The Rimrock Report THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA, SCHOOL OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE ENVIRONMENT January 2015 Volume 8, Issue 1 Microbes These microscopic organisms form an entire world composed of species, families and varieties whose history, which has barely begun to be written, is already fertile in prospects and findings of the highest importance. The names of these organisms are very numerous and will have to be defined and in part discarded. The word microbe which has the advantage of being shorter and carrying a more general meaning, and of having been approved by my illustrious friend, M. Littré, the most competent linguist in France, is one we will adopt. Louis Pasteur, March 1878 Most of us are aware of the word “pasteurization”. We drink pasteurized milk without a second thought. For most of us it is probably just a word. Or, you may recall from school that this is the process of heating milk to reduce the number of micro-organisms such as bacteria, which cause spoilage and possibly disease, without adversely affecting taste, as would result from complete sterilization. Do you also remember that the name for the process comes from the 19th century French scientist Louis Pasteur? He who is known in medical fields for his work in “germ theory” and is responsible for anthrax and rabies vaccines, is also recognized for significant practical agriculturerelated discoveries. His pasteurization process was originally developed to prevent wine from spoiling; an important application for an economically significant export in his native country. Although he was not the first to experiment with heating food and beverage products prior to storage (the Chinese knew about this in the 1100’s), he linked the presence of micro-organisms to the problem, his process proved commercially doable, and the rest as they say, is history. Quite the interdisciplinary and translational scientist. I found these excerpts from Pasteur’s biography on Encyclopedia.com interesting: “To an extent, Pasteur’s interest in practical problems evolved naturally from his basic research, especially that on fermentation, for the biological theory of fermentation contained obvious implications for industry.” Inside this issue: Microbes 2-5 Chris’s Hot Topic of Range: Biological Soil Crust 6-8 Lisa’s Class is Outside Today 9 - 12 Plant of the “Week” 13 - 15 The View From the Rim 16 Just Me Talking 16 “...microorganisms make up about 60% of the biomass on Earth...” The Rimrock Report Microbes...continued “In December 1854 Pasteur was named professor of chemistry and dean of the newly established Faculty of Sciences at Lille. Located at the center of the most flourishing industrial region in France, it was designed in part to bring science to the service of local industry. While resisting any emphasis on applied subjects at the expense of basic science, Pasteur strongly supported this goal and sought to link industry and the Faculty of Sciences in his own courses and activities” “...he went regularly to the beetroot alcohol factory of M. Bigo, seeking the cause of and remedies for recent disappointments in the quality of that product” So, he did basic science and applied what he discovered to solve practical problems? ... and spent time out of the lab working with the public? ... and then incorporated this knowledge in the classroom? Brilliant... we should try that. Ok, just a little rant there to plug land grant schools while on a side trail about one of my scientific hero’s. But the purpose is to lead us to the topic at hand – microbes. Let’s continue with what we have done in the past couple Rimrock Report articles and delve into the scientific background on microbes to begin. Microbes (microscopic organisms) are just as their name implies; very small living things that can only be seen with a microscope. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek of the Netherlands and Englishman Robert Hooke were pioneers in microscope development in the 1600’s. Hooke was the first to use the term “cell” in biology and van Leeuwenhoek was first accredited with observing single-celled organisms. Microbes include several categories such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. Table 1 illustrates the taxonomy of a bacterium. We can also classify microbes in a number of different ways. For instance, they may or may not have a nucleus; prokaryotes (Archaea and bacteria) are microbes without a nucleus. Some microbes are eukaryotes, in which the cells’ genetic material is contained Table 1. Taxonomic classification hierarchy for an example rumen bacteria. Kingdom Bacteria Phylum Firmicutes Class Clostridia Order Clostridiales Family Ruminococcacae Genus Ruminococcus Species Flavefaciens Page 2 Volume 8, Issue 1 Microbes...continued within a membrane. Another classification is based upon acquisition of nutrition; autotrophs make their own food while heterotrophs consume other organisms. Some microbes require oxygen (obligate aerobes), others use oxygen if available but do not require it (facultative anaerobes), and still others live in the absence of oxygen (anaerobes). It is estimated that micro-organisms make up about 60% of the biomass on Earth. In fact if you count them individually, there are more microbes on your hand (~7 billion) than there