This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or
licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party
websites are prohibited.
In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the
article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or
institutional repository. Authors requiring further information
regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are
encouraged to visit:
http://www.elsevier.com/copyright
Author's personal copy
Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Meat Science
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / m e a t s c i
Review
Improving functional value of meat products
Wangang Zhang a, Shan Xiao a,b, Himali Samaraweera a, Eun Joo Lee a, Dong U. Ahn a,c,⁎
a
b
c
Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-3150, United States
College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, China
Major in Biomodulation, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-921, Republic of Korea
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 30 January 2010
Received in revised form 5 April 2010
Accepted 9 April 2010
Keywords:
Functional meat
Health benefits
Added value
Meat quality
Functional compounds
a b s t r a c t
In recent years, much attention has been paid to develop meat and meat products with physiological
functions to promote health conditions and prevent the risk of diseases. This review focuses on strategies to
improve the functional value of meat and meat products. Value improvement can be realized by adding
functional compounds including conjugated linoneleic acid, vitamin E, n3 fatty acids and selenium in animal
diets to improve animal production, carcass composition and fresh meat quality. In addition, functional
ingredients such as vegetable proteins, dietary fibers, herbs and spices, and lactic acid bacteria can be directly
incorporated into meat products during processing to improve their functional value for consumers.
Functional compounds, especially peptides, can also be generated from meat and meat products during
processing such as fermentation, curing and aging, and enzymatic hydrolysis. This review further discusses
the current status, consumer acceptance, and market for functional foods from the global viewpoints. Future
prospects for functional meat and meat products are also discussed.
© 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production of functional meat products . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Dietary supplementation of functional ingredients
2.1.1.
Conjugated linoleic acid . . . . . . . .
2.1.2.
Vitamin E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3.
Omega-3 (ω3) fatty acids . . . . . . . .
2.1.4.
Selenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addition of functional ingredients during processing . .
3.1.
Vegetable proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1.
Soy proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2.
Whey proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3.
Wheat proteins . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1.
Rosemary extracts . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2.
Green tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3.
Clove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4.
Garlic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.5.
Sage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.6.
Oregano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.
Probiotics and lactic acid bacteria . . . . . . . .
Production of functional components during processing .
4.1.
Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Chemical changes during fermentation .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
⁎ Corresponding author. 2276 Kildee Hall, Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011-3150, USA. Tel.: +1 515 2946595; fax: +1 5152949143.
E-mail address: duahn@iastate.edu (D.U. Ahn).
0309-1740/$ – see front matter © 2010 The American Meat Science Association. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2010.04.018
16
16
16
16
17
18
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
23
23
Author's personal copy
16
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
4.2.2.
Production of antibacterial compounds .
4.2.3.
Probitics and fermented meat sausages .
4.3.
Enzyme hydrolysis of proteins . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Current status on the consumer acceptance and market for
6.
Future prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
functional meat
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
The definition of functional foods is still under development. As
mentioned by Roberfroid (2000), the functional food should “contain a
component with a selective effect on one or various functions of the
organism whose positive effects can be justified as functional
(physiological) or even healthy”. The three basic requirements to be
considered as a functional food include 1) derived from a natural
occurring ingredients; 2) consume as a part of daily diet; and 3)
involve in regulating specific process for human including delaying
aging process, preventing the risk of disease and improving immunological ability (Jimenez-Colmenero, Carballo & Cofrades, 2001).
Meat and meat products are important sources for protein, fat,
essential amino acids, minerals and vitamin and other nutrients
(Biesalski, 2005). In recent years, the consumer demands for healthier
meat and meat products with reduced level of fat, cholesterol,
decreased contents of sodium chloride and nitrite, improved composition of fatty acid profile and incorporated health enhancing
ingredients are rapidly increasing worldwide.
Enrichment of raw meat with bioactive compounds and the effects
of meat-based substances such as carnosine, anserine, L-carnitine,
glutathione, taurine and creatine on human health have been studied
extensively (Arihara, 2004). During the processing of meat and meat
products, many functional compounds can be generated: many
peptides produced from fermentation and enzyme-induced hydrolysis
showed physiological benefits to human (Saiga et al., 2003;
Vercruysse, van Camp, & Smagghe, 2005). Bioactive peptides can
also be produced from meat proteins and then incorporated into meat
products to improve the functional properties of meat products
(Arihara, 2006).
