ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIVE URBAN FORMS:
The Design
of Human Settlements in a Technologic Age
by
JOSEPH JOHN SCARPULLA
B.Arch.,New York Institute of Technology, Center for Architecture
1980
SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURE STUDIES
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June 1983
©
JOSEPH JOHN SCARPULLA
1983
AL
Signature of Author
De-par-mnt o-#frrthitecture
May 43, 1983
Certified by
Edward Robbins
Assi ant Professor of
Ant opoloqy in Architecture
Accepted by_
Rotcli
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECHNOLOGY
MAY 2 6 1983
I
innAIrC
N. John Habraken
Chairman, Departmental Committee
on Graduate Students
ECOLOGICALLY - RESPONSIVE URBAN FORMS:
The Design of Human Settlements in a Technologic Age
by
JOSEPH JOHN SCARPULLA
Submitted to the Department of Architecture on May 13, 1983 in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in
Architecture Studies
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this work is to present an optimistic view of our future
environment. The stimulus to engage in this project is based upon a
strong conviction that we share a responsibility to use our technologic
expertise to enhance our environment and live in harmony with nature.
We are faced with growing ecological imbalance that threatens to
irreparably damage our ecosystem, as a result of man's indulgence in
crude, inefficient and wasteful environmental practices.
The specific objective of this study is to develop an alternative model
for human settlements that is responsive to the natural environment.
Ecological design concepts - soft energy sources, ecologic support
systems, site design criteria and various building types are explored
along with the emerging trends and innovations of our present technologic
age. The design of new human settlements relies on the influence these
factors have on urban form. A scenario for the future is constructed
illustrating how a successful integration of current trends and
technologies with ecological principles can be realized in new communities
and existing settlements.
The intent of this collection of relevant information on the design of
ecologically-responsive urban forms is to create interest and promote
further exploration and implementation of such settlements patterns in
a technologic age.
Thesis Supervisor:
2
Edward Robbins
Assistant Professor of
Anthropology in Architecture
ECOLOGICALLY RESPONSIVE URBAN FORMS: The
Design of Human Settlements in a Technologic Age
nneman
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goo=
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15
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I would like to acknowledge the use of materials
from the sources credited in the bibliography and
extend my thanks to the publishers, authors and
illustrators.
16
contents
Acknowledgements
16
INTRODUCTION
19
PART ONE:
ELEMENTS OF A NEW URBAN FORM
section one:
29
1:
soft energy sources
35
2:
ecologic support systems
55
3:
site design criteria
77
4:
building types
91
section two:
PART TWO:
ecologic design concepts
27
emerging trends and innovations
TOWARD AN ECOLOGICALLY-RESPONSIVE FUTURE
section one:
constructing a future scenario
109
129
131
1:
developing a regional plan
133
2:
designing a prototypical community
149
3:
reshaping existing settlements
167
BIBLIOGRAPHY
179
17
1
INTRODUCTION
19
20
The purpose of this work is to present an
optimistic view of our future environment.
The particular stimulus to engage in this
project is based upon a strong conviction
that we share a responsibility to use our
technological expertise to enhance our
environment and live in harmony with nature.
The specific objective of this study is to
develop an alternative model for human
settlements that is responsive to the
natural environment.
This work also seeks
to provide an impetus for the derivation of
new models which will provide more appropriate
21
settlement patterns and urban forms designed
with attention to ecological concerns.
While ecological concerns have centered
principally on questions of animal life,
plant life and pollution, this proposal goes
further, by providing a concept framework of
a biologically-balanced relationship between
urban man and his environment.
By successfully integrating the best of our
new trends and emerging technologies with
ecological principles, we can establish
balanced-living systems and enhance the
quality of life-- creating a clean and healthy
world for present and future generations.
22
APPROACH
This thesis is organized into two main parts.
Part One is divided into two sections.
Section
One begins with the development of ecological
design concepts and describes how these concepts
will influence urban form and settlement patterns.
Criteria for the design of new human settlements
will be established.
Section Two is an examination of emerging future
trends and innovations and their influence on
urban forms and future communities.
These two
sections will provide a collection of currently
available systems and technologies that can be
used in the design of new human settlements.
23
Part Two of this work uses the concepts and
innovations alluded to in Part One, in order
to develop a model scenario.
This scenario
will be developed first, on a regional level
using the New England area.
Ecological
design concepts will be explored with the
design of a prototypical community within
the regional plan.
The final aspect of the
scenario will address existing urban settlements
and offer design ideas for their redevelopment.
24
For the development of such a scenario, a
certain number of assumptions must be made
in order to proceed with a design program.
The realization of the prototypical design
will require a major shift in our present
Reference 80
political and economic ideologies.
Van Til
The assumptions made will be based upon
what I feel is the necessary direction
society must take to meet the goals and
needs of ecologically-responsive urban
forms.
Assumptions that are more specific
to the design of a prototypical settlement
will be mentioned accordingly.
25
This work is based on the premise that design can
be used as a tool in the research process.
The
testing of the ideas set forth has been accomplished
by designing a prototypical community.
The
research for this work was done simultaneously
with the design phase.
In this way, the design
became part of the research and created a dialogue
for the testing of ideas and stimulating new ones.
The information for this work does not pretend to
be a complete or a final presentation of the issues
involved.
It is rather a collection of relevant
information on the design of ecologicallyresponsive urban forms, with the intention of
creating interest and promoting further exploration
and implementation of such settlement patterns in
a technologic age.
26
PART ONE:
ELEMENTS OF A NEW
URBAN FORM
27
28
section one:
ecologic design concepts
29
30
the ecologic system
The development of principles for the design
of ecologically-responsive urban forms, begins
with an understanding of the Earth's ecology.
Reference 6
Benthall
Ecology is the science concerned with the
study of interrelationships between living
organisms and their environment.
An ecologic
system denotes a specific area, with a distinct
community of plants and animals, and considers
the interrelationships among these living
organisms and their environment.
The ecologic system discussed in this work,
will consider a system which is comprised of
the Planet Earth.
It includes the factors
31
which affect this planet, such as the sun, the
moon, and the elements of the earth's axis and
rotation around the sun.
These factors are
relevant in creating and controlling our
weather and the seasons, which in turn, affect
all smaller ecologic systems.
A primary element of the earth's ecologic
system and the sustainer of life, is the sun.
It is the major source of energy.
The radiation
from the sun heats the atmosphere, causing air
movement as particles become active and move
about.