are people on the entire planet. In a single teaspoon of soil there could be as many as 1 billion bacteria. And here is a newsflash... most microbes do not make us sick. In fact it is quite the contrary. Keep reading. Micro-organisms get a lot of bad press. Due in large part to Pasteur’s work, we all know that germs cause disease and that we should wash our hands before we eat, as well as sterilize surgical instruments, etc... Bad actors such as Escherichia coli 0157:H7, generically known as “E. coli” can cause vomiting and bloody diarrhea. This is one reason I prefer to eat hamburgers well done. I guess Dr. Vanderzant made an impression on me in food microbiology class way back when. The fact that it was at 11am MWF probably helped. He also had a lot of really “cool” pictures. It is a good thing we did not have “smell-a-vision”. But anyway...Yes, even though E. coli is a naturally occurring bacteria in cattle, research tells us that good management and proper food handling, including full cooking, basically removes the risk. But I am not here to “bad mouth” microbes, rather I am going to do a little cheerleading for them. Agriculturally speaking, microbes are responsible for helping us create products such as cheese, vinegar, yogurt, and sauerkraut. In fact, cheese making may have been discovered accidentally around the time sheep were domesticated by storing milk in a container made from the stomach. The rumen would probably have still contained a few bacteria which produce lactic acid via fermentation of lactose, the abomasum would have rennet, an enzyme complex that coagulates caseinogen into casein in the milk, resulting in curds and whey. Then you press the curds into a form and so on and end up with cheese. By the way, did you know that Lactococcus lactis, a common lactic acid bacterium involved in cheese making, was nominated as the state microbe of Wisconsin? Apparently it passed the house but did not pass the senate. Now it looks like Oregon has become the first state to have an official microbe. What say you Arizona? Let’s get back on track now. Speaking of ruminants, let’s pick up on a statement I made in the previous issue of the Rimrock Report. Specifically: “... when we go out to feed our livestock or manage foraging habitat for wild herbivores, we are really feeding the microbes first.” We were talking about the symbiotic relationship between rumen microbes and the host animal. Recall that mammals do not possess the enzyme cellulase which breaks down fiber in plant material. Feed that enters the rumen is first exposed to chemical digestion from bacteria, protozoa and fungi. Fermentation by these microbes releases volatile fatty acids (acetate, propionate, butyrate) which provide a major source of energy to the host, absorbed directly through the rumen wall. Depending on the ratio of sack lunches to box lunches, the rumen microbes will break down about 50 to 80% of the digestible organic matter. In this process, the microbe populations grow and produce biomass. They then pass on to the true stomach (abomassum) where they are digested to become food for the host. Nutritionists refer to this as microbial protein. So, next time you are out in the snow pitching hay, enjoying the glamorous, romantic cowboy life; instead of maybe dozens or hundreds of cows... just think of the billions and billions of Page 3 The Rimrock Report Microbes...continued bacteria you are helping. It will give you a warm feeling in your gut. And speaking of your gut; that is one of the places where microbes participate in our mammalian metabolic and immune systems. To start, the lower gut microbes provide nutrition in the form of volatile fatty acids again. Butyrate in particular is metabolized by cells lining the colon (i.e. the epithelium). Microbial action here also provides vitamins B and K and assists in the absorption of minerals such as calcium and magnesium. But it may surprise you to know that helpful gut microbes simply take up space and prevent harmful species from colonizing or at least proliferating to significant numbers. They may also out-compete pathogenic bacteria for nutrients and can lower the pH through fermentation and release of acid by-products. It turns out that many of the harmful bacteria prefer a higher pH. Additionally, these helpful organisms promote development of mucosal lymph tissue in the intestines and the expression of receptors that help discriminate between “good” and “bad” bacteria. Both of these functions are essential to the hosts’ immune capabilities. So, more than making us (or our animals) sick, microbes help keep us healthy. We could teach a whole graduate class on all of this, but I think by now you are pretty well grounded on the subject. Speaking of grounded; what about microbes in the soil? Glad you asked. They are important there too. Soil microbes in general play a vital role in nutrient cycles, breaking down plant and animal material. There are numerous other specific functions. Take the Mycorrhizae for instance. They are mutualistic fungi, forming a relationship with plants in the rhizospere ( root system). Here, the fungi are provided with carbohydrates and their mycelium (network of long fibers) greatly increase the absorptive capacity of the root for water and minerals. Plants with mycorrhizae are more drought and disease tolerant than