02
.05
0.48
⫺0.00
⫺0.45
.31
.30
.28
.06
⫺.00
⫺.06
.00
.00
.00
0.73
.27
.11ⴱⴱ
.01
p ⬍ .001.
able (i.e., the moderator) was one standard deviation below and
one standard deviation above the mean for that variable. We also
tested the statistical significance of each of these two slopes
(Aiken & West, 1991; J. Cohen et al., 2003; Frazier et al., 2004),
which represents the simple effect of the predictor variable at two
levels of the second (moderator) variable. As can be seen in Figure
2, the result of a simple-effect analysis indicated that the positive
relation between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was significant at a high level of suppressive coping (B ⫽
2.08, ␤ ⫽ .26, p ⬍ .001). However, the association between
perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was not statistically significant at a low level of suppressive coping (B ⫽ 0.27,
␤ ⫽ .03, p ⬎ .05). These results indicate that Asian international
students who tend to use suppressive coping are vulnerable to
depressive symptoms associated with perceived discrimination,
whereas those who tend not to use suppressive coping are less
negatively affected by perceived discrimination.
Reactive coping. In Step 3, reactive coping and self-esteem
accounted for an additional 7% of the variance in depressive
symptoms. The main effects of reactive coping and self-esteem on
depressive symptoms were statistically significant. However, in
Step 4, the block of 3 two-way interactions did not significantly
predict depressive symptoms (⌬R2 ⫽ .00). In Step 5, the three-way
interaction of Perceived Discrimination ⫻ Reactive Coping ⫻
Self-Esteem significantly predicted depressive symptoms (⌬R2 ⫽
.01). An R2 value of .01 indicates a small effect size (J. Cohen,
1992). Moreover, the regression coefficient for the interaction of
perceived discrimination, reactive coping, and self-esteem was
WEI ET AL.
458
significant in predicting depressive symptoms even though the
effect size (sr2 ⫽ .01) was small (see Table 2).3
We used the same procedure described above to plot the threeway interactions. As illustrated in Figure 3A, among Asian international students who reported low levels of self-esteem, the
association between perceived discrimination and depressive
symptoms was significantly different from zero among students
who tend to use high levels of reactive coping (B ⫽ 1.11, ␤ ⫽ .14,
p ⬍ .05), as well as those who use low (B ⫽ 1.67, ␤ ⫽ .21, p ⬍
.05) levels of reactive coping. By contrast, the patterns of interaction were quite different for high self-esteem students (see Figure
3B). For these students, the association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was significantly different
from zero among those who used high levels of reactive coping
(B ⫽ 2.57, ␤ ⫽ .32, p ⬍ .001) but not among those students who
used low levels of reactive coping (B ⫽ 0.22, ␤ ⫽ .03, p ⬎ .05).
These results indicate that Asian international students who reported high levels of self-esteem and low use of reactive coping
were less vulnerable to depressive symptoms associated with perceived discrimination.4
Panel A
20
Depression
L: b = 1.67*
10
5
0
1SD below
1SD above
H Reaction
15.215
17.425
L Reaction
11.089
14.431
Perceived Discrimination
H Reaction
Panel B
Depression
L Reaction
High Self-Esteem
H: b = 2.57***
15
The general purpose of this study was to examine the interaction
between three coping strategies (reflective, suppressive, and reactive) and levels of self-esteem (high vs. low) in predicting the
impact of perceived discrimination on depression. The first hypothesis was supported by a positive association between perceived discrimination and depression even when perceived general
stress was controlled. Specifically, the magnitude of the association between perceived general stress and perceived discrimination
was small (r ⫽ .20; see Table 1), supporting the notion that
perceived discrimination is a unique source of stress that is different from general stress (Harrell, 2000; Meyer, 2003). Moreover,
this finding validates the conceptual argument (Harrell, 2000;
Meyer, 2003) and empirical studies (Dion et al., 1992; Pieterse &
Carter, 2007) for considering the role of discrimination separately
from general stress. The positive association between perceived
discrimination and depression is also consistent with the results
found by Dion et al. (1992) with Chinese community members.