From this warming of air particles, a
temperature differential results.
or wind is generated.
32
Air movement,
The Sun also heats the Earth's many bodies of
water.
Through heating, evaporation of water
results, creating humid air, that together with
the wind, creates our weather.
Reference 20
Crowther
the hydrologic cycle.
This completes
The hydrologic cycle
contributes to the natural ecologic balance
of the Earth.
33
Human settlements are a part of the Earth's
overall ecosystem and must fit into its natural
balance.
The way to achieve ecologic balance
in human settlements, is through the creation of
urban forms which follow the natural regenerative
cycles of the earth.
Ecologically-responsive
communities will incorporate this regenerative
process in the development of its energy and
support systems.
The specific planning issues
for the design of this type of community will
be discussed in this section.
Appropriate
building types for the settlement will be
shown.
34
1: soft energy sources
The form of ecologically-responsive settlements
will be greatly influenced by the use of
energy technologies.
'soft'
If they are used efficiently,
these systems may meet all of our energy needs.
Systems will vary from region to region, because
natural energy systems must be appropriate for
the specific microclimate.
In addition to
matching energy to location, it must be supplied
at a scale and quality appropriate to the task.
Energy needs range from low-temperature space
heating to high-temperature industrial uses.
The
following chapter takes a brief look at some of
35
the renewable energy technologies available
for the design of sustainable communities.
These natural energy systems can be divided
into four major areas --
and Earth.
36
Sun, Wind, Water
SUN
The direct solar radiation from the sun
has many various architectural applications.
Once the site has been analyzed and the energy
needs determinedt the appropriate system can be
developed.
Many new solar technologies now
exist along with the age-old practices for
using the earth's natural energies. The area
of solar energy is well documented.
Here,
is
a brief look at available systems.
Passive Solar Systems
These systems are used for heating and cooling.
Through the use of natural means such as radiation,
Reference 54
Mazria
conduction and convection, the structures
themselves become the system.
37
Direct Gain
The actual living space is directly heated by
sunlight.
Storing energy for night use can be
done in the actual walls and floor of the space.
Thermal Storage Wall
(Trombe wall)
A storage wall works by absorbing sunlight
on its outer face and then transferring this
heat through the wall by conduction.
38
Attached Greenhouse
A greenhouse, constructed on the south side
of a building with a storage wall between,
makes up this system.
Convective Loop
This system uses a solar collector and a
storage mass unit.
Air or water heated in
the collector rises by convection into the
storage mass.
Cool air from the bottom of
the storage unit travels back to the collector
Reference 54
Mazria
and the cycle continues.
39
Active Solar Systems
These systems use mechanical means to extract
energy from the sun.
The energy attained from
these type systems ranges from low-temperature
residential heating to high-temperature steam
production/generation of electricity.
Air and Water Collector Systems
These systems heat air or water in collectors
and then circulates them to a storage unit.
The advantage of this type system is tha
one
can draw heat when needed.
liquid type collector system
40 1
Parabolic Collectors
This type collector concentrates large amounts
of energy on a small area.
This concentration
produces high temperatures needed for various
industrial and large scale applications.
absorber disk
mirrored
surface
paraboloidal
collector
Reference 20
Crowther
41
Solar Power Tower
A field of mirrors concentrates the suns rays
Reference 88
onto a collector, yielding extremely high
temperatures.
electricity.
42
Steam is created to generate
Finneran
Photovoltaic Collector System
The photovoltaic collector system uses
e%
(3
/_h,
I 11%k /"Ik
photovoltaic cells to convert radiant
energy into electricity.
3
(3
(9 (3) 9 (3
/1%
/q%
Je_
kjl"O j(Xy
A
.
0000003
0000003
00000W0
0000000
0000003
0000003
0000003 C
Above: The more photovoltaic cells packed into a
panel, the more electricity
it can produce. In A, standard round cells waste valuable space. In B, dead
space is reduced by cutting
cells In half. In C, square
cells allow greatest use of
the area but are more expensive.
Reference 20
Crowther
load
Reference 88
Finneran
43
WIND
Air movement or wind provides many forms of energy
use.
Passive systems include natural ventilation
and cooling.
The active systems provide both
mechanical and electric energy.
Wind driven
machines can provide direct power drive.
They
can be used to drive water pumps for wells or
for small scale industrial use.
Development of high speed wind systems turns
mechanical energy into electricity through
generators.
The availability of high velocity
wind sources suitable for electric conversion,
are relative to the regional microclimate.
is therefore necessary to assess a site's
44
It
Reference 20
Crowther
ability to support a wind system, and if feasible,
locate the most efficient placement for it.
The following illustrations show various wind
Reference 20
Crowther
collection, conversion and storage systems.
wind
plan view
savonius rotor
bicycle wheel turbines
-nerator
load
sailwing rotor
DC
wind
machine
Reference
flywheel
load
flywheel system
20
Crowther
fuel cell
fuel cell system
46
savonius rotor
starter
free air stream
darrieus hoop rotor
turbineand
generator
Reference 20
Crowther
WATER
There are three major sources of energy
derived from water.
They are defined as
gravitational, tidal, and thermal gradient.
The first two, draw energy through direct
mechanical means.
The last source draws
energy through a more complex system using
the temperature differential in the ocean.
Reference 20
Crowther
thermal
gradients
Gravitational Energy
This form of water energy comes from the motion
of streams and rivers.
The basic water wheel
is the most common source, providing both
gravitational
mechanical power and electricity after conversion.
Construction of hydroelectric dams produce large
scale electricity.
This is achieved by creating
highly pressurized water to run through giant
turbines.
Tidal Power
This system utilizes the motion of the tides
to create large amounts of electric power.
This is achieved by the use of turbine
tidal power
generators situated in dams, which provide
the conversion of tidal motion into electric
power.
49
Ocean Thermal Power
The tropical oceans collect and store large amounts
of solar energy as the sun rays warm them.
Energy
is extracted from the ocean and converted to
electricity.
The OTEC power plant or Ocean Thermal
Energy Conversion plant is an example of this type.
system.
The concept for this system is similar to today's
conventional power plant.
The ocean's heated water
replaces the oil heated water, while cooling
done by rivers and streams in fossil fuel plants
comes from the ocean depths.
50
Reference 85
Williams
Si
~AWOt
Reference 85
Williams
OTEC- SAMitINE
SYSTEM
CONFIGURATION
Figure 6.2
Cutaway view of OTEC plant designed by TRW.