plants without the fungi. Glomalin is a glycoprotein (combination of sugar and protein) produced by arbuscular mycorrhizae. It is sometimes called “soil glue”. Discovered in 1996 by USDA scientist Sara Wright, glomalin is a large portion of soil organic matter, stores carbon and nitrogen, and contributes to aggregate stability. Legumes have a well known symbiotic relationship with soil bacteria called Rhizobia. It is an interesting chain of events. When a legume encounters low nitrogen conditions it releases compounds called flavinoids which attract rhizobia. The bacteria produce a nodulation factor which causes deformed root hairs that the rhizobia use to gain access to the root. There the nodule forms and as above, the microbes obtain carbohydrates while the plant is “fertilized” with ammonia to be used for amino acid construction. We refer to this as “fixing” nitrogen. We have even done a little research on soil microbe activity here at the V Bar V. We collected soil surface (~1 inch) samples from pinon-juniper and desert shrub sites, grazed versus rested, and from interspaces as well as under shrub or grass canopies. Dr. Jean McLain at the University of Arizona ran some microbial substrate usage assays for us as an indicator of concentration and activity. Briefly, pinon-juniper had greater substrate use than desert shrub, rested was greater than grazed, and we observed higher microbial activity under plant canopies than interspaces. Figure 1 illustrates preliminary results from the landscape position comparison. We hope to continue such work in the future. Soil microbial functions are another of those subjects we could spend a lot of time on. If you are interested in learning more, head to the Rangelands West website and search for “soil microbial”. That should get you started. Page 4 Volume 8, Issue 1 Microbes...continued To wrap things up; whether they are holding soil together, breaking down forage, processing animal source protein into longer lasting and pretty tasty food, or fighting internal battles to keep a calf or a fawn healthy, microbes are the unseen but critical rangeland flora and fauna. It may have seemed like a stretch to write about microbial organisms in a range newsletter, but I hope if you did not have an appreciation for these littlest of range critters before; that now you do. Another good University of Arizona website to visit for more info about microbes and their contributions to health, food, environment, etc... is: http://learnaboutgerms.arizona.edu/index.htm and especially: http://learnaboutgerms.arizona.edu/good_microbes.htm Article by Doug Tolleson Page 5 The Rimrock Report Chris's Hot Topic of Range…...Biological Soil Crust While we are on the topic of microbes, it is a good time to talk about Biological Soil Crust (BSC), also known as Cryptobiotic soil. You may have encountered them on hikes in the desert, typically as small black mounds on the soil surface between shrubs and bunchgrasses (Fig 1). These are not just random microbes located in the soil. They are communities of closely associated organisms that, through their growth and activity, bind surface soil particles; creating a living surface crust. This crust is often only a few millimeters thick and can contain a wide variety of cyanobacteria, algae, fungi, lichens, and mosses (Fig 2). They might not look like much, but they can have a major impact on the health and productivity of the rangeland. A well developed crust can prevent wind and water Figure 1: Rugose Crust. Photo taken in the Mojave Desert erosion, create safe sites for seed germination, maintain soil moisture, increase water infiltration, prevent invasion by non-native species, and can significantly add carbon and nitrogen into the soil. BSC can be found pretty much anywhere except the tropics, often as the first colonizers after disturbance. BSC will eventually be replaced when plants create closed canopies, however, they will form old growth crusts in arid and semi-arid landscapes where open gaps in vegetation are persistent. The taxonomic classification of BSC can be difficult due to the diversity of organisms involved, so many researchers use a classification system based on the surface features of the crust. This type of classification recognizes four types of crust; smooth, rugose, pinnacled, and rolling crust. Smooth crust is dominated by cyanobacteria and has little surface texture. They are found in hyper-arid ecosystems with high temperatures and no freezing, like the Atacama Desert in South Figure 2: An artistic representation of 3mm of crust. America. This crust is the only BSC found to inhibit native Belnap and Lange 2001. vegetation growth, though it is still important for nitrogen production and redirecting precipitation to surrounding vegetation. Rugose crust is also dominated by cyanobacteria, but includes sparse patches of mosses and lichens. Because of this they tend to form small mounds rather than a smooth surface (Fig 1). They require higher moisture than smooth crusts, but are still located in arid ecosystems with high temperatures and minimal freezing; such as the Sonoran Desert. Page 6 Volume 7, Issue 4 Chris's Hot Topic of Range…...continued Pinnacled crust is high in biological diversity and has a large population of mosses and lichens. They exist in arid ecosystems that experience periodic