Depression
H: b = 1.11*
15
Discussion
20
Low Self-Esteem
10
L: b = 0.22
5
0
1SD below
1SD above
H Reaction
8.535
13.673
L Reaction
9.985
10.423
Perceived Discrimination
H Reaction
L Reaction
Figure 3. The interaction effects of perceived discrimination and reactive
coping on depressive symptoms for (A) students with low (L) self-esteem
versus (B) students with high (H) self-esteem. ⴱ p ⬍ .05. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
Therefore, this finding adds to the discrimination literature by
expanding this line of research in a sample of Asian international
students.
H: b = 2.08***
15
3
10
L: b = 0.27
5
0
1SD below
1SD above
H Suppression
12.532
16.690
L Suppression
10.482
11.012
Perceived Discrimination
H Suppression
L Suppression
Figure 2. The interaction effect of perceived discrimination and suppressive coping on depressive symptoms. H ⫽ high; L ⫽ low. ⴱⴱⴱ p ⬍ .001.
It is important to note that the pattern of the three-way interaction result
was the same when we separated participants into two groups (i.e., East
Asian [China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea] and South Asian [India]).
However, a significant two-way interaction was found for those from East
Asia but not for those from South Asia.
4
Liang et al. (2007) found that Asian American female and male students
used different strategies in coping with perceived racism. Therefore, we
attempted to explore whether there were gender differences in the moderation
effects of the three coping strategies and self-esteem on depressive symptoms.
That is, we examined the 4 three-way interactions for each of the three coping
strategies and self-esteem as a moderator in four separate regressions. No
gender differences were found. Therefore, Asian international female and male
students did not show different patterns of buffering effects of the coping
strategies or self-esteem on the association between perceived discrimination
and depressive symptoms in the present study.
COPING WITH DISCRIMINATION
Another significant finding was that high levels of suppressive
coping were associated with a positive association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms. This result is
consistent with models that emphasize the need to explore protective or risk factors in the relation between perceived discrimination
and mental health outcomes (Clark et al., 1999; Meyer, 2003).
These results are also consistent with the findings from Noh and
Kaspar (2003), who found that the frequent use of forbearance
coping (e.g., passive acceptance and avoidance) was linked to a
strong association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms in Korean Canadian immigrants. Perhaps, due to
the limited social resources and abilities to cope with discrimination among Asian international students, suppressive coping may
appear to be a good way to avoid interpersonal conflict or hostility
and push away depressed feelings. However, with the frequent use
of suppressive coping to deal with perceived discrimination, the
negative consequences of depressed feelings are likely to accumulate. Perhaps discrimination may be viewed as a form of rejection
by others and thus instills feelings of shame in these students. In
order to save face, which is an important Asian cultural value
(Sheu & Fukuyama, 2007), Asian international students may keep
feelings to themselves and not burden others with problems (Constantine et al., 2005; Heppner et al., 2006). Unfortunately, a
suppressive coping strategy may accentuate their depressed feelings, particularly when the level of perceived discrimination is
high.
In addition, there was a significant three-way interaction of
perceived discrimination, reactive coping, and self-esteem in predicting depressive symptoms. This result supports Clark et al.’s
(1999) implicit suggestion that the effect of general coping can
vary by the level of other moderators (e.g., self-esteem). Specifically, there was a significant positive relation between perceived
discrimination and depressive symptoms for low self-esteem students reporting either high or low use of reactive coping (see
Figure 3A). When considering the significant effect of reactive
coping among low self-esteem students,5 the students who report
high use of reactive coping are more vulnerable to depressive
symptoms than are those who report low use of reactive coping in
the face of high levels of discrimination. On the one hand, perhaps
reacting impulsively may make the problems worse for Asian
international students. With low self-esteem, these students may
take the discrimination incidents personally, blame themselves, or
feel powerless. Thus, reactive coping and low self-esteem together
may interact to increase vulnerability for depressive symptoms.
