History of Psychology
Chapter 12 :Gestalt Psychology
1. The Whole is Different From
the Sum of Its Parts
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A. The Gestalt revolution
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1. in Germany
2. a protest against Wundtian psychology
B. Criticisms of Wundt’s approach
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1. against elementism
2. against the notion that perception of objects
is a summation of elements
The Whole is Different From the
Sum of Its Parts
3. However, the whole is different from the
sum of its parts
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C. Unlike behaviorism, Gestalt accepts
the value of consciousness
II. Antecedent Influences on
Gestalt Psychology
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A. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
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The elements are organized meaningfully not
through the mechanical process of association
B. Franz Brentano (1838-1917)
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Psychology should study the act of experiencing.
He considered Wundt’s introspection is artificial
Antecedent Influences on
Gestalt Psychology

C. Ernst Mach (1838-1917)
 1. a physicist
 2. discussed spatial and temporal patterns
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a. considered them to be sensations
b. independent of their elements
Antecedent Influences on
Gestalt Psychology
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D. von Ehrenfels (1859-1932)
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1. Qualities of experience can not be explained
as combination of elementary sensations
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2. Perceptions based on something greater than
a merging of individual sensations
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3. Wertheimer considered von Ehrenfels' work
the crucial antecedent
Antecedent Influences on
Gestalt Psychology

E. William James
 1. regarded elements of consciousness as
artificial abstractions
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F. Phenomenology
 1.an unbiased description of immediate
experience as it occurs, not analyzed or
reduced to elements
 2. involves naïve experience
Antecedent Influences on
Gestalt Psychology

G. G. E. Müller’s lab at U. of Göttingen
 1. 1909-1915: a group of phenomenological
psychologists worked at U. of Göttingen.
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2. anticipated to form the Gestalt school
III. The Changing Zeitgeist in
Physics