freezing; such as the Great Basin Desert. The freeze/thaw cycle uplifts the soil and lichen prefer the NorthNorthwest slope of the uplifted soil. The preferential growth on that slope alters the rate of soil erosion, creating pinnacles of crust that can be up to 15cm high (Fig 3). Rolling Crusts are dominated by lichen and mosses and are located in cold arid ecosystems such as the Northern Great Basin. The crust is relatively thick and mat like, which prevents the formation of pinnacles and instead creates more of a “rolling hills” formation. Figure 3: Pinnacled Crust located in Arches National Park. In Arizona we are dominated by Rugose Crust in the Sonoran and Mojave deserts, with Pinnacled Crust located at higher elevations such as along the Arizona Strip. These crusts are all relatively fragile and can be destroyed by a single footstep. Cyanobacteria can recolonize a disturbed site within a few years, but it may take decades to centuries to re-establish old growth crusts with a diverse population of lichens and mosses. The destruction of crust can represent a significant loss of nitrogen production which can decrease plant production and overall ecosystem health. Lower nitrogen also reduces the nutritional content of forage, potentially reducing the carrying capacity of herbivores. Because of this many Rangeland managers have been working hard to prevent crust destruction with public awareness campaigns, complete with catchy slogans Figure 4: National Park Sticker promoting the such as "Don't Bust awareness of Biological Soil Crust the Crust," "Tiptoe on the Crypto," and "Don't hurt the Dirt" (Fig 4). Figure 5: The vulnerability of Biological Soil Crust on different soil types and moisture regimes. Belnap and Lange 2001. The fragile nature of BSC can make livestock management difficult. The scientific literature suggests that BSC can be maintained with light grazing while heavy grazing is particularly destructive. Additional management options include minimizing concentrated impacts by spreading out pasture use with strategic placement of water and minerals. Also, the vulnerability of BSC is influenced by soil moisture and soil texture (Fig 5). Soils in general are least vulnerable Page 7 The Rimrock Report Chris's Hot Topic of Range…...continued when frozen or covered in snow. Silt soils are also resistant to disturbance when wet and clay soils are resistant to disturbance when dry. Thus careful planning can minimize the impact to BSC. There is a school of thought that BSC can inhibit desired vegetation and that high intensity/short duration grazing can be useful in busting the crust to increase the amount of desired vegetation. This strategy aims to mimic the high intensity/short duration grazing regimes historically found in some ecosystems, such as on the Great Plains and the Serengeti. This strategy may work in those specific areas; however, it is unclear if the strategy to bust the crust is applicable in ecosystems that did not have large roaming herds of herbivores. More research is needed on BSC’s impact on the germination of specific species. The few studies that have been conducted found that, with the exception of Smooth Crust, BSC has no impact or a positive impact on the germination of native vegetation. In general the scientific literature is dominated with reports on the positive impacts of BSC and the need to preserve it. This community of cyanobacteria, algae, lichens, and moss can be invaluable to many of our rangelands and the condition of this crust can be an indicator of overall rangeland health. So the next time you are out hiking look closely to the ground. They may not look like much at times, but there’s a whole world down there worth exploring. Figure 6: Pinnacled Crust in Southwestern Utah. Photo by Jason Hollinger References: Belnap J., and O. L. Lange (eds.). 2001. Biological Soil Crusts: Structure, Function, and Management. Ecological Studies, Vol. 150. Page 8 Volume 8, Issue 1 Lisa’s Class is Outside Today Hi y’all! My name is Lisa Page and I am excited to join the University of Arizona extension family as the new Range Rocks! Program Coordinator. Before I get started on my main article, allow me to tip my Stetson your way and tell you a bit about myself. I grew up in what I would describe as a rural city, by Southern California standards that is; I lived a few miles away from the largest concentration of dairy farms in the valley, my town still had some horse property, and what was left of the large ranch where the town was built still had longhorn cattle grazing the hillsides. I managed to find my way into FFA during high school and was always involved with horses. While in college I managed the sheep unit, worked on the school farm and worked for various horse trainers in the area. After earning an associate’s degree in Livestock Management from Mount San Antonio College, I moved to Northern Arizona in 2004. It took year or so for me to realize I wasn’t satisfied loading hay and feed bags into customer’s waiting trucks, and decided shortly thereafter to continue my education at New Mexico State University and earned a bachelor’s degree in Agriculture Extension and Education. The next few years would find me as an agriculture teacher, FFA Adviser, and equine riding program manager in Arizona and New Mexico. Most recently, I worked in