4
51
EARTH
Geothermal Energy
The heat contained in the core of the earth
can be drawn from to extract energy.
This
process is known as geothermal power. The
system shown uses a heat exchanger to draw
the energy from the earth directly.
Reference 20
Crowther
52
wet steam;
hot water
Methane Generation
Methane gas can be found naturally in the
earth or it can be produced as a by-product
of decaying organic matter.
It can also be
produced in a digester as shown in the
illustation.
Methane as a fuel can be
used to power vehicles or heat buildings.
Reference 20
Crowther
digester
(schematic diagram)
53
54
2: ecologic support systems
There is a vital link between forestry, agriculture,
waste recycling and water management
It parallels
the natural cycles of the earth and must be utilized
in turning human settlements towards ecologic
balance.
The careful establishment of these systems yields
an integrated, biologically-derived support system.
This chapter will look at the interrelated
support systems of waste treatment, water,
and agriculture.
Aquaculture support
systems will represent a combination of
these three.
55
WASTE TREATMENT SYSTEMS
The treatment of wastes is a major problem
facing existing communities and cities.
It
is also a critical aspect in the design of
new communities.
New, more efficient and
ecologically-sound waste treatment systems
are being developed and need to be considered
in the design of new human settlements.
The existing conventional methods for waste
treatment are expensive, inefficient and
cause great harm to the natural environment.
In these systems, the nutrient-rich effluent,
a wastewater by-product, is permitted to flow,
through percolation and direct dumping into
56
lakes, streams, and off-shore sites.
This
effluent offsets the natural balance of these
water sources and eventually leads to their
contamination.
Another by-product of these systems is solid
material, or sludge.
It is presently disposed
of by incineration, or by costly transportation
to landfills or offshore dumping sites.
These
waste treatment practices take a potentially
useful resource and turn it into a pollutant
to be unleashed into the environment.
57
New innovations in the area of waste treatment
have developed recycling methods for these
valuable nutrients.
Organic sewage contains
many nutrients that act as good fertilizers.
It cannot only be used to improve agriculture,
but also work to restore disturbed lands such
as strip mines.
A variety of ecologic waste treatment systems
exist that can be utilized in the development
of new communities or existing ones.
The
selection of which system to use, depends
a great deal on the specific location and
scale of development of the settlement.
A
well-designed community, for example, would
make use of various waste treatment systems
appropriate to its particular site.
58
An in-depth study of the site ecology would
yield the systems that would work most harmoniously
with the site.
The size and type of treatment
system selected is relative to the size of the
community, or building cluster.
The potential
size of a community would be relatively defined
by the site's ability to naturally recycle wastes.
The following waste treatment systems are
adaptable to a variety of ecosystems, including
farmland, forest, pond and wetland.
They range
from traditional land treatment systems, to
aquaculture, to composting systems.
A variety
of scale and performance suitable for the design
of new human settlements or redevelopment of
existing ones is offered.
59
LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Slow-Rate Treatment System
This system works in a way similar to conventional
crop irrigation.
Partially treated wastewater is
applied by sprinkling, flooding, and ridge and
furrow techniques onto cultivating lands.
Here,
the soil, plants and microorganisms purify the
water,as it slowly percolates down to the ground-
water.
This system is presently being used to
irrigate farmlands, old fields and forests.
This system requires 50 to 500 acres per million
gallons of wastewater per day.
60
Reference 9
Bastian
Rapid Infiltration Systems
In this system, partly-treated wastewater is
applied in doses to sandy or highly permeable
soils.
The physical, chemical and biological
purification occurs as the water percolates
toward the groundwater.
This system requires
2 to 50 acres per million gallons, per day,
depending on soil characteristics.
Overland-flow Treatment System
In this system effluent is applied at the top of
grassy slopes which are on top of an impervious
soil layer.
The liquid flows down the slope and
is purified by the soil, grass and microorganisms
on the surface.
The runoff is collected for reuse
or discharged to surface waters.
This system is
useful in areas with impervious soil conditions.
61
SMALL SCALE LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Septic Tank and Soil Absorption Field
In this system sewage bacteria breaks up solid
Septic Tank & Soil Absorption
Field (Trench)
wastes in septic tanks and sinks it to the bottom
as sludge.
Effluent floats to the top and out
to perforated pipes in gravel-lined trenches
(absorption field).
Many variations of this
Gravel or Crushed Rock
common system exist utilizing septic tanks or
aeration tanks (aerobic digestion), in combination
with absorption fields, seepage pits or leaching
Aerobic System & Soil
Absorption Field
chambers, depending on the soil capibilities.
Absorption Field ITrench)
Aeration Tank
Reference 76
U.S.E.P.A.
62
Mound System or Evapotranspiration Bed
Mound System
(Used with Septic or Aerobic Tank)
This system is for use in rocky of impermeable soils.
Liquid is pumped into a permeable mound of soil
At)-), I -rF,, I
where it evaporates.
This process is enhanced by
plants which draw moisture from the soil and
'breathe' it into the air.
~
Plw.4 Surface, Original Grade
Inlet Pipe From Septic or Aerobic
Tank & Siphn or Pump
Rocky or T ight Solaor High Ground Water
In all of these land treatment systems the
Evapotranspiration Bed
(Used with Septic or Aerobic Tank)
by-product sludge, must be treated through
alternative methods.
Through the use of new
techniques sludge can be recycled for use as a
soil conditioner or organic fertilizer on
farms, forests, pastures, golf courses and
disturbed lands.
Existing Soo
63
One of the drawbacks of these systems, is the
necessary handling of sludge for treatment.
Even
in the smaller systems sludge must be pumped out
and taken to central treatment centers.
Another
drawback of these systems is the large amount of
water used to transport wastes.
Although water is
eventually returned to the soil, this may cause
problem in drier regions.
WATERLESS or LOW WATER SYSTEMS
These systems use little or no water, but are
primarily intended for use in small-scale
applications.
64
Recycling Toilet Systems
There are three basic types of these systems:
*
Oil-flush Systems - This system is similar
to the conventional water-flush system, however
oil is the medium used.
Oil and wastes go to a
tank where oils rise to the top and are recycled.
*
Low-water Chemical Systems - This system uses
a combination of chemicals and water.
They are
both recycled.
*
Low-water System - Small amounts of treated
wastewater are recycled in this system.
All of the above systems use electricity and
require maintenance.
65
*
Incinerating System -
In this system
electricity, gas or oil burns solids and
evaporates liquids.
Water is not used
and ash waste must be removed.