Therefore, it is not surprising that students with a combined high
use of reactive coping and low self-esteem are the most vulnerable
to depressive symptoms in the face of perceived discrimination. By
contrast, perhaps students who engage in low reactive coping have
decreased vulnerability to depressive symptoms because instead of
having a strong emotional reaction to and thus magnifying the
discrimination event, they have low emotional reaction to the
event. However, students with low self-esteem among those with
low reactive coping may still feel personally responsible for the
experience of discrimination and increase their self-doubts (i.e., “I
may cause the discrimination incidence to happen”), which is
known to be associated with depressive symptoms (Dion et al.,
1992).
As illustrated in Figure 3B, for high self-esteem students, there
is a significant positive association between perceived discrimina-
459
tion and depressive symptoms for students who report high levels
of reactive coping, whereas there is no association between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms for students who
report low levels of reactive coping. These results indicate that
high use of reactive coping can put high self-esteem students at
risk for depressive symptoms when faced with high levels of
discrimination. Despite their high self-esteem, a tendency to have
strong emotional reactions or reacting too quickly may make
discrimination events more difficult to deal with for these students,
which may in turn lead to an internal struggle or an interpersonal
conflict. As we know, experiencing an interpersonal conflict is
incongruent with the value of interpersonal harmony in Asian
culture (Kim et al., 1999, 2005), thus it may add another source of
pressure to perceived discrimination. Also, reactive coping has
been linked to depressive symptoms in the coping literature (Heppner et al., 1995). Conversely, it seems that low use of reactive
coping lessens the strength of the association between perceived
discrimination and depressive symptoms for Asian international
students, but only for those students with relatively high selfesteem. Perhaps low reactive coping serving as a protective factor
is due to its congruency with the Asian cultural value of emotional
self-control (Kim et al., 1999, 2005). Also, Asian international
students with high self-esteem may have more psychological resources (e.g., they understand the external factors of discrimination
and do not engage in self-blame) than do those with low selfesteem to protect them from the harmful impact of perceived
discrimination. Lastly, reflective coping did not interact with perceived discrimination to predict depressive symptoms. Perhaps,
because discrimination is chronic, unpredictable, and idiosyncratic, it is a specific type of stressor that is distinct from other
forms of stress. Therefore, for this specific stressor, it may be hard
to think ahead or prepare for it before it actually arises.
Limitations
There are several limitations in the present study that should be
acknowledged. First, this study focused specifically on Asian
international students. Generalizing the present results to other
racial and ethnic minority populations or other international student groups should be done with caution until the current results
are replicated in those groups. Second, symptom of depression was
the variable chosen to represent negative psychological outcome.
Depressive symptoms are important to examine because they are
among the most common presenting concerns for international
students seeking help from university counseling centers (Nilsson
et al., 2004; Yi et al., 2003). Future studies should include other
mental health outcomes (e.g., somatic complaints) that may also be
relevant to this population. Third, it is possible that this sample
may be biased because it represents only those students who are
willing to participate or are interested in this topic. Therefore,
more research is needed to replicate these results with samples
recruited in other ways. Finally, the coping measure used in the
present study was developed from an individualistic cultural per5
It is important to note that the main effect of reactive coping was
significant in the low self-esteem condition in the final step after adding the
three-way interaction term. These results can be obtained from Meifen Wei
upon request.
460
WEI ET AL.
spective. It is unknown whether a coping measure developed from
a collectivistic cultural perspective would operate in the same way
to buffer the association between perceived discrimination and
depressive symptoms.
Future Research Directions
Despite these limitations, the present study contributes to our
understanding of factors that may help reduce depressive symptoms associated with perceived discrimination among Asian international students in the United States. A future longitudinal study
would allow researchers to examine this relation in terms of the
impact of racial discrimination on subsequent psychological distress. Future studies may also want to include a daily diary method
of assessing experiences of racial discrimination in order to reduce
the errors associated with retrospective reports. For example,
Swim, Hyers, Cohen, and Ferguson (2001) used a daily diary
method to study women’s experiences of gender discrimination.