Montana with a national nonprofit organization providing research based technical assistance to farmers and ranchers across the United States. This position allowed me to learn more about sustainable agriculture and natural resource management practices as well as helped me understand common challenges American producers are facing. In my free time I enjoy riding horses and quads, looking for elk sheds, fishing, camping, photography, curling (a sport I picked up while in Montana, and my Canadian grandparents are thrilled) and trying to not be outsmarted by my Catahoula, Mavis. As you can see, my background is reminiscent of a grade mare’s pedigree at an auction, that is, a little bit of this and a little of that, but I am a firm believer in being well rounded and truly believe experience is the best teacher. I am thankful for the opportunities and experiences that have led me to where I am today. I’m happy to be back in Arizona and look forward to working with our talented youth and dedicated educators to facilitate quality learning opportunities and promote sustainable practices throughout the west. Enough about me! Onto my actual article…. Who has two thumbs and has had to teach a lesson she knew very little about? This gal! If you are anything like me in my “newbie” teaching days, I would have given my left arm for quality teaching resources; something….anything…. that helped me stay a step ahead of my kiddos! I’d like to spend the next few minutes discussing the new presentation technology available to educators (move over, Power Point) and how these new and interactive presentations can help incorporate the use of Page 9 The Rimrock Report Lisa’s Class is Outside Today...continued technology in the classroom and be a valuable teaching resource. A creative and hardworking team of University of Arizona personnel have recently produced three interactive presentations detailing the history, science, and applications of Near InfraRed Spectroscopy (NIRS), a state of the art technology which can be incorporated into a variety of curricula, especially lessons following the STEM model encouraging study in the areas of Science, Technology, Engineering and Math. These presentations were developed as part of the curriculum for RangeRocks!, an integrated outdoor experiential extension education program designed to provide technical and field Making the Prezi. From left to right: Cody Sheehy, Alan Davis, experience for students attracted to rangeland Doug Tolleson ecology and management, developed by Dr. Doug Tolleson, Rangeland Specialist with the University of Arizona. University of Arizona video masterminds Cody Sheehy and Alan Davis did an exceptional job of editing these presentations and making them user friendly. I would venture to say most teachers can relate to the aforementioned predicament. Nothing can rattle a new teacher’s cage like scrambling to prepare a Powerpoint or searching the internet for a pre-made lesson or activity and hoping the Google God’s are in your favor. I’ll admit (if any of my college education professors are reading this, please skip the next sentence) that I tended to teach the bare bones lesson plan version on topics I was unfamiliar with, because honestly, I was afraid my kids would ask me a question I couldn’t answer. I was the teacher, I had to be all knowing, right? I realized that I went into greater depth on topics I had more experiential knowledge in and where supplemental resources were available to me. Initially, I found myself relying heavily on PowerPoint presentations as a somewhat fail safe way to present new information to my students. It does have several benefits, I’ll admit; it allowed my visual learners to see the information, my audio learners to hear it, and it gave me, a new teacher, a sense of confidence knowing that my “script” for the most part, was there for my reference. However, times they are a changing and as my students would say “Miss Page, that is soooooo three years ago!” Move over, Powerpoint, here comes The Prezi! For those of you not yet familiar with this new presentation software, allow me to briefly explain the concept. According to the Prezi website, “people remember experiences, not slides.” Prezi allows teachers to provide a more engaging, interactive presentation format to their students by “creating cinematic presentations.” I can hear the groans of discontent among my fellow Powerpoint users but let me assure you, it’s pretty neat! As I admitted to earlier, I used PowerPoint quite a bit Page 10 Volume 8, Issue 1 Lisa’s Class is Outside Today...continued in my classroom, however, I was always cognizant of the “don’t Powerpoint your students into boredom” rule. Despite my best efforts to add colorful graphics and sounds, it was still just a slide, and would now pale in comparison to the Prezi. As one Prezi customer noted “[it] allows us to tell a story in a dynamic way.” I sure wish I knew about this format when I was in the classroom and maybe I would have had less drool to clean off the desks! So why am I going on and on about the benefits of the new Prezi format? Because we have taken the Prezi format, mixed it with the knowledge of our experienced range staff and talented video editors and VOILA, have created three engaging teaching resources to add to your bag of tricks! The first Prezi in the