The consumer acceptance of functional foods varies widely
depending upon their social, economical, geographical, political,
cultural, ethnic backgrounds (Jimenez-Colmenero et al., 2001).
Japan is the first country that developed the idea of functional foods
and has established regulations for the uses of functional foods
(Hardy, 2000; Kwak & Jukes, 2001). Between 1988 and 1998, more
than 1700 functional foods have been introduced to Japanese market,
which resulted in 14 billion dollar sales in 1999 (Menrad, 2003). USA
is the most dynamic market for functional foods and market share of
functional foods in total food market was estimated to be 4–6% in
2008 (Benkouider, 2004). The market for functional foods in European
countries has been increasing steadily, and the consumers of Central
and Northern European countries are more favorable to functional
foods than those of Mediterranean countries where they prefer fresh
and natural food (Menrad, 2003).
2. Production of functional meat products
2.1. Dietary supplementation of functional ingredients
2.1.1. Conjugated linoleic acid
Interests in conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) have increased in the last
decades as a result of its potential effects on human health-related
benefits and animal production (Khanal, 2004; Roy & Antolic, 2009).
CLA is a collective term describing a mixture of positional and geometric
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
products
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
24
25
25
26
26
27
27
isomers of linoleic acid, which are involved with double bonds at
positions 7 and 9, 8 and 10, 9 and 11, 10 and 12, and 11 and 13 in the fatty
acid chain (Eulitz et al., 1999). Among these isomers, the most studied
two isomers are cis 9, trans 11-CLA and trans 10, cis 12-CLA due to their
biological effects. Numerous physiological and biological properties
have been attributed to CLA including antioxidant and antiobesity (Park
et al., 1997; Smedman & Vessby, 2001), anticarcinogenic (Belury, &
Vanden Heuvel, 1997; Ip, Singh, Thompson, & Scimeca, 1994; Munday,
Thompson, & James, 1999), antiatherosclerotic (Gavino, Gavino, Leblanc,
& Tuchweber, 2000; Lee, Kritckesky, & Pariza, 1994), antidiabetogenic
(Houseknecht et al., 1998; Wahle, Heys, & Rotondo, 2004), protection of
immune system (Corino, Bontempo, & Sciannimanico, 2002; Park et al.,
2000; Sugano, Tsujita, Yamasaki, Noguchi, & Yamada, 1998), and
contribution to bone formation (Li & Watkins, 1998; Roy & Antolic,
2009) and body composition (Smedman & Vessby, 2001; Zambell et al.,
2000). The effects of dietary CLA to increase the animal performance,
improve meat quality, and provide meat products with high amounts of
CLA have also been studied.
Inconsistent results have been reported about the effects of dietary
CLA on the growth, body composition and meat quality. These
conflicting results could be explained by different animal species,
different breeds, age, duration and levels of CLA, husbandry conditions
and the composition of feed. Szymczyk, Pisulewski, Szczurek and
Hanczakowski (2001) found no significant effects of dietary CLA (0, 0.5,
1.0, and 1.5% CLA) on feed efficiency and body weight gain in broiler
chickens. Du and Ahn (2002) reported that feeding broilers with diet
containing 0.25, 0.5, or 1% CLA for 3 weeks before slaughter had no
significant effects on body weight and body composition. However, it is
generally accepted that dietary CLA can improve the body composition
through reducing fat deposition and backfat thickness. Park et al. (1997)
were the first to report that the addition of 0.5% CLA based on the weight
of diet reduced the body fat by 60% in rat. Du and Ahn (2002) reported
that feeding 2% and 3% CLA for 5 weeks decreased the body fat by 16%
and 14% respectively in broilers. In pigs, the fat deposition was reduced
and the ratio of lean to fat increased linearly as the dietary CLA increased
(Ostrowska, Muralitharan, Cross, Bauman, & Dunshea, 1999). In line
with the decrease of fat deposition, the protein and ash content were
found to be increased by the dietary CLA (Pariza, Park, & Cook, 1999;
Park et al., 1997; Park, Albright, Storkson, Liu, & Pariza, 1999; Szymczyk
et al., 2001; Terpstra et al., 2002). Dietary CLA not only reduced fat
deposition but also altered the fatty acid composition of tissue lipids. The
proportion of saturated fatty acids such as palmitic and stearic acids
increased significantly, while that of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids including plamitoleic, oleic, linoleic and arachidonic
acid in broiler chickens decreased significantly (Szymczyk et al., 2001).