Most nutrients
are unfortunately lost in this process,
unable to contribute to the overall ecosystem.
*
Composting System -
not use any water.
This system also does
It converts toilet and
food wastes to compost, where, after a certain
period of time it can be used as fertilizer.
The Clivus Multrum is one such system.
Each
compost unit is only capable of servicing
4 or 5 persons.
Clivus Multrum
66
NOTE:
With all of the previously listed
systems, the toilet wastes are being
treated.
Other household water, from
showers and sinks,
needs to be treated
separately, in a manner similar to that
of a land treatment system.
In a carefully and ecologically-designed
system, the conservative use of water
is necessary.
Attempts to collect water in roof solar stills,
or in cisterns, would be helpful.
The re-use
of water, rather than recycling may be a
better way of approaching the problem.
67
dirty shower water inlet
----
distilled water outlet
inlet
- bathioon unit
K _- overflow from
tray
still%
[distilled water
storagedrum
L sloping panes of glass
The solar still which formed the roofof the bathroom unit in the Ecol
house at McGill University (after Ortega et al., 1972).
The Ecol water collection, purification and waste treatment system (after
Ortega et a\., 1972). The figures show the quantities,in litresper head, passing
through the system per day.
68
The final waste treatment system to be discussed in
this chapter is perhaps the most efficient and most
ecologically-responsive of all those mentioned.
AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS
Most of the systems discussed previously,
utilized a monoculture process which uses
only bacteria to break down the elements of
waste.
This is also what occurs in the
aerobic treatment system.
The aquaculture systems utilize a poly-culture
process which contains a variety of bacteria,
Reference 73
Todd
invertebrates, sludge -grazers,
and in some cases, fish.
algae, plants,
These systems produce a
higher quality of water which can be used for
recreational purposes, in an efficient ecologically
balanced process.
69
The advantages of this type system are the following:
-
the system can be effectively applied to home or
community.
-
it is a low energy use system.
Energy from the
sun provides the necessary heat. Methane produced
provides electricity,: The system works on a
gravity feed system and eliminates the need for
pumps.
- the aquatic plants can be harvested to be used
as a rich compost, mulch or as a supplemental
feed for livestock.
70
The Solar Aquacell System
This system consists of a multicell,
aerated lagoon covered with a solar
heating greenhouse which provides
the heat necessary for the process.
The lagoon contains aquatic plants
and biologically-active algaes which
remove and metabolize wastewater
nutrients and toxic compounds.
71
AGRICULTURE
An ecologically-balanced community should be able
to satisfy most of its needs for food production.
It should be able to grow most of its own food in
its
households, neighborhoods and surrounding
regions.
The community's agricultural systems should include
tree forestry, animal husbandry, crop cultivation,
and storage and preparation.
Links to the system
include waste treatment residues, and aquaculture
by-products as supplementary plant nutrients.
Reference 73
Food production in an ecologically-balanced
community includes both indoor
72
(ie. greenhouse),
Todd
and outdoor home-scale production, as well as,
larger-scale neighborhood production.
The
growing of food would consist primarily of
fruit trees and vegetable and herb plots.
Larger-scale production would yield grains,
dairy products and meats.
A combination of passive energy technologies
are utilized in the formation of urban block
farms.
The following diagrams present the
intricacies of such a system.
73
Reference 7
Britz
74
Reference
7
I
V1 W
I"A
'
Britz
75
76
3: site design criteria
in planning ecologically-responsive human
settlements, many site considerations must
be made.
Water and air quality, soil, earth,
hydrogeology, and topography cannot be
considered separately.
By implementing plans
that consider the full range of the ecologic
system, most environmental injury can be
prevented and quality of life can be maximized.
The most commonly recognized site characteristic
for the development of ecologically-responsive
design, is the orientation of built forms with
respect to the sun.
77
Because the sun is an everchanging source of heat
and light, it is a source that we can tap only
to the degree in which we take account of its
dynamic character.
The solar envelope is a
Reference 42
Knowles
concept devised to allow each site in a plan,
access to the sun during critical daytime periods.
The construction of such a three-dimensional
envelope is made through the extrapolation of
solar arcs representing the path of the sun.
These extrapolations are then transferred to
the corners of the land parcel.
Depending on the duration of desired solar
access, the land parcel configuration, and
surrounding conditions, the size and shape
78
'1<
of the envelope will vary.
The solar
envelope's size, shape and orientation
711
are greatly dependent on the patterns
of urban settlement.
Development within this container will
not shadow its surround during critical
periods of the day.
The envelope is
therefore defined by the passage of
time as well as by the constraints of
property.
It is modeled on straight-
forward zoning regulations, and its
intent is to assure future rights of
access for its respective site.
Reference 42
Knowles
79
WINTER
of the envelope will vary.
SUMMER
The solar envelope's
size, shape, and orientation are greatly dependent
on the patterns of urban settlement.
A.M.
STREET ORIENTATION
The streets in many human settlements
for
I'
I,'
NOON
example, typically run in a north-south
direction.
In order to maximize solar
access, streets should be planned with
the concept of solar access in mind.
The
optimal orientation is to situate the street
P.M.
45-degree axis
grid at a 45-degree angle from the north-south
axis.
Streets are then lighted and warmed
during the midday and are consequently more
pleasant during the busy noontime shopping period.
80
Reference 42
Knowles
TOPOGRAPHY
Varied topography of a site results in areas of
increased and decreased exposure to the sun.
-/J1~--,
N
S
In cool regions, building on south- and south-east
facing slopes is the primary pattern that should
S
N
solar envelope variations
on south-facing slope
be followed in site selection and placement of
urban forms.
Higher ridges and hilltops are
undesirable, not only because they are exposed
to winter winds, but also because they are
characterized by lower temperatures created by
cold air setting in the valleys.
wind exposure
on north slope
maximum wind
on hilltop
locate housing
on south slope
North-facing slopes are usually inappropriate
because they are exposed to the wind and receive
81
less solar radiation than south-facing slopes.
Structures set into the earth on a south-facing
slope are particularly effective in providing
protection from winds.
South-facing slopes have higher ground temperature
due to increased solar radiation, creating a more
favorable microclimate in winter, an earlier spring
and a later fall than is the case of a north slope.
While there is no doubt that siting on south-facing
slopes reduces energy consumption in cool climates,
the quantitative effect will vary depending on local
climate, exact site conditions and other site
features.
82
Reference 78
Univ. of Minn.
