Chapter Eighteen
Sexual Images and Selling Sex
Agenda
Erotic Representations in History
Sexuality in the Media and the Arts
Graphic Images: Pornography and the
Public’s Response
Selling Sex
Discussion
 There is the belief that “sex sells” so
advertisers use it to market products.
Discuss examples of advertisements that
rely on sexuality for marketing.
Does “sex sell”?
Erotic Representations in
History
Overview
 Early cave drawings contain naked or scantily
clad people
 Great ancient civilizations have drawings of
erotic images
 Erotic images were in most cultures through
history, with varying degrees of tolerance
Some had numerous, public erotic images
Pompeii
Others worked to cover indecency
The Invention of Pornography
 Most sexual representations throughout
history had a specific purpose
 Pornography portrays sexuality for its own
sake; some create it, others try to stop it
 Began in the mid-18th century when it began
to become a separate sphere of life & the
printing press was invented
 Erotica is sexual representations that are not
pornographic; depends on the observer
Sexuality in the Media and
the Arts
Erotic Literature: The Power of the
Press
Television and Film: Stereotypes, Sex,
and the Decency Issue
Advertising: Sex Sells and Sells
Other Media: Music Videos, Virtual
Reality, and More
Sexuality in the Media and the Arts
 Sexuality exists in almost all of our media
 Explicit or subtle sexuality has been
increasing in the mass media within the last
25 years
Erotic Literature: The Power of the
Press
 Societal forces, usually the clergy, censored
nudity in public art
 In the 16th century, many began to censor
sexual art & literature, which seems to have
started the pornographic subculture that
exists today
 The erotic novel started pornography as a
business & provoked responses from religion
& government
Television and Film: Stereotypes, Sex,
and the Decency Issue
 TV greatly influences the modern American
outlook toward life
 TV sanitizes & edits the world it displays
 In sexual situations, real life issues such as
contraception, STIs, morality, sexual
dysfunctions, & regret are rarely discussed
 Most major networks have been increasing
sexual content throughout their programming
It is believed sex sells
Continued …
Television and Film: Stereotypes, Sex,
and the Decency Issue
 70% of shows contain some sexual content
 Shows average 5 sexual episodes per hour
 During primetime, 77% of shows contain
sexual content and average 6 sexual
episodes per hour
 11% of primetime network shows refer to
sexual risks & responsibilities
 Some shows can help educate the public
about sex
Television, Film, and Minority Sexuality
 Television lacks much exposure of same-sex
behavior and portrayals of the elderly, the
disabled, and racial & ethnic minorities
 African American roles have been increasing
lately, however, roles for Asian Americans,
Latinos, & Native Americans are less
common
Television, Film, and Gender
 Sexual information on TV is both explicit and
implicit
 Men are often in positions of leadership
 Women, even if in high positions, are sexual
temptations
 Gender stereotyping is especially extreme in
TV commercials
Continued …
Television, Film, and Gender
 Soap operas are the least stereotypical TV
programming
They target women & portray them as
competent
 News programs rely primarily on male
experts
 Female roles are most absent in children’s
television
Television and Children
 2-5 year olds watch 28 hours per week
 Teenagers watch 22 hours per week
 When children see nonstereotyped
behaviors, their stereotypes are reduced
 Many children’s shows lack female roles and
have stereotyped roles for men & women
 TV executives believe if a show features a
female lead, boys will not watch it; however,
girls will watch shows with male leads
Television and Children
 Research shows that sexual stereotyping is
greater with more TV viewing in children
 The more hours teens watch, the more likely
they believe their peers are sexually active
Class Discussion
 Research about prime television suggests
that 77% of shows contain sexual content and
average 6 sexual episodes per hour.
 On average, children watch more than 20
hours of television per week.
 How might this content influence children?
The Movement against the Sexualization of
the Visual Media
 Most Americans want stronger regulation of
sexual content & profanity
 Some movies have multiple versions that vary
in the amount of sexual content
 The movie industry has been reducing the
amount of sexual explicitness in their general
releases
 Some argue that G- and PG-rated releases
make more than R-rated movies
Advertising: Sex Sells and
Sells
Advertising and Gender Role
Portrayals
Advertising and Portrayals of Sexuality
Advertising: Sex Sells and Sells
 Advertising is a modern invention that
permeates our life
 Children see 40,000 advertisements on TV
each year
Advertising and Gender Role
Portrayals
 Ads do not show realistic representations of
men & women, but how they think we behave
 Men: taller, standing, confident, authoritative
 Women: shorter, sitting, childlike, deferential
 Men are presented in 3 times the job
categories as women, women are often in the
home
 Male spokespersons are used for female
products, but rarely the other way around
Advertising and Portrayals of Sexuality
 Advertising has 3 purposes:
Gain attention
Get you physiologically excited
Associate the excitement with the product
 Sexuality has been used to sell products
since the early 1900s
 Some sexual portrayals are blatant, others
are suggestive or subliminal
Debate surrounds the efficacy of subliminal
Other Media: Music Videos, Virtual Reality,
and More
 Internet allows sexually explicit
conversations, art works, & computer games
 Virtual reality has provided sexually explicit
movies with vibrators attached to the groin to
make the technological experience more
realistic
Graphic Images:
Pornography and the
Public’s Response
Defining Obscenity
The Pornography Debates: Free
Speech and Censorship
Studies on Pornography and Harm
Online Pornography
What the Public Thinks about
Pornography
Class Discussion
 The internet is unregulated so children may
be exposed to sexually explicit material.