In genetically lean pigs, feeding 1% CLA oil significantly decreased the
proportion of unsaturated fatty acid and increased saturated fatty acids
in both belly fat and longissimus muscle (Eggert, Belury, KempaSteczko, Mills, & Schinckel, 2001). Similar effects of dietary CLA on the
modification of fatty acid in pig tissues were also reported by others (Joo,
Lee, Ha, & Park, 2002; Ramsay, Evock-Clover, Steele, & Azain, 2001;
Wiegand, Parrish, Swan, Larsen, & Bass, 2001; Wiegand, Sparks, Parrish,
& Zimmerman, 2002).
Du and Ahn (2002) reported that 2% and 3% dietary CLA in diet
resulted in harder, drier and darker cooked meat than those of control
broiler meat. Sensory analysis showed that the increased dietary
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
levels of CLA resulted in improved hardness and decreased juiciness in
chicken breast rolls (Du et al., 2003). Dietary addition of CLA for
12 weeks in 27 week-old White Leghorn hens caused decreased lipid
oxidation in raw chicken meat and decreased content of haxanal and
pentanal in cooked chicken meat. Dietary CLA also improved the color
stability of cooked chicken and pork (Du, Ahn, Nam, & Sell, 2000; Joo
et al., 2002). Four weeks of feeding CLA resulted in lower purge loss
associated with increased intramuscular fat in pig. Thiobarbituric
acid-reactive substance (TBARS) value in CLA-added group was lower
than that of control in pork loin. Dietary addition of 5% CLA resulted in
lower lightness and yellowness after 7 days of refrigerated storage
(Joo et al., 2002). In genetically lean piglets, 1% CLA oil increased the
firmness of pork belly due to increased saturated fatty acids and
decreased unsaturated fatty acid in both backfat and longissimus
muscle (Weber et al., 2006). The meta-analysis of collated data
(Dunshea, D'Souza, Pethick, Harper, & Warner, 2005) showed that
dietary CLA increased the marbling, shear force, a* value and
intramuscular fat by 11%, 6%, 5% and 11% respectively and decreased
the drip loss by 5% without changing ultimate pH in muscles from
pork loin.
Generally, ruminant meat has greater concentration of CLA than that
from non-ruminants (Table 1). CLA can be naturally synthesized in the
rumen of ruminant animals by bacteria Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens via the
Δ-9-desaturase of trans 11 octadecanoic acid pathway (Pollard,
Gunstone, James, & Morris, 1980). Therefore, it is possible to incrtease
the content of CLA in meat from ruminant animals through the feeding
diets with polyunsaturated fatty acid-rich diet (Lawson, Moss, & Givens,
2001). Realini, Duckett, Brito, Dalla Rizza and De Mattos (2004) reported
that the total CLA content in intramuscular fat from Hereford steers fed
with pasture was two times greater than that fed with concentrates.
French et al. (2000) reported that longissimus muscle from grass-fed
beef contained 10.8 mg/g lipid compared to 3.7 mg CLA/g lipid in
concentrate-supplemented beef. In semimembranosus muscle, the total
CLA was increased from 5.2 mg total CLA/g in corn supplemented grassfed to 7.7 mg/g lipid in grass-fed beef (Shantha, Moody, & Tabeidi,
1997). Among the CLA isomers, cis 9, trans 11 isomer increased by
2.3 mg/g lipid in pasture groups compared to concentrate groups
(Realini et al., 2004). Rule, Broughton, Shellito, and Maiorano (2002)
also reported that the content of cis 9, trans 11-CLA isoform increased
from 2.6 mg/g lipid in longissimus muscle of feedlot steers to 4.1 mg/g
lipid of pasture-fed cows. Dietary supplement with other polyunsaturated fatty acids-rich ingredients also increased the CLA content in
muscle lipids. Safflower oil supplementation significantly increased the
levels of all CLA isomers in lamb and the amount of cis 9, trans 11 isomer
increased by 134% in 6% safflower oil-fed sheeps (Boles, Kott, Hatfield,
Table 1
Content of CLA in meat products (mg/g fatty acid methyl ester).