series, Introduction to NIRS, is an excellent way to introduce students to the history and theory behind NIRS technology. (My introduction to NIRS, however, came when I opened an oven baking polar bear fecal samples waiting to be scanned. The smell was un “bear”able….but I digress!) I think it’s safe to say many educators agree providing background information on a new topic will enable students to better connect the history of The introduction page of the NIRS lesson 1 Prezi said topic to its current applications and uses, thus enabling students to see how the lesson pertains to them, because, lets face it, that’s what students REALLY want to know! This Prezi is detailed oriented, yet not overwhelming. It provides a basic, yet thorough understanding of who Sir Frederick William Herschel was, how he discovered infrared light through his experiment, and how infrared light is used by animals and humans. Additionally, it includes step by step instructions that allow students to recreate Herschel’s experiment. The second Prezi in the series, A pplications of NIRS, builds upon the information learned in the previous Introduction to NIRS Prezi by reviewing the basic theory of NIRS technology and goes on to demonstrate how it is used in the field by evaluating different elements found in soil and plant samples. Furthermore, it NIRS Demonstration detailing the difference in soil. discusses how the technology can detect minute differences between samples that appear similar to the naked eye, such as soil collected from under a shrub and soil collected on bare ground. The lesson is tied together by explaining how the results can help to improve soil health and pasture management. Page 11 The Rimrock Report Lisa’s Class is Outside Today...continued The third Prezi in the series, A nimal Nutrition and NIRS, details the range science applications of NIRS technology, particularly by applying NIRS to grazing animal nutrition. It begins by discussing how herbivores are classified by the way they digest food, the differences in ruminant and non-ruminant digestion, and locale of microbes in the digestive tract. It then goes on to discuss factors that affect the nutritional requirements of animals, nutritional values of different plant types, and what makes some plants more Prezi discussing Ruminants and non-ruminants nutritious or palatable to livestock than others. The brief mid lesson quiz is a great way to assess student learning thus far, and if necessary, go back and re-teach any key points that were not grasped. The Prezi goes on to demonstrate how NIRS technology can detect what an animal eats, determine if the diet is adequate, and demonstrates an analogy to help students understand why some plants are easier to digest to others. It closes by discussing an overall summary of the main points covered in the Prezi and includes a group activity which allows students to accomplish a range science task in a real world environment. Being a former teacher, I understand the struggles many educators face when it comes to finding and choosing an interactive lesson plan, or an easy to replicate classroom activity, which made me appreciate these Prezi’s even more. I enjoyed the clear objectives outlined in the beginning of each Prezi, the logical transitions from one topic to another, and the review of key points found at the end. Near Infra Red Spectrometry (NIRS) is a developing and incredibly useful diagnostic tool that has many applications and can be incorporated into a variety of lesson plans including biology, technology, animal science and of course range management. Cody Sheehy, Alan Davis, and Doug Tolleson One of the main responsibilities in my new position is to share range related extension programming with local educators and assist them with incorporating that programming into their curriculum. The technologies used in range/environmental science cover a broad area that can be incorporated into just about any curricula. Our goal is to produce several more environmental science related Prezi’s in the near future so that teachers will have plenty of resources available to assist them in opening up a new learning experience where students can get outside and get their hands dirty, all in the name of science! Stay tuned, y’all! At press time, URLs to Prezi’s not available. Will send email when available. Page 12 The Rimrock Report Plant of the “Week” by Mike McIntire In the spring of 2013, I enrolled in Dr. Mitch Mcclaren’s rangeland plant communities class. This class really opened my eyes to plant identification and the greatest plant to all range nerds, grass. Out of the many different grasses that exist in the southwest, the grasses I have grown fond of are the Boutelouas. Yes Boutelouas, not one specific Boutelouas, but all of them. I learned the basic Boutlouas, the ones that every rangeland manager has to know which are sideoats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda), rothrock grama (Bouteloua rothrockii), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), hairy grama (Bouteloua hirsuta), and six weeks needle grama (Bouteloua aristidoides). However, there are more Boutelouas which exist in the southwest from what is beyond my range of knowledge on wild land plants. After numerous field trips, hours of researching for fun on the internet, and discussion with