 Should families try to shield children from
sexuality on the internet?
Graphic Images: Pornography and the
Public’s Response
 There is almost limitless access to
pornography
 Many disagreements exist from:
free-speech advocates
antiporn & anti-antiporn feminists
religious groups
presidential commissions
American Civil Liberties Union
pornography industry
Court Decisions
 The First Amendment allows for the “freedom
of speech”, though the meaning has been
debated
 U.S. court has a 3-part definition of obscenity:
Appeal to prurient interest
Offend contemporary community
standards
Lack serious literary, artistic, political, or
scientific value
1970 Commission on Obscenity and
Pornography
 Based on empirical research
 Studied four areas:
Pornography’s effects
Traffic & distribution of pornography
Legal issues
Positive approaches to cope with
pornography
1970 Commission on Obscenity and
Pornography
 No reliable evidence was found that
supported exposure to explicit sexual
materials is related to criminal behavior
among adults or youth
 Adults should be able to choose what they
will read
 Did not distinguish types of erotica
 The U.S. Senate was not happy with the
findings
Continued …
1986 Attorney General’s Commission
on Pornography
 Official goal: find “more effective ways in
which the spread of pornography could be
contained”; assumed it was dangerous
 Listened to experts, laypeople, & selectively
chose research studies
 Researchers that were cited in support of the
commission condemned the report
 Came to the opposite conclusion of the 1970
commission & made some recommendations
Antipornography Arguments
 Pornography undermines family, authority, &
society’s morals and should be contained
 Antipornography feminists see it as a way to
silence & assault women, reinforce male
dominance, & encourage abuse against
women
 Some believe pornography is more about
power than sex
Anticensorship Arguments
 Restriction of pornography will lead to a
society ruled by censorship and the ability to
try to challenge sexual stereotypes
 Anticensorship feminists believe censoring
will lead to censorship of feminist writing &
gay erotica
 It is not clearly shown that pornography
actually harms women
Class Discussion
 Compare the antipornography arguments to
the anticensorship arguments.
Respond to the concern that pornography
undermines family, authority, & society’s
morals
Respond to the concern that restriction of
pornography will lead to a society ruled by
censorship and the ability to try to
challenge sexual stereotypes
Society-wide Studies
 No study has reliably determined how much
pornography the “average” sex offender or
non-offender has in their home
 Rape rates in the U.S. are highest in places
with the highest circulation of sex magazines
 Low rates of rape in Denmark (no laws) &
Japan (pornography is sold freely)
 Gender equality is higher in states with higher
circulation rates of sexually explicit material
Individual Studies
 Little evidence that non-violent, sexually
explicit films provoke antifemale reactions in
men
 Many studies show violent or degrading
pornography does influence attitudes
It is unsure how long these attitudes last
and if they influence behavior
Male aggression tends to increase after
seeing any violent movie
Online Pornography
 69% of U.S. internet spending is for sex
related products
 Internet allows anonymity & accessibility
 1/3 of internet users visit sexual websites,
typically men
83% are recreational users
11% are at-risk users (increasingly drawn)
6% are compulsive users
68% lost interest in sex with their partner
What the Public Thinks about
Pornography
 Many are ambivalent, though most want to
ban violent pornography because they
believe it can lead to a loss of respect for
women
 The pornography industry continues to do
well in the U.S.
Selling Sex
Defining Prostitution
Sociological Aspects of Prostitution
Who Becomes a Prostitute?
Female Prostitutes
Male Prostitutes
Adolescent Prostitutes
Other Players in the Business
Prostitution: Effects and Cultural
Differences
Class Discussion
 The internet provides virtual access to a
variety of sexual interests. Sexually explicit
sites seem to be the most popular and most
purchases on the internet are made at
sexually explicit sites.
 Is there a difference between “virtual” sexual
encounters and face-to-face sexual
encounters?
 Why should prostitution should be legalized?
 Why should prostitution remain illegal?