Meat product
N
CLA content
Salami
Knackwurst
Black pudding
Mortadella
Wiener
Liver sausage
Cooked ham
Beef frank
Turkey frank
Beef smokes sausage
Smoked bacon
Smoked bratwurst
Smoked German sausage for spreading
Smoked ham
Smoked turkey
Minced meat
Corned beef
Potted meat
2
2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
7
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
4.2
3.7
3.0
2.9
2.5
3.3
2.7
3.3
1.6
3.8
0.8–2.7
2.4
4.4
2.9
2.4
3.5
6.6
3.0
(Fritsche & Steinhardt, 1998; Chin et al., 1992).
17
Table 2
Effects of dietary CLA on intramuscular fatty acid composition (% of total fatty acids).
Fatty acid composition
Control
1% CLA
2.5% CLA
5% CLA
Myristic acid
Palmitic acid
Stearic acid
Oleic acid
Linoleic acid
Linolenic acid
Arachidonic acid
CLA
Total saturated fatty acids
Total unsaturated fatty acids
1.29
25.60
15.08
40.75a
8.73a
4.23
1.62
0.01a
41.47a
57.58a
1.29
25.93
15.68
39.62ab
8.26b
4.56
1.56
0.37b
42.53b
56.49b
1.31
26.15
15.84
39.03ab
8.00bc
4.74
1.46
1.01c
42.97bc
56.08bc
1.26
27.06
16.19
38.13b
7.64c
4.95
1.34
1.16c
44.06c
55.13c
Means within same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p b 0.05)
(Joo et al., 2002).
Bergman, & Flynn, 2005). In a similar study, feeding 6% oil from
safflower seed resulted in two-fold increase of cis 9, trans 11-CLA and
four-fold increase of trans 10, cis 12-CLA in loin tissues of lamb from the
control lambs. Over 2 times increase of cis 9, trans 11-CLA and 6 times
increase of cis 10, trans 12 CLA in fat tissues were observed in lambs fed
with safflower-supplemented diets (Kott et al., 2003). Supplementation
of sunflower oil-added diets for 168 days increased the CLA content in
diaphragm muscle by 55%, leg muscle by 37%, rib muscle by 33% and
subcutaneous fat by 33% in sheep (Ivan et al., 2001).
CLA can be produced with very limited amount by gastric bacterial
biohydrogenation in pig resulting in low amount of CLA in pork
(Dugan, Aalhus, & Kramer, 2004). However, pork is an ideal candidate
for CLA enrichment by feeding chemically synthesized CLA because
CLA cannot be further saturated and can be deposited in tissues with
relatively high efficiency (Dugan et al., 2004). The cis 9, trans 11
isomer of CLA could be incorporated by 46.4% in subcutaneous
adipose tissue and the cis 11 and trans 13 was incorporated by 0.74%
in intramuscular fat. Feeding pigs with 1% CLA for 47 days significantly
increased the CLA content including the cis 9, trans 11 and the trans
10, cis 12 in belly fat (Gatlin, See, Larick, Lin, & Odle, 2002). Four weeks
of dietary supplement of 1%, 2.5% and 5% of synthetic CLA increased
the CLA concentration from 0.1 mg/g fatty acids in control to 3.7, 10.1
and 11.6 mg/g fatty acids respectively in pig longissimus dorsi muscle
(Joo et al., 2002; Table 2). Many studies have shown that dietary CLA
could increase the concentration of CLA in muscle and adipose tissues
of chicken. In chicken breast muscle, the amount of cis 9, trans 11
increased from 1.41 mg/g total lipids to 9.22 and 18.98 mg/g total
lipids by supplementing 1% and 2% CLA, respectively. In the same
study, the amount of trans 10, cis 12 CLA isomer changed from
0.85 mg/g total lipids in control group to 6.04 and 12.17 mg/g total
lipids in 1% and 2% CLA groups, respectively (Kawahara, Takenoyama,
Takuma, Muguruma, & Yamauchi, 2009). Du and Ahn (2002) reported
that the amount of total CLA increased from 0 to 10.51 and 17.75 mg/g
lipids in broiler breast muscle after 5 weeks of feeding 2% and 3% CLA.
In conclusion, dietary supplementation of synthesized CLA can
increase the content of CLA and change the fatty acid profile in nonruminant animal fat and muscle. Therefore, dietary supplementation
of CLA is a reasonable way of developing a value-added meat product.