professionals, I have discovered these Boutelouas that exist in Arizona. Some are common while others are rare. These species are slender grama (Bouteloua repens), sprucetop grama (Bouteloua chondrosioides), six weeks grama (Bouteloua barbata), red grama (Bouteloua trifida), purple grama (Bouteloua radicosa), and santa rita mountain grama (Bouteloua eludens). These species I took persistence and passion in to find and see in person and discover what they are about in Arizona’s vast area of rangelands. I would like to share my experiences with each of these boutelouas and why I find them so fascinating. I would like start with sideoats grama. Sideoats grama is abundant everywhere in Arizona as well as throughout the country. It is probably one of the easiest Boutelouas to recognize because the seeds look like little oats. Sideoats grama grows in areas that receive plenty of water, such as washes. In Gila country sideoats grama can be found just about everywhere. It is a great forage grass that cattle love to eat. It’s a very beautiful grass and I give this one, the best representation of the Boutelouas. Sideoats Grama Photo from Yavapai County Native & Naturalized Plants Next there is rothrock grama, which is one of the shorter lived perennial Boutelouas. It can be classified as a long lived annual because it has some of the same characteristics as an annual. It produces many seeds and easily establishes in areas of high disturbance or shortly after an event of high disturbance. Even though this rothrock grama may be short lived, it is still a beautiful grass that provides forage on our rangelands and plays a role in our desert grassland. Black grama is a grass that is preferred by ranchers. This ice cream grass provides excellent forage value in which any domesticated herbivore loves to consume. It grows on any limey soil and forms dense sods that can cover a whole hill slope. It is a grassland key species that is a must for any rangeland in Arizona. Unfortunately it doesn’t produce enough viable seed to recruit and establish easily and solely relies on stoloniferous reproduction. It is a key indicator grass species that gives an idea how far into succession a desert grassland is after a disturbance. It is a climax Black Grama community species in which it roughly takes about 25 years for a desert Photo from Yavapai County grassland to recover from a disturbance. Native & Naturalized Plants Page 13 Volume 8, Issue 1 Plant of the “Week”...continued Hairy grama is a Bouteloua that looks very similar to blue grama and rothrock grama. Its most notable characteristic is the tail- like extension of the branches of spikelets. The branches of spikelets look like thick, hairy eye brows, hence the name hairy grama. This grass grows in the higher elevations of the desert grassland, oak woodland, and chaparral systems. It makes for a great forage grass and is very hardy in cold weather. It tends to stay green longer with adequate moistures. Blue grama is a grass that is a highly recognized Boutelouas in the west. It is a symbolic grass of rangeland management. Blue grama likes to be in a higher elevation where temperatures are no greater than the low 90’s in the summer. It can easily thrive in hotter areas of lower elevation because blue grama is in every seed mix that is Hairy Grama on the market. Any restoration project or Photo from Yavapai County reseeding always calls for blue grama. Blue Native & Naturalized Plants grama makes a great lawn sod if you are looking for a native to replace your invasive Bermuda grass lawn. Six weeks needle grama is probably the most common summer annual grass in Arizona. This grass brings life to the desert during the monsoon season as it blankets the desert floor with a sea of green lushness. Anyone can look at the desert and can be awed to the beautiful six weeks needle grama provides to the desert landscape. This grass will always thrive in Arizona and I have seen it up growing up to elevations as high as 5000 ft. One thing needle grama is known for is once it dries up, the seeds stick to your clothing and pokes into your skin. Even though this grass can bring greenery to lands in the worst condition, cattle do not favor to eat it. Blue Grama Bouteloua gracilis Photo by Howard F. Schwartz Another annual Bouteloua in Arizona is six weeks grama. This grass is like a smaller version of rothrock grama and is an annual. It is not as common as needle grama and is relatively easy to find growing during the monsoon season. It grows in beautiful little stands, but does not blanket the desert like six weeks needle grama. Slender grama is a common Bouteloua that is a key indicator species on the health of a rangeland. It is a Bouteloua that is not to get mixed up with purple grama, sprucetop grama, and santa rita mountain grama because they are similar in appearance. This Bouteloua makes its debut during the middle stages of desert grassland succession. It replaces rothrock grama and then its composition decreases when the climax community is reached. Slender grama is a pretty grass and it does great with summer rains. Sprucetop grama is a grass I have not really seen much of and I am trying to learn more about. It can be found at wide ranges of elevations and amongst slender grama and purple grama populations. It is distinguished by the little white hairs