Relative humidity increases with altitude because the
temperature falls although the amount of water
vapour in the air remains the same. As the air is
forced higher the temperature drops until the water
vapour condenses as cloud and rain.
Cloud base can be 185/230 m (600/750 ft)
above sea level so an upland site may often be in
he clouds. This results in more damp, misty
conditions. and a greater risk of condensation.
The air gets clearer with altitude.
~-Th_~~-~
Wind speeds are increased with
altitude. Wind at sea-level is
approximately J speed of wind at
610 m (2000'ft).
Foehn wind
E-S'
E
More rain and higher wind
speeds give a higher driving
rain index. Higher wind
speeds and lower
When wind is blowing over an
obstruction, it accelerates up the
windward slope.
temperatures give greater
wind chill.
The neare r the angle of
incidence is to 90'. the
greater th e insolation.
Temperature decreases with altitude on
On flat ground the angle of
incidence of insolation is less
than on a S-facing slope
mountain sides at a rate of 1.8/2.0*C
(3/3.3'F) per 305 m (1000 ft). (Dry
adiabatic lapse rate.)
-
Sketch illustrating how major climatic factors were modified by the
presence of sloping ground
Because the temperature is lower it is
below freezing point more often than in
lowland areas; therefore there is more
snow and it remains longer. Because of the
strong winds. there is more drifting.
Reference 1
Abbott
83
SITE ELEMENTS FOR SHADE
We can best provide shade from the sun through the
use of trees in our human settlement.
Shrubs,
walls and fences also work to reduce the summer
cooling load of our urban forms.
Siting for
shade, requires the selection of an area with
trees that are without dense branch patterns
which would interfere with solar gain in the
winter.
Typically deciduous trees are located
on the south side of the built form in order
to provide summer shade.
84
Reference 78
Univ. of Minn.
SITE ELEMENTS FOR WIND PROTECTION
Wind protection can be adequately be provided for
by solid barriers such as earth berms or fences as
well as existing and new vegetation.
These barriers
significantly affect a built forms energy needs.
Energy savings from reduced heat loss can be offered
plan
at little or no cost.
Windbreaks such as clusters
of built form or individual units can be effective
in wind protection in entire settlement designs.
85
SITE ELEMENTS FOR NATURAL VENTILATION
In the same manner that vegetation, earth berms,
fences, and walls can be used to reduce cold
trees channel
breezes
winter winds,these same elements can be used
to channel and even accelerate summer breezes.
In cooler regions, trees, shrubs, fences, walls
and earth berms on the southern side of a
trees deflect
breezes
built form can be located to channel prevailing
breezes from the southeast and the southwest
through the window openings of the house.
Site
elements on the north side of a built form have
little effect on summer breezes unless they
obstruct the openings or outlets for crossventilation.
86
Winter windbreaks should theret(ie
Reference 78
Univ. of Minn.
be placed far enough away from the house to
allow some air flow in the summer.
staggered buildings
allow for wind
penetration
Clustered buildings should be staggered to
take advantage of natural ventilation.
Locatinghousing near bodies also enhances
nautral ventilation, in addition to moderating
temperatures and providing evaporative
cooling in dry areas.
Natural ventilation is maximized simply by
proper orientation of the built unit, window
placement and elimination of any obstructions
on-site.
Site elements for natural ventilation
therefore, may be unnecessary in many cases.
87
It will however, be particularly desirable
in situations where it can correct for poor
orientation, or to help accelerate air flow.
Placement of trees to enhance natural
ventilation must be coordinated with tree
placement for shading and wind protection.
For urban forms with a substantial amount
of earth contact, which produces cooler
temperatures, natural ventilation may not
be as necessary to maintain comfort.
88
WATER AVAILABILITY AND QUALITY CONSIDERATION
Water availibility is a basic requirement for
human settlements
.
Consideration should be
given toward the ability of nearby streams to
assimilate wastes from proposed development
or the cost of the required level of work.
Reference 28
Golany
In planning human settlements, one must look
at surrounding bodies of water and identify
the uses they are capable of--water supply,
recreation, protection of aquatic life, waste
water disposal systems, and agriculture.
Discharging, even the most highly treated
wastes into surrounding lakes, reservoirs
89
or estuaries, is detrimental because such bodies
have limited self-purification capacity, and
sewage effluents stimulate acquatic growth
(i.e. bacteria).
HYDROGEOLOGY AND FLOOD HAZARDS
Good soil level and ground water conditions
are essential in building a human settlement.
Flood plain management is a good investment
and its costs are a fraction of the cost of
the damages that may be incurred without it.
Poor soil areas can be used for other nonconflicting uses,
Flood plains and fragile
wetlands can be uses for parks and agriculture.
90
Reference 28
Golany
4: building types
This chapter illustrates the variety
of building types available for the
design of ecologically-responsive
communities in a technologic age.
12~
.
91
Earth Sheltered Townhouses
92
-d
Stepped Terraced Housing
Reference 1
Abbott
93
THE ARK TWO
ARK SPACES
-
greenhouses used as
living spaces
Reference 73
Todd
THE CAPE COD ARK
94
BESS-Greenhouse
This is an example of an organic
recycling center for neighborhood
use.
95
SOLAR ENVELOPE APPLICATIONS
These diagrams are examples of solar
envelope application to the design
of built forms.
A view of the east-facing envelope shows
the high south ridge and the long slope
down to the site's north edge.
A design seen from the same direction gains
south exposure for a northern row of units
by admitting low winter rays between
tower-like shapes on the south. In this way,
much of the envelope's large bulk can be
used to achieve a density of 45 dwelling
units per acre, fifteen more than on the
other site.
96
For example, the additional width on a
north-facing site provides a very long, high
envelope ridge. Instead of facing all units to
the south, this design fills the envelope's
high ridge, thus exposing broad building
faces to the east and west. While sun control problems are thus increased, more units
can be added for a density of 43 dwelling
units per acre rather than the 30 units on a
100-ft. site with the same ridge orientation.
Reference
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42
Knowles
97
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98
Multiple-Unit Earth Sheltered Housing
Project
This project effectively illustrates
the use of attached earth sheltered
units on steep south-facing slopes.
Reference 78
Univ. of Minn.
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Earth Sheltered Community Design
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Reference 78
Univ. of Minn.
site plan
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101
Solar Housing Cluster
Reference 66
Safdie
102
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This living space demonstrates how
computer techology might influence
the form of future dwellings.