2.1.2. Vitamin E
It is well accepted that vitamin E supplementation in animal diet
and meat products can improve the quality of fresh meat and meat
products by limiting protein and lipid oxidation. Most studies support
that vitamin E supplementation can improve meat color and reduce
lipid oxidation in pork, beef and lamb (Chan et al., 1996; Lanari,
Schaefer, & Scheller, 1995; Guidera, Kerry, Buckley, Lynch, &
Morrissey, 1997). For fresh meat quality, vitamin E is possibly
involved in regulating the conversion of muscle to meat by inhibiting
protein oxidation. In a study about the effects of oxidation on beef
tenderization Rowe, Maddock, Lonergan and Huff-Lonergan (2004)
Author's personal copy
18
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
showed that dietary vitamin E caused faster degradation of troponin-T
at 2 days postmortem in beef steaks through decreasing the levels of
protein oxidation. Feeding a diet supplemented with 1000 IU vitamin
E for 104 days before slaughter resulted in lower shear force in beef
steaks from longissimus dorsi after 14 day of postmortem storage
(Carnagey et al., 2008). In a similar study, 1000 IU dietary vitamin E in
combination with injection of calcium chloride improved proteolysis
and the rate of tenderization resulting in decreased shear force in beef
steaks (Harris, Huff-Lonergan, Lonergan, Jones, & Rankins, 2001).
The effects of dietary vitamin E on drip loss were inconsistent: in
poultry, dietary vitamin E inhibited the development of PSE conditions induced by heat stress resulting in improved meat quality
(Olivo, Soares, Ida, & Shimokomaki, 2001). In British Landrace pigs,
feeding 500 mg vitamin E/kg diet reduced drip loss by 45% and 54%,
respectively, in longissimus thoracis of Halothane positive and
Halothane negative pigs. Supplementation of diet containing
1000 mg vitamin E/kg diet significantly decreased the occurrence of
PSE carcass in PSE-prone Landrace x Large White Halothane positive
pigs (Cheah, Cheah, & Krausgrill, 1995). Cheah et al. (1995) suggested
that vitamin E stabilized the membrane of sarcoplasmic reticulum and
inhibited the activity of phospholipase A2 present in skeletal muscle,
erythrocyte and other tissues (Diplock, Lucy, Verrinder, & Zielenlowski, 1977). Phospholipase A2 is an enzyme involved in the
hydrolysis of phospholipids which produces long chain unsaturated
fatty acid and lyso-derivatives (Nachbaur, Colbeau, & Vignais, 1972).
These products could induce the uncoupling and swelling of the
membrane of sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria (Cheah &
Cheah, 1981). Therefore, vitamin E-induced inactivation of phospholipase A2 prevented calcium leakage into sarcoplasm and resulted in
lower sarcoplasmic calcium concentration. Lower calcium concentration in sarcoplasm is associated with slower rate of pH decline and
lower levels of protein denaturation, and thus cause increased water
holding capacity (Cheah, Cheah, Crosland, Casey, & Webb, 1984; Chen,
Zhou, Xu, Zhao, & Li, 2010).
2.1.3. Omega-3 (ω3) fatty acids
Long chain ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are recognized
as essential constituents for normal growth and development in
animal. This group of fatty acids includes eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA,
20:5), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA, 22:6). Omega-3 fatty acids are involved in gene expression (as
second messengers) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate signal
transduction pathways to regulate the transcription of specific genes
(Clarke & Jump, 1994; Graber, Sumida, & Nunez, 1994). Omega-3 fatty
acids such as DHA can also contribute to the development of infant
brain and liver (Martinez & Ballabriga, 1987) and play important roles
in the prevention and treatment of various kinds of diseases. Reports
have consistently shown that ω3 fatty acids may delay tumor
appearance, inhibit the rate of growth and decrease the size and
number of tumors (Funahashi et al., 2006; Kim, Park, Park, Chon, &
Park, 2009). Regular consumption of ω3 fatty acid-enriched pork can
decrease the content of serum triglycerides and increase the
production of serum thromboxane, and thus can reduce cardiovascular
diseases (Coates, Sioutis, Buckley, & Howe, 2009). Omega-3 fatty acids
are possibly involved in regulating chronic inflammatory disorders by
decreasing the production of inflammatory eicosanoids, cytokines and
reactive oxygen species, and inhibiting the expression of adhesion
molecules (Calder, 2006). The development of central nervous system
and neurological disorders were shown to be associated with ω3 long
chain PUFA (Assisi et al., 2006), and dietary supplementation with fish
oils reduced blood pressure and inhibited hypertension (Appel, Miller,
Seidler, & Whelton, 1993).