that cover the branches of spikelets on it. Sprucetop grama usually makes its appearance within the desert grassland in the later succession stages after a disturbance and can be found within the Page 14 The Rimrock Report Plant of the “Week”...continued climax community of the desert grassland. Red grama is a Bouteloua I never knew existed until last year. This is one of the more rare Boutelouas and there is very little information about it. I have only seen it in two areas, near Globe and just outside of Tucson. Red grama occurs in lower elevations in the plant community of the hot desert or in more technical terms, upland Sonoran desert scrub. It likes to grow on limey soils, in high disturbance areas such as water flow patterns and trails. It is a rhizominous growing grass and likes to grow in the shape of ring. Red grama is a Bouteloua I am glad I have had the opportunity to see it in person. Another rare Bouteloua I would like to mention is purple grama. It grows only in particular areas and elevations down in southern Arizona. Purple grama grows outside the desert grassland and is abundant throughout the Arizona oak woodland. Purple grama has very short leaves and tillers, which look like little knuckles, but has tall flower stems with a typical wavy Bouteloua rachis. The branches of spikelets are large and have purple markings on them which gives it the name purple grama. Santa rita mountain grama is the last grass of the Bouteloua. This grass is common but has a small range area where it can be found in southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Meixco. It looks very similar to sprucetop grama, but it has bigger branches of spikelets with less spikelets than sprucetop grama. Red Grama Bouteloua trifida Photo from Catnapin.com Arizona has variety of Boutelouas that not many states in the west have which makes Arizona very biodiverse. These are the grasses that make Arizona’s desert grassland so beautiful and lush. I am glad that I have been persistent in learning about rangeland management and the Bouteloua grasses that grow throughout our state. See the Top Ten pictures for 2014 https://cals.arizona.edu/vbarv/rangeprogram/sites/ cals.arizona.edu.vbarv.rangeprogram/files/Top%20ten%20pictures%202014.pdf Page 15 The view from the Rim Words of wisdom for the new year from Benjamin Franklin: Be at war with your vices, at peace with your neighbors, and let every new year find you a better man. Phone: 928-554-8991 Fax: 928-554-8996 Cell: 928-821-3222 E-mail: dougt@cals.arizona.edu Web: http://cals.arizona.edu/aes/vbarv/ Note: Please email me if you would like to be added to the “mailing” list for this newsletter. The University of Arizona School of Natural Resources and the Environment V Bar V Ranch 2830 N. Commonwealth Drive Suite 103 Camp Verde, AZ 86322 Just me talking... “Take me home, country roads, to a place I belong…” Ok that is all I will say about football this time. I am sure Larry Howery and Mike Hemovich are rolling their eyes about now. Most of us in Arizona did not have a white Christmas, but we did have a white New Year. Depending on which report you looked at, we had 4-8 inches here in the Verde Valley and for the first time in 7 years, it stayed longer than a day. I wish now we had kept our rain gauge comparison study going past the monsoon. It would have been interesting to see how we captured the snow. But it is good to get the moisture on our pastures and some snowpack for the water supply. Chris Bernau will present the data we did collect on that study at the SRM meetings in Sacramento next month. That will be a busy meeting for us. We have several presentations and are involved in both the Native Range and the K-12 Range Education symposia. I am looking forward to working with our partner, Christine Griffin, principal at Oak Creek School on her presentation in the K-12 symposium. She will be talking about how the range profession can contribute to middle school STEM efforts. In just a few days we have the Arizona SRM meetings in Tucson along with the first in our next round of drought management workshops. New program coordinator, Lisa Page will be getting her first dose of workshop planning with that one. We have been gathering up native forages to use in a sheep and goat feeding study in March. We will have a visiting PhD student from Brazil with us in the spring. He will be helping with that study. He is part of a national project developing near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) calibrations for small ruminants in his home country. I just finished the draft of a paper where we used NIRS to determine fecal nitrogen and phosphorus in cattle, sheep, goats, bison, elk, and deer. Hopefully we will get that one accepted and published this year. We are also working on papers for the Western Section, American Society of Animal Science meetings this summer. One is from a NIRS study we did at Sonora Texas a few years back and another from right here at the V Bar V deals with measuring changes in cattle brands as they age. That last one is in response to a request from Arizona brand inspectors to help them with some law enforcement issues. Hope you enjoyed the “top 10” pictures from this year. Maybe we learned a few things from the Arizona Highways folks at the photo workshop this past summer. Till next time, Doug Page 16