Defining Prostitution
 A representative sample is difficult to obtain,
as the size of the population is unknown
 U.S. legal code is ambiguous about what
prostitution is, & each state has its own codes
 Prostitution, according to your text, is the act
of a male or female engaging in sexual
activity in exchange for money or other
material goods
Sociological Aspects of Prostitution
 It is suggested prostitution developed from
the patriarchal nature of most societies
 Women exploit the only asset that cannot be
taken away – their sexuality
 From an economic standpoint – they are
giving something that is free to them
Who Becomes a Prostitute?
 Estimated 2 million prostitutes in the U.S.
 Most do it for the money
 Major drawback is having sex with clients
 Most do not enjoy their work, but like the
freedom it offers
 If they enjoyed sex with their clients, it would
get in their way to focus on the client’s
pleasure
 Most work full-time and 49% of their clients
are repeat customers
 A “regular” visits at least once a week
Female Prostitutes
 Average age of entry into prostitution is 14
 75% are less than 25
 Most are single
 Often they live with other prostitutes and a
pimp in a pseudofamily with assigned
household responsibilities
 95% use drugs
 Entry into prostitution usually is a gradual
process & they become accustomed to it
Predisposing Factors
 Economically deprived upbringing, though
studies may concentrate on poorer women
 Early sexual contact with many partners in
superficial relationships
 Victim of sexual and/or physical abuse and/or
rape
 Intrafamilial violence
 Lack of early sex education
Types of Female Prostitution
 Streetwalkers (20%)
 Bar Prostitutes (15%)
 Hotel Prostitutes (10%)
 Brothel Prostitutes (15%)
 Massage Parlor Prostitutes (25%)
 Escorts
 Call Girls and Courtesans (15%)
 Other Types of Prostitutes
Streetwalkers
 Setting: street corners or transportation stops;
then go to an alley, car, or cheap hotel room
 Prices: $10-$50
 Safety: most dangerous
 May try to hustle for more money by
suggesting more expensive activities
 They usually have a pimp
Bar Prostitutes
 Setting: bars
 Prices: $20-$100
 Safety: more protection from violence &
police
 They work for the bar owner
try to build up the bar tab
give the bar manager 40-50%
Hotel Prostitutes
 Setting: hotel
 Hotel patrons are referred by a bellboy or
hotel manager, who takes 50-60% of the
earnings
Brothel Prostitutes
 Setting: home or apartment shared with other
prostitutes
 Prices: $20-$100 and more; $2 per minute
 Safety: more protection than the street
 The brothel is run by a madam or pimp
 Nevada is the only state with some counties that
have legal brothels
 Prostitutes have ID cards, regular STI checks
 The client can order from a “menu” and pick girls
from a lineup, then enter a private room
 Typically $2 per minute
 Intercourse is $30-$40
 Oral sex is $50+
 Brothel owner takes 40-50% of the earnings
Massage Parlor Prostitutes
 Setting: massage parlor
 Prices: $20-$50
 Safety: more protection with security guards
 The massage parlor acts as if they are
unaware of the sexual activity, though they
take some of the earnings
 Most commonly fellatio and/or intercourse is
performed
Escorts
 Setting: escort service provides dates that
occur off premises
 Prices: vary widely
 Escort services do not have to take
responsibility for sexual activities because
they do not occur on their premises
Call Girls and Courtesans
 Setting: a variety of settings
 Prices: can be up to $1000 or more per night
 These high-class prostitutes are often
contacted by phone and work by the hour or
evening
 Courtesans exchange sex for expensive gifts
Male Prostitutes
 Gigolos – male prostitutes who serve women
Typically younger then their clients
 Hustlers – male prostitutes who serve men;
may be heterosexual otherwise
 50% of male prostitutes are homosexual
 25% are heterosexual
 25% are bisexual
 Tend to enter prostitution by age 16, with
most between 16 & 29 and white
Continued …
Male Prostitutes
 Male prostitutes have mentors, or
sugardaddies
 Several behaviors are practiced:
99% perform fellatio
80% have anal sex
63% practice rimming
Some engage in water sports and/or S & M
Predisposing Factors
 Prostitution is done mainly for the money
 Early childhood experience & homosexual
orientation are related to prostitution
 They tend to have fewer career aspirations
 May be addicted to drugs or alcohol
 Tend to have more psychopathology
 Are more suspicious, mistrustful, hopeless,
lonely, & lack meaningful relationships
 Most live alone
Street and Bar Hustlers
 Street
Setting: solicit clients on the street or in
parks
Price: $10-$25
Most begin with street hustling, but
eventually move into bars to avoid the
danger on the streets
 Bar
Price: $50-$75
Escorts
 Price: $150-$200
 Date is arranged and the escort agency
keeps 40%
 This group is the least likely to be arrested
 Call boys keep a small group of clients & are