Reference 86
Wolf
104
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Urban Forms, California
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section two:
emerging trends
and innovations
109
110
EMERGING TRENDS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON URBAN FORM
This section will explore innovative trends and
technologies and their influence on urban forms
and settlement patterns.
This information,
while speculative, will be valuable in establishing new design concepts for human settlements
of the future.
The work is based on current information and
predictions of the innovative ideas moving
into all aspects of American culture.
The
impact of these new trends affects so many
factors of society that I will only be
addressing those that specifically influence
the form of our built environment.
111
There is now more than at any time in history, a
societal preoccupation to predict the trends of
the future.
Rapid advances in science and
technology are moving society into a new age of
development at a wildfire rate.
The effects of
this move have yet to be fully realized.
Daily, one may find reports in the newspapers,
magazines and on television regarding present
Reference 75
possible alternatives for our future.
Alvin
Toffler
Toffler in his latest work, describes the
history of civilization as characterized by
three major eras or waves.
112
The first wave represents the agricultural age of
development.
The first human settlements were
made possible through the invention of farming
tools and techniques.
Cultivation of the land
encouraged the once roaming nomadic tribes to
establish more permanent dwelling units.
During
this era, land became the main social measure
of power and status.
The second wave is known as the
industrial age.
The basis of the economy shifted from agriculture
to industry.
The social measure of power moved
from those who owned land to those who controlled
and owned cheap energy and resources.
Rapid
urban growth and the development of the automobile
led to the urban sprawl that now exists.
A major
characteristic of this age was the evolution of a
highly mobile society.
113
TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Toffler asserts that civilization is now entering
The third wave-- an age of technology and information, where information is power.
This age is
marked by rapid development of the computer, which
has found its way into just about every aspect of
life.
Its uses range from aiding corporate decisionmaking to biochemical research to doing one's
taxes.
Working couples are shopping by home
computer to save time and money.
Adults and
children alike use the same device, to broaden
their knowledge of everything from hobbies to
language and mathematics.
The personal computer
and home television are becoming the tools for
bringing families an increased variety of goods
114
Reference 51
Maloney
and services.
Databanks and videotext services
give individuals access to informational systems
of their choice.
Various computer-based recreational, educational,
and control services will appear in many homes in
Reference 74
Toffler
the next ten years.
The "electronic cottage" is
a prime example of the influence of emerging
trends in our technologic age.
It is a proposal
to trade transportation for telecommunication,
that is, working at home using a computer terminal.
Underlying this notion, is the belief that many
employees, especially those in white-collar jobs,
could stay at home, one or two days a week and
still perform, via the network, essentially the
115
same duties that they now do.
About ten million
workers who deal in information-- writers,
educators, accountants, lawyers- are ideally suited
for "telecommuting".
Jack Nilles, director of
information technology at the University of
Southern California's Center for Future Research,
predicts that the number of people working at home
with computers is going to double each year.
This system would demand close coupling of the
office in the home, with the conventional office.
It is difficult to imagine how such a concept would
affect one's interactions with colleagues and other
members of the family unit.
As the automobile
played a key role in the development of urban form
and pattern, telecommunications will alter present
day form.
With an increased portion of our business,
domestic and recreational activities performed at
116
Reference 51
Maloney
home, there is less dependence on physical
transport systems.
With less travel, consumers
can look forward to energy savings.
Central
cities will be faced with less congestion and
pollution in high density areas.
Individuals
will enjoy more leisure and less demands on their
time.
Teleconferencing will allow important meetings to
take place over long distances without necessary
Reference 28
Golany
travel.
Neighborhood-based systems will emerge,
with provisions for community based work stations
and neighborhood health centers.
This framework
will promote decentralization of commercial and
industrial activity.
We will witness the rebirth
of local community life and the formation of
economically-sustainable satellite communities.
117
LIFESTYLE
Current changes in American lifestyle exert an
important influence on urban form.
These factors
exist as a major element in re-thinking the design
of future household spatial requirements.
The typical American family of wage-earning husband,
homemaker wife and two children, now represents
only 7% of our household units.
By 1990, according
to the Harvard-MIT Joint Center For Urban Studies,
the number of households headed by a single person
will increase.
The married couple, although not
exactly threatened with extinction, demographically,
are barely surviving as an institution.
Out of 20
million new households established in the next
decade, only about 3 million will contain a married
couple with children at home.
118
Reference 44
Lelen
The remainder, will consist of single-parent
households, "single" people, couples and the
elderly.
The proliferation of other kinds of family
units is partly due to a 50% hike in divorced
parents with dependent children.
The increased
cost of adequate housing has also contributed
to the most startling statistic in the growth
of non-family households.
The number of
individuals living alone and non-related
Reference 46
Lovins
U.S. 1980 Census
persons dwelling together (communal living),
has leaped 71% since the 1970 U.S. Census.
For the first in this nation's history, fully
half of all households consist of only one or
two persons.
119
The design of housing in the decade will reflect
these new factors of social habits and economic
reality.
Single family houses are expected to
shrink in size, contain compact floor plans,
and sprout energy-efficient appliances.
Smaller size households may share kitchens and
living areas often under the roof of one
townhouse or modified single-family structure.
Houses may also be clustered for more efficient
use of land and community resources.
Renovation of existing homes should occur in
order to render them more ecologically/energy
efficient.
The house of the future will be
much smaller.
Instead of rooms with specific
and singular uses, multi-purpose rooms will
be created.
120
INNOVATIVE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
Because the functional systems within a city are
highly interactive, the demand for transport
will depend on the locations of residential areas,
work stations, and shopping and recreation sites.
Lifestyle variables and expenditures of residents
will depend on transport systems available.
Size
of the settlement, the demand for freight transport,
the amount of congestion and the means for
regulating congestion, need to be analyzed in
order to design a good system.
The basic objectives of a good transportation
service are to provide better transportation
than the automobile affords; to reduce the
121
impact of highways and automobiles on the
community; and to avoid the introduction of
new objectionable features such as unsightly
guideway structures, ramps, cloverleafs, and
large station parking areas.
To have a significant impact on the urban
problems created by the present overwhelming
public preference for automobiles, it is clear
that any new system must offer superior local
area service.
Matching the auto's 'door-to-door'
time implies, a short walk, immediate boarding,
a direct route to the destination, and a high
average speed.
Certain other amenities as
pleasant design, comfort, and relaxation during
travel, could also be added.
There are many transportation innovations that
can be usefully employed in conjunction with
the design of new human settlements.