The primary source for long chain ω3 PUFA is fish and other
seafoods (Table 3). However, there are many other alternative food
sources rich in long chain PUFA available and they include meat, milk
and eggs from animals fed with ω3-enriched diets (Simopoulos, 1999).
The daily intake of long chain PUFA among different countries varies
significantly: in the USA and Australia, the average intake of long chain
PUFA are 140 and 190 mg/d, respectively, for adults, while Japanese
consumes approximately 1600 mg/d due to their fish eating habits
(Meyer et al., 2003). Howe, Meyer, Record, and Baghurst (2006)
reported that meat sources including red meat, poultry and game
animals accounted for 43% of long chain PUFA intake. Dietary supplementation of fat and oils is an efficient method to increase the content
of ω3 PUFA in animal muscles. Lopez-Ferrer, Baucells, Barroeta, and
Grashorn (2001) showed that all forms of ω3 PUFA content
significantly increased by feeding diets supplemented with fish oil
for 38 days in broiler chickens. EPA, DPA and DHA were increased by
5.65, 6.75 and 23.2 times, respectively, in broiler thigh muscle by
feeding diet containing 4% fish oil. Dietary supplementation with
vegetable oils including linseed oil and rapeseed oil could also increase
ω3 fatty acid content in the form of linolenic acid, which could be used
to synthesize long chain ω3 PUFA (Lopez-Ferrer, Baucells, Barroeta,
Galobert, & Grashorn 2001). Leskanich, Matthews, Warkup, Noble, and
Hazzledine (1997) reported that feeding pigs with a diet containing 2%
rapeseed oil plus 1% fish oil increased the content of ω3 PUFA in the
longissimus muscle, backfat and sausage.
Table 3
Amounts of EPA + DHA in fish and other seafoods and the amount of consumption
required to provide 1 g of EPA + DHA per day.
Fish
Tuna
Light, canned
in water, drained
White, canned
in water, drained
Fresh
Sardines
Salmon
Chum
Sockeye
Pink
Chinook
Atlantic, farmed
Atlantic, wild
Mackerel
Herring
Pacific
Atlantic
Trout, rainbow
Farmed
Wild
Halibut
Cod
Pacific
Atlantic
Haddock
Catfish
Farmed
Wild
Flounder/sole
Oyster
Pacific
Eastern
Farmed
Lobster
Crab, Alaskan King
Shrimp, mixed species
Clam
Scallop
EPA+ DHA Content,
g/3-oz serving fish
(edible portion) or g/g oil
Amount required to
provide ≈1 g of EPA+ DHA
per day, oz (fish) or g (oil)
0.26
12
0.73
4
0.24–1.28
0.98–1.70
2.5–12
2–3
0.68
0.68
1.09
1.48
1.09–1.83
0.9–1.56
0.34–1.57
4.5
4.5
2.5
2
1.5–2.5
2–3.5
2–8.5
1.81
1.71
1.5
2
0.98
0.84
0.4–1.0
3
3.5
3–7.5
0.13
0.24
0.2
23
12.5
15
0.15
0.2
0.42
20
15
7
1.17
0.47
0.37
0.07–0.41
0.35
0.27
0.24
0.17
2.5
6.5
8
7.5–42.5
8.5
11
12.5
17.5
(Kris-Etherton, Harris, & Apel, 2002).
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Table 4
Selenium content in selected meat and meat products (µg/g).
Sample
Meat
Chicken breast
Veal
Lamb
Pork chop
Pork chine
Rabbit
Organ meats
Rabbit tongue
Chicken liver
Chicken heart
Lamb lung
Pork kidney
Pork liver
Pork lung
Pork brain
Pork heart
Rabbit kidney
Sausages
Chorizo
Sausage
Ham
Chopped
Mortadella
Cured ham
n
Range
Mean
3
2
2
3
2
2
0.058–0.084
0.036–0.054
0.027–0.030
0.061–0.116
0.322–0.444
0.074–0.106
0.073
0.045
0.028
0.081
0.383
0.090
1
3
2
1
2
3
3
1
1
1
0.280–1.420
0.239–0.395
0.849–1.543
0.256–0.800
0.053–0.106
3
3
3
1
1
3
0.137–0.739
0.103–0.151
0.089–0.105
0.108–0.285
0.127
0.789
0.317
0.171
1.196
0.487
0.086
0.033
0.115
1.165
0.355
0.128
0.087
0.087
0.071
0.179
(Díaz-Alarcón, Miguel Navarro-Alarcón, López-García de la Serrana & López-Martínez,
1996).