in business for themselves
Transsexual and Transvestite
Prostitutes
 More common among male-to-female
transsexuals than female-to-male
 Most are homosexual males, but some are
she-males
developing breasts but have not gone
through sex reassignment surgery, thus still
have a penis
Adolescent Prostitutes
 Prostitution offers runaways a way to earn
money and be on their own
85% become involved with prostitution
 Some start while living at home
 Many have been sexually abused & have
psychological problems
 Pimps pray on runaways at transportation
stops and offer friendship & potential love
Continued…
Adolescent Prostitutes
 At first, there are no sexual demands
 He buys her things & makes her feel indebted
 He asks her to prove her love by selling sex
 She agrees once, which starts a cycle
 The pimp works to break down self-esteem &
increase feelings of helplessness
The Pimp
 Not all prostitutes have pimps
 Pimps offer prostitutes protection in exchange
for money
 The pimp usually acts as money manager
and recruits prostitutes into his “stable”
 Many pimps feel powerful & enjoy their job
The Client
 Also called johns, tricks, kerb crawlers
 Freud believed their motivation came from a
need to be with an inferior or “bad” woman
 Jung thought it tied to an unconscious
archetype, such as the “Great Mother”, which
includes feelings of hatred & sexuality
 They are usually solicited in their cars or on
street corners; also hotels & transportation
stops
Continued …
The Client
 Reasons they hire prostitutes: guaranteed
sex, no risk of rejection, more control, have
undivided attention, no other sexual outlets,
handicaps, adventure, curiosity, loneliness,
build their ego, travel a lot, turned on by the
illicit nature, avoid commitments, their wives
won’t perform a certain act, or they don’t want
to ask their wives to do something “kinky”
Continued …
The Client
 Clients engage in several behaviors:
81% receive fellatio
55% had sexual intercourse
Others had both or mutual masturbation
S & M is the most common “kinky”
behavior
Others: dress as a woman, watch
masturbation, rubber fetishes
Continued …
The Client
 Most clients are white, middle-class, married,
30-60 year old men
 Recent research suggests most clients are
not married or unhappily married
 Many tend to be regular or repeat customers
 75% that seek male prostitutes also seek
females
 They are not concerned with police because
they usually arrest prostitutes, not clients
The Government: Prostitution and the
Law
 Although illegal, it exists in large U.S. cities
 Legalization of prostitution is primarily
blocked because it is viewed as immoral by
most people
 However, most Americans believe the
benefits of legalized prostitution should be
examined
Lower STI rates, less disorderly conduct,
$20 billion per year in taxes
Continued …
The Government: Prostitution and the
Law
 Many, especially women, see prostitution as
exploiting & keeping women subordinate
 Men tend to favor legalizing prostitution
 Although some Nevada counties allow legal
brothels, they cannot advertise for prostitutes
 Crackdowns on prostitution can drive it
further underground
 COYOTE – prostitutes’ rights group; it should
be respected as a career choice
Prostitution: Effects and
Cultural Differences
Prostitution and Sexually Transmitted
Infections
Life After Prostitution
Prostitution in Other Cultures
Prostitution and Sexually Transmitted
Infections
 Prostitutes try to minimize their risk by using
condoms, rejecting clients with obvious STIs,
& routinely taking antibiotics
Antibiotics can create resistant strains &
can’t fight viral infections
 Most common mode of acquiring HIV:
homosexual male prostitutes: receptive
anal intercourse without a condom
female prostitutes: IV drug use
Continued …
Prostitution and Sexually Transmitted
Infections
 Male prostitutes are more likely to practice
high risk sexual behaviors
 Outside the U.S., increasing condom use &
AIDS education have been important
Life After Prostitution
 Prostitutes typically leave after 4-5 years
they are ready,
their appearance is deteriorating, or
an addiction
 Often they lack money and skills
 Some seek psychotherapy to deal, others
may be in & out of prison due to shoplifting or
robbery
 Some may commit suicide
Prostitution in Other Cultures
 Prostitution is worldwide
 Comfort girls – women forced into brothels for
Japanese soldiers
 Hospitality girls – women forced into brothels
in the Philippines
 Thailand – organized “sex tours”
A government STD monitoring system
100% condom use program
Belief in reincarnation reduces fear of death
Prostitution in Other Cultures
 Amsterdam, Holland – red light district filled
with sex shops, adult shows, and street &
window prostitutes
Prostitution is loosely regulated
 Cuba – jineteros exchange sex for clothing or
luxuries from tourists
Government has encouraged prostitution
 New Zealand – prostitution is not illegal, but
solicitation areas are restricted