A. Physicists beginning to think in terms of
fields and organic wholes
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B. Gestalt psychology
 1. Köhler: background in physics and
studies with Max Planck
 2. an application of field physics to
psychology
IV. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
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A. Background
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1. studied Law U. of Prague, then
philosophy
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2. attended lectures by von Ehrenfels
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3. studied philosophy & psychology
U. of Berlin
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4. 1904: Ph.D. U. of Würzburg with
Külpe
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
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B. 1921: co-founded the journal Psychological
Research (official publications of the Gestalt
psychology school of thoughts)
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C. 1933: fled Germany to the New School of
Social Research in New York
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D. Maslow’s concept of self-actualization based
on Wertheimer
V. Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
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Kurt Koffka (left)
Wolfgang Kohler (right)
A. Background
 1. interest in science and
philosophy
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2. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of
Berlin with Stumpf
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3. 1910: began association
with Wertheimer and Köhler
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
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B. 1921: The Growth of the Mind
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C. 1922: "Perception: An Introduction to
Gestalt-Theorie"
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1. described the basic concepts and results of
considerable research
2. term "perception" misunderstood as the most
narrow focus on a single process
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941)
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3. has a broad concern
 a. problems of thinking and learning
 b. ultimately: all aspects of conscious
experience
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D. 1927: to Smith College
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E. 1935: Principles of Gestalt Psychology
VI. Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967)
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A. Background
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Kurt Koffka (left)
Wolfgang Kohler (right)
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1. trained in physics with Max
Planck
2. convinced that
 a. Gestalten occur in
psychology as in physics
 b. psychology must become
allied with physics
3. 1909: Ph.D. from U. of Berlin
with Stumpf
Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967)
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B. Career
 1. 1917: The Mentality of Apes
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Study the behavior of chimpanzees
2. 1922: succeeded Stumpf as professor of
psychology at Berlin
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3. 1929: Gestalt Psychology
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Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967)
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4. 1935: left Germany to US and taught at
Swarthmore College in Penn state
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5. was the spokesman for Gestalt
movement
VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution
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A. In Germany: heretical and a rebellion
directly against Wundt
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B. Research
 1. perceptual constancies
 Definition: A quality of wholeness or
completeness in perceptual experience
that does not vary even when the sensory
elements changes.
VII.The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution
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2. there exists a wholeness not found in any
of the parts
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3. the character of the actual perception
differs from the character of the sensory
stimulation
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4. attempts at analysis destroy the perception
The Nature of the Gestalt Revolution
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C. Köhler: Two meanings of "Gestalt"
 1. shape or form as a property of objects
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2. a whole or concrete entity that has as one
attributes a specific shape or form
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3. The term is not restricted to visual or
sensory fields
VIII.Gestalt Principles of Perceptual
Organization
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A. principles
1. Proximity: a
2. Continuity: a
3. Similarity: b
4. Closure: c
5. Simplicity: c
6. figure/ground: d
B. Organizing principles don’t depend on higher mental
processes or past experiences
IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning:
Insight and the Mentality of Apes
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A. Intelligence of
chimpanzees---demonstrated in ability
to solve problems
IX. Gestalt Studies of Learning:
Insight and the Mentality of Apes
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B. Köhler’s interpretation of results
 1. in terms of perceive the situation as a whole
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2. in terms of understanding relationships
among the various stimuli
3. Called “insight”
 Immediate apprehension or understanding of
relationships
Gestalt Studies of Learning: Insight and
the Mentality of Apes
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C. Solutions require
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1. restructuring of the perceptual field
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2. perception of a new relationship between
the stimuli
X. The Spread of Gestalt Psychology
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A. 1920s
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1. a coherent and dominant school in Germany
2. American students such as Tolman and Allport
3. Koffka and Köhler: many lectures in the U.S.
B. 1933 Nazi government: shift of Gestalt psychology
to U.S.
The Spread of Gestalt Psychology
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C. Slow acceptance in the U.S.
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1. behaviorism was at its peak
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2. a language barrier
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3. belief that Gestalt psychology dealt solely with
perception
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4. Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka at small colleges
without graduate programs
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5. Gestalt focus of protest (Wundt) no longer of concern
in U.S.
XI. Field Theory: Kurt Lewin
(1890-1947)
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A. Lewin’s life
 1. studied mathematics
and physics at German
universities
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2. 1914: Ph.D. at U. of
Berlin with Stumpf
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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B. Field theory
 1. Definition: using the concept of fields of
force to explain behavior in terms of one’s
field of social influence
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2. the trend in late 19th-century science
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3. extended beyond the Gestalt framework
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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C. The life space
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the psychological field of the individual
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a. encompasses all past, present, and future
events that may affect one
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b. each event may determine behavior in a
given situation
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c. degree of development is a function of
amount and type of experience accumulated
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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D. Motivation
 1. equilibrium
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a. State of balance between the person and the
environment
b. Any disturbance of this equilibrium produces
tension
c. It leads to some action to relieve the tension
and restore the balance
d. thus, motivation is a consequence of disequilibrium
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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2. the Zeigarnik effect
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The tendency to recall uncompleted
tasks more easily than completed tasks
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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E. Social psychology
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1. group dynamics
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The outstanding feature of Lewin’s social
psychology is group dynamic
2. authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire
leadership styles among boys
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Authoritarian---boys were more aggressive
Democratic---boys were more friendly
Spurred the growth of social psychology
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
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3. emphasis on social action research
 Racial problems, equal employment
opportunities, or prevention of prejudice
in childhood
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4. sensitivity training
 Was forerunners of the encounter groups
popular in the 1960s and 1970s.
XII. Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology
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1. Gestalt position is vague
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2. basic concepts and terms not defined with
sufficient rigor
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3. too preoccupied with theory at the expense of
research and empirical support
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a. lacks adequate controls
Criticisms of Gestalt Psychology
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4. the Gestalt experimental work is
inferior to the behaviorist
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5. insight learning: not replicable
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6. poorly defined physiological
assumptions
XIII. Contributions of Gestalt
Psychology
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A. Retained its separate identity, not absorbed
by the mainstream
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B. Centered on phenomenology
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C. influence the Americans humanistic
psychology movement and contemporary
cognitive psychology