2.1.4. Selenium
Selenium is an essential trace mineral for human and animal
because it is involved in regulating various physiological functions as
an integral part of selenoproteins. In mammals, the glutathione
peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase are the most abundant
selenium-containing proteins which play key roles in redox regulation
via removing and decomposing hydrogen peroxide and lipid hydroperoxides (Ursini, Maiorino, & Roveri, 1997). In human, selenium
deficiency is associated with decreased immune function resulting in
increased susceptibility to cancer (Gramadzinska, Reszka, Bruzelius,
Wasowicz & Akesson, 2008; Papp, Lu, Holmgren, & Khanna, 2007;
Rayman, 2005), cardiovascular diseases (Huttunen, 1997; Natella,
Fidale, Tubaro, Ursini, & Scaccini, 2007), muscular dystrophy (Jackson,
Coakley, Stokes, Edwards, & Oster, 1989), diabetes (Foster & Sumar,
1997; Laclaustra, Navas-Acien, Stranges, Ordovas, & Guallar, 2009;
Mueller, Mueller, Wolf, & Pallauf, 2009), arthritis (Tarp, 1995),
cataracts (Shearer, Mccormack, Desart, Britton, & Lopez, 1980), stroke
(Virtamo et al., 1985), macular degeneration (Bird, 1996) and other
diseases (Reilly, 1993).
The Recommend Daily Allowance for selenium is 55 µg/day for
adults in the USA and 75 and 60 µg/day for adult male and female,
respectively, in UK. Selenium deficiency is still a global problem in many
countries, which drives government to look for strategies to improve
human selenium intake. These solutions include direct selenium
supplementation, and improving the selenium content in soil and pro-
19
duction of selenium-rich foods (Fisinin, Papazyan, & Surai, 2009). In the
USA, foods including beef, white bread, pork, chicken and eggs account
for 50% of the selenium in the diet (Schubert, Holden, & Wolf, 1987). The
selelenium content in selected meat and meat products was listed in
Table 4. Kim and Mahan (2001) reported that dietary supplementation
of 5% or less organic and inorganic selenium did not influence body
weight, daily weight gain and feed intake in growing–finishing pigs.
However, it significantly increased selenium levels in blood and tissues
including kidney, liver, pancreas, spleen, heart and muscle (Table 5). In
loin muscle, the selenium content was increased from 0.154 ppm with
basal diet to 0.333 and 3.375 ppm with 5% inorganic (sodium selenite)
and organic selenium (selenium-enriched yeast) treatments. In a
similar study, feeding growing–finishing swine with 0.5 ppm of
inorganic and organic selenium increased the selenium content in loin
by 66% and 218%, respectively (Mahan & Parret, 1996). In Korea,
selenium-enriched pork “Selen Pork” was produced by feeding yeastbound selenium and sold as a functional food that can improve human
health and nutrition. In 2000, four Korean companies collectively raised
about 100,000 “Selen Pork” hogs. These “Selen Pork” hogs contained
approximately 10 times the selenium content of traditional pork and
they were leaner and juicier with a noticeably redder in color (Fisinin
et al., 2009).