122
Two
categories to be presented are those providing
access to a new settlement, and transport systems
and vehicles employable within a new settlement.
Reference 28
Golany
INTRACITY TRAVEL
1e
transportation system for new ecologically-
sponsive communities would rely mainly upon
rstems for pedestrians, cyclists, ans smallale vehicles.
Wide,
comfortable seat
11umb-controlled gearshifps
Straight-across
--- handlebars
seatheih adjuster -
Motorcycle-type brake levers
"ty,,
low-pressure fires
The City Bicycle
Total weight,28 pomds
123
The Electric Witkar
Each Witkar station includes a parking strip
for 10 cars, a current rail for automatic
contact with a vehicle, an electric charging
system and a selection pole. The choice
pole is in communication with a processor
that regulates the distribution of Witkars over
different stations.
-
124
INTERCITY TRAVEL
Needs for intercity travel will be met through
various forms of mass transit.
These include
buses, aircraft, watercraft, railways, electric
cars(automated guideway system).
Aircraft
Heliocopters and existing aircraft provide
a wide range of fast and long-range air
travel.
Reference 28
Golany
The heliocopter provides the advantage
of flexible landing and takeoff.
Watercraft
Hovercrafts, air-cushioned boats and hydrofoils
are a few of the various water transport devices
for commuting between shore to shore cities.
125
Railways
Metroliners, tube and turbo-trains provide
direct high-speed
(80 to 130 mph) rail access
*
between communities and cities.
Electric Cars
Electric cars can be used for short distances or
on automated guideway systems that provide
electricity and controlled routes.
Transport of goods and services is available
through the means of Intermodal Freight Centers.
These centers collect freight from various places
and sources, where it is tranferred to other modes
or accumulated for final shipment to other
destinations.
Freight would move during the
inactive periods of transit use.
126
Reference 32
Hanson
In larger scale cities, these and other mass
transportation systems will be used.
These
include buses and monocab systems, traditional
subway-type systems and surface systems.
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Reference 32
Hanson
128
PART TWO:
TOWARD AN
ECOLOGICALLY- RESPONSIVE
FUTURE
129
130
section one:
constructing a future
scenario
131
132
1: developing a regional plan
This regional plan is an attempt to develop a new
morphology for human settlements.
The concept is
based on developing an optimal efficiency and
ecology of land use.
It utilizes principles for
attaining ecologic balance and energy efficiency.
The regional plan aims to create a satisfactory
hierarchy of lifestyle and opportunity levels
available to all citizens of the region.
Present urban development has limited the amount
of land currently available for human use.
Large
expanses of paved surfaces and cleared land have
deteriorated the watershed and increased runoff.
133
The automobile has been the most influential
factor in creating the urban sprawl we evidence
today.
Its flexibility and convenience has
led to its present domination as a means of
transportation and shaper of urban form.
One of the primary concerns in the development
of a regional plan is to provide an alternative
to this means of transportation.
By providing
an alternative to this conventional, yet wasteful
means of transport, we can hope to influence
urban settlement patterns toward a more efficient
and rewarding use of urban space.
As is true of any ecologically-derived system, a
network of varied and diverse transportation
options are provided.
134
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Satellite Cities
A satellite settlement concept is formulated.
A
central city for our future scenario serves as
the nucleus of this concept.
be Boston.
For our plan it will
The central city is the region of
planning agencies, business and cultural centers,
concentration of government and central educational
institutions.
Connected to the central city are
a number of satellite mini-cities--Lowell,
Framingham, Worcester, Lexington and Peabody.
Surrounding them, is a series of small sustainable
villages.
136
This plan is realized through a poly-centric
pattern of urban centers, each of which would
be related in differing ways to a nucleated
and partly self-contained unit of development.
A new community created within this framework
would offer its citizens a good choice of
localized work and social opportunities.
By being mobile in an urbanized area, they
have a choice to seek satisfaction within the
central of the urban complex.
The regional approach satellite concept creates
urban environments closely attuned to natural
environment.
It is a system based on the natural
cycles of the sun, wind, water and soil.
It
provides its inhabitants with a desired interactive
137
urban life, while satisfying essential needs for
greenspace and countryside.
This regional
alternative disperses urban growth through selfcontained, efficient satellite communities
separated by agricultural and natural woodlands.
The agricultural development of each satellite
limits
the need for mass transport of most goods
(i.e. foodstuffs).
Such a regional plan establishes satellite
communities and "mini-cities" with detailed
mass transit networks excluding the use of
the automobile as we know it.
The many new
innovations in the area of transportation
mentioned earlier in section two of Part One
of this work, give us the materials to create
a system of this caliber.
138
Reference 32
Hanson
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While the concept of the private car may exist, the
use would be primarily for recreational purposes.
Its features will be similar to electic or
hovercraft type vehicles.
They would not however
be available for use within the community.
Computer-controlled predefined transit paths or
lanes existing outside the settlement would be
available for these vehicles to visit other
other "mini-cities" or the central city, Boston.
Switching to a manual mode would make possible
travel to more varied destinations.
Spontaneous
jaunts to specific areas would also utilize this
idea of public "private" cars.
Conservative use
of this vehicle is encouraged.
Bicycle and electric car network, and pedestrian
pathways exist within the settlement.
140
The new
f
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form of settlement patterns will respond according
to this transport system.
The central city itself, must utilize energyefficient and environmentally-sound practices to
become as sustainable as possible.
Urban block
farms can be created to better utilize land plots
situated between urban blocks.
The amount of paved
area is greatly reduced yielding more land for
purposes of cooperative agribusiness and recreation.
Special zoning requirements are established
restricting the construction of built forms which
obstruct solar access.
The city is fueled by a
series of decentralized energy-support systems-biomass, biofuel, wind energy,photovoltaics, and
golar heating and cooling.
142
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143
Work Force
In response to basic ecologic principles and
available technological innovations, redevelopment
of the work force will occur.
The effects upon type
of employment available, work hours, and wage
payment will be relative to each respective
settlement.
Some adjustment in the trades system will be made.
Many new jobs will be created that benefit the
collective settlement.
Reforestation teams,
operators of biomass facilities,wastesystems and
energy services, and transportational services.
System maintenance must have trained personnel,
in addition to the collection of contributors from
all segments of the settlement.
144
Reference 75
Toffler
Agricultural concerns will grow and barter
systems will thrive in this cooperative.
The need for a centralized work force will be
reduced by the advancements of telecommunications.
Large corporations will easily establish
neighborhood work stations, utilizing the
communications network outlined in section two of
Part One.
Many people will be able to work from
their ecologically-responsive homes via a
telecommunications network.
They may opt to travel
to nearby community work-stations.
The development
of a shorter work week, more varied time schedules
and curtailed work hours at peak efficiency will
mean more jobs and more leisure time for community
tasks and enjoyment.
145
The regional plan disperses the urban growth and
density of the central city (Boston), to "minicities", in this case Lowell, Massachusetts.
Agricultural and natural woodland areas act as
physical boundaries.
These satellite cities will
have the potential of sustaining themselves through
renewable energy systems, neighborhood health
centers, energy-efficiency, food production and
and a viable economic base.
Major medical centers,
cultural events, recreational shopping and dining
will be located in the central city.
It is the regional plan's goal to forge a pattern
that retains the best of the high technological,
urban, information-oriented/telecommunications
culture, while renewing people's sense of place
and their connection to the basic rituals involved
in an active participation in the natural cycles
of life.
146
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147
148
2: designing a prototypical community
Satellite Community
A modern community designed to sustain a high
quality life based on ecological balance and
efficient energy use.
Location:
south of mini-city Lowell, Massachusetts
Feasibility:
combines sensible land planning and
proven technologies in a committment
to a secure future based on renewable
energy sources
Site Information:
Topography **
Hilly densely
forested
Deciduous and Coniferous
Trees and Shrubs
Suitable variety of wildlife
Sites for urban forms on southfacing slopes.
Climate **
North Temperate Zone
In summer, S-W wind
winter, N-W wind
Site Design Relates to Climate
149
zoning:
Zoning for solar access, utilization
of solar envelopes
Density Workable Toward Ecological
Balance of Site
Bio-Regional Plan-- map determines area
of development and preservation, as
well as industrial and commercial use
Allows for diversity of design
Housing: Variety of adequate designs
Clustered for more efficient use of land
and community resources --rebirth of
community life, shared public space
Semi-Cooperative Living / Density 5-15
units/ acre
Compact Floor Plans, Multi-Purpose Rooms
Neighborhood
Center:
Day Care, Health Care
Seniors, Pre-School Toddlers
Industrial, Cultural and Recreational
Centers also exist.
Combining Work and Living Space
Bicycle Paths, Pedestrian Aids, Small
Electric Vehicles for Automated Guideway
Heliocopters
Transportation:
All Destinations Are Within A Short Walk
Private Cars (present day auto) is banned
Within Site
150
WORK: People Working on Site and Neighborhood
Work Stations due to TelecommunicationsSystem Network
High Technology Industry and Information
Services
Manufacturer of Solar-Related Products
New Work Styles/ Job Titles
ENERGY:
Solar- Photovoltaics, Solar Ponds
Biomass as a supplemental heat source
Biofuels--from methane
Wind
AGRICULTURE:
Prime foodstuffs from local area
Household, Neighborhood and
Community Farming
Increased Use of Land for Urban
Farming
HEALTHY ENVIRONMENT:
Marsh and Pond for Wildlife
and Birds
Recreation, Fish Farming
Natural Trails and Open Space
for Hiking and Biking.
151
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166
3: reshaping existing settlements
This chapter looks at the existing urban
environment and the changes it will undergo as
part of the regional scenario.
The existing cities, having replaced the automobile
with a highly-efficient mass transit network will
become pedestrianized promoting an enhanced quality
of life.
The suburbs will also benefit from the replacement
of the automobile.
Vast paved surfaces will be
converted to valuable recreational and food
producing areas.
The following examples show how urban environments
and suburban communities can evolve into more
ecologically-responsive human settlements.
167
The existing situation
168
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...the alternative
Reference 25
Franzen
169
Pedestrianized Urban Streets
Reference 90
Hosken
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Franzen
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The Evolution of a Surburban Block
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CONCLUSION
This work has provided a collection of ideas and
examples that present an optimistic view of our
future environment.
The examples chosen in this
last section are, but a few of the many alternatives
available today, and of the many yet to be explored
as we move into an age of high technologic
innovation.
The conclusion to this work does not bring this
topic to an end.
It is, on the contrary, a place
for the ideas espoused, to begin to create the
impetus for their implementation.
179
An ecologically-responsive urban will not emerge
without a committment to, and a conscious effort
for its creation.
The move towards an energy-
efficient, balanced urban environment will require
a restructuring of our established settlement
patterns.
New zoning ordinances need to be delineated which
provide for solar access and efficient site
orientation.
Building codes must be altered to
optimize the efficiency and energy use of built
forms.
An overall national policy must be reached
that recognizes the needs and desires of the public
to shape our political, economic and social
ideologies so that it may ensure a future which
uses technologic innovation to produce an
ecological balance in our environments and
maximizes the quality of our lives and those of
future generations.
180
Some towns and cities have begun to implement
new ideas and alternative solutions in planning
their communities.
They serve as good examples
of specific ways of achieving high quality urban
environments.
Reference 65
When Davis, California was threatened by suburban
sprawl and multiple traffic demands, the city
council made a decision to limit the city's growth.
A decision to conserve energy resulted in an
ordinance approved by the city council and aimed
at achieving conservation by establishing a set of
performance standards
for the construction of
buildings.
181
In Seattle, Washington, the use of nuclear power
to meet energy needs was rejected.
Energy
conservation was the chosen alternative.
This
approach developed new building codes aimed at
achieving efficient construction and higher
densities.
It also rethought existing transport-
ation policies.
Seattle is currently considering
a free bus system for its downtown areas in order
to cut down on automobile use in its cities.
Much publicity has been sponsored to promote the
use of conservation measures in the home.
The city council has expanded its efforts to
conserve energy by encouraging the use of bicycles.
It has provided a complex of special paths and
bike lanes on public roads to direct this change.
Davis' City Hall maintains its own fleet of
bicycles for employees who need to travel about
on the job.
182
Other cities throughout the nation are experimenting
with alternative energy sources.
In Clayton, New
Mexico they are using wind power to produce a
substantial amount of electricity.
In Burlington,
Vermont they are experimenting with wood power, and
in Ames, Iowa they have pioneered a system for
producing energy from refuse.
The benefits of such environmental programming
schemes are clear.
Continual exploration and
future developments can only add to our expertise
in designing ecologically-responsive urban forms
for human settlements in our future.
It is my
hope that this work will promote the interest
and provide the direction for the achievement of
urban environments built in harmony with nature
and providing an enhanced quality of life.
183
184
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