Moreover, the current results showed that students who had lived
in the United States for a longer period of time reported higher
levels of perceived discrimination. Wei et al. (2007) found different moderation patterns in buffering the relation between acculturative stress and depression for short versus long length of time
in the United States among Chinese international students. Because perceived discrimination is a component of acculturative
stress, future studies might examine the role that length of time in
the United States plays in dealing with discrimination. Finally,
some scholars have recently developed coping measures based on
collectivistic cultural perspectives, such as the Collectivistic Coping Styles (Heppner et al., 2006), the Cross Cultural Coping Scale
(Kuo, Roysircar, & Newby-Clark, 2006), and the Collectivistic
Coping Style Measure (Moore & Constantine, 2005). Researchers
may want to include coping strategies that are appropriate for
collectivistic cultures in future studies. Such an assessment would
make possible the examination of culturally specific coping strategies that may serve as protective factors above and beyond coping
strategies developed from an individualistic perspective.
Implications for Counseling
Our results indicate that perceived discrimination is a unique
stressor that contributes to depressive symptoms over and above
perceived general stress. This suggests that counselors working
with students who are members of a stigmatized group should
carefully assess the role of perceived discrimination and the distress associated with it. Research findings from studies such as this
one can be used to normalize students’ experiences. Counselors
can serve as a cultural broker or bridge to explain possible external
factors (e.g., others’ ignorance) related to discrimination. Counselors can serve as an advocate for students at a systemic level to
reduce discrimination and thereby reduce its associated depressive
symptoms. Counselors also can explore the coping strategies these
students use to deal with discrimination and the role of self-esteem
in their use of these coping strategies. For example, it might be
helpful to explain to students the benefits and costs associated with
the use of suppressive coping. Counselors also can pay attention to
students’ use of reactive coping, which may make the situation
worse by creating an internal struggle or interpersonal conflict that
is incongruent with the Asian value of emotional self-control or
interpersonal harmony. These reactions may in turn get in the way
of their daily functioning, even for those students who have high
self-esteem. Finally, Asian international students may not be aware
of the counseling services available on campus, may not be familiar with the specifics of the counseling process (Olivas & Li,
2006), and may perceive stigma related to help seeking (Flum,
1998). Some scholars have suggested alternative ways in helping
international students (Pedersen, 1991). For example, counselors
can help them to be aware of counseling services through new
student orientation or other outreach programs, and bilingual counselors can be hired to promote Asian international students’ utilization of counseling services.
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Received October 25, 2007
Revision received February 26, 2008
Accepted April 21, 2008 䡲
New Editors Appointed, 2010 –2015
The Publications and Communications Board of the American Psychological Association announces the appointment of 4 new editors for 6-year terms beginning in 2010. As of January 1,
2009, manuscripts should be directed as follows:
● Psychological Assessment (http://www.apa.org/journals/pas), Cecil R. Reynolds, PhD, Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, 704 Harrington Education
Center, College Station, TX 77843.
● Journal of Family Psychology (http://www.apa.org/journals/fam), Nadine Kaslow, PhD,
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Grady Health System, 80 Jesse Hill Jr.
Drive, SE, Atlanta, GA 30303.
● Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes (http://www.apa.org/
journals/xan), Anthony Dickinson, PhD, Department of Experimental Psychology, University
of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EB, United Kingdom
● Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Personality Processes and Individual Differences (http://www.apa.org/journals/psp), Laura A. King, PhD, Department of Psychological
Sciences, University of Missouri, McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO 65211.
Electronic manuscript submission: As of January 1, 2009, manuscripts should be submitted
electronically via the journal’s Manuscript Submission Portal (see the website listed above with
each journal title).
Manuscript submission patterns make the precise date of completion of the 2009 volumes
uncertain. Current editors, Milton E. Strauss, PhD, Anne E. Kazak, PhD, Nicholas Mackintosh,
PhD, and Charles S. Carver, PhD, will receive and consider manuscripts through December 31,
2008. Should 2009 volumes be completed before that date, manuscripts will be redirected to the new
editors for consideration in 2010 volumes.