Beef is a major source of dietary selenium for human and the
concentration of selenium in beef varies dramatically among countries
and regions: McNaughton and Marks (2002) reported that 100 g of
beef contained 3.0–3.6, 2.2–8.3, 7.2–12.1 and 13.4–19.0 µg selenium in
the UK, New Zealand, Australia and USA, respectively. As in swine,
dietary supplementation of 5% selenium-enriched yeast for 112 days
in beef cattle increased the content of selenium in psoas major and
longissimus muscle from 0.26 ppm to 0.63 and 0.66 ppm (Juniper,
Phipps, Ramos-Morales, & Bertin, 2008a). Supplementation of selenium also increased the glutathione peroxidase activity in muscle after 0
and 10 days postmortem storage. In lamb, the selenium contents in
psoas major and longissimus muscle increased from 0.29 and
0.30 ppm in control group to 7.02 and 7.82 ppm in 5% seleniumenriched yeast treatment (Juniper, Phipps, Ramos-Morales, & Bertin,
2008b). In the same study, high levels of dietary selenium also
improved the concentration of selenium in other tissues including
liver (1577%), heart (744%) and kidney (221%). In Korea, “Selen
Chicken” has been developed as a premium chicken brand with high
content of selenium. Skrivan, Marounek, Dlouha, and Sevcikova
(2008) reported that 24 weeks of feeding selenium-enriched yeast
and selenium-enriched alga chlorella increased the selenium and αtocopherol content in laying hens. The selenium content was increased
by 1.59 times in breast muscle and by 1.66 times in thigh muscle
through the dietary supplementation. These increased selenium
contents in meat products can be an excellent way to improve
selenium status for people living in selenium-deficient areas.
3. Addition of functional ingredients during processing
During past few decades, non-meat additives have been widely
utilized in meat products to reduce products costs and improve the
Table 5
Effects of dietary selenium on the selenium content of different tissues of pork (ppm).
Tissue
Kidney
Liver
Pancreas
Spleen
Lung
Heart
Hoof
Loin
Control
Inorganic selenium (ppm)
0
5
10
15
20
5
Organic selenium (ppm)
10
15
20
1.664
0.397
0.477
0.240
0.194
0.207
0.408
0.154
3.108
3.089
0.880
0.811
0.754
0.503
1.259
0.333
6.664
6.399
1.764
1.281
1.350
0.716
4.891
0.277
8.776
7.122
2.050
1.473
1.474
0.847
12.635
0.323
8.567
8.405
1.969
1.890
1.356
0.878
5.989
0.322
5.298
5.590
3.412
2.412
1.927
2.987
9.012
3.375
9.705
11.574
7.431
4.894
4.135
5.696
15.989
5.927
13.768
17.468
9.395
7.235
5.917
9.657
28.863
10.311
16.288
17.693
10.854
8.313
7.057
10.311
18.462
7.648
Author's personal copy
20
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
functionality of the products. These additives include vegetable
proteins, dietary fibers, herbs and spices, and probiotics, and they can
increase the nutritional value and provide benefits to human health.
loss. The textural and sensory properties of frankfurters including
viscosity, adhesiveness and batter stability were also improved
(Gnanasambandam & Zayas, 1992).
3.1. Vegetable proteins
3.2. Fibers
3.1.1. Soy proteins
Soy proteins are widely used in meat products in the forms of soy
flour, and soy protein concentrate and isolate to improve water and fat
binding ability, enhance emulsion stability, improve nutritional content,
and increase yields (Chin, Keeton, Miller, Longnecker, & Lamkey, 2000).
Soy protein isolates are very hydrophilic and thus can be incorporated
into meat products to reduce cooking loss. In Argentina sausage
“Chorizo”, addition of 2.5% soy protein isolate decreased drip loss
during 14 d refrigerated storage without introducing any changes in
flavor, aroma, juiciness characteristics, oxidation and microbiological
stability (Porcella et al., 2001). In frankfurters and fish frankfurteranalogs, incorporated soy protein hydrolysates reduced bacterial counts
and extended their shelf-life stored at 25 °C without influencing
the flavor and texture properties of the products (Vallejo-Cordoba,
Nakai, Powrie, & Beveridge, 1987). However, soy flour produced some
beany flavor and soy protein concentrates and isolates provided some
undesirable palatability in soy-added meat products (Rakosky, 1970;
Smith, Hynunil, Carpenter, Mattil & Cater, 1973). To overcome these
disadvantages, dried soy tofu powder was added in frankfurters and
pork sausage patties. Incorporation of tofu powder resulted in lower
fat and higher protein and moisture content, but did not affect sensory
parameters in lean pork sausages. Lean frankfurters added with tofu
powder had lower moisture content, but their texture and overall
acceptability was better than control (Ho, Wilson, & Sebranek, 1997).
Fat is an important constituent for human nutrition as a source of
vitamin and essential fatty acids, and provides most of energy in diet.
Fat also can contribute to the flavor, tenderness, juiciness, appearance,
and texture of meat products (Cavestany, Jimenez, Solas, & Carballo,
1994; Claus, Hunt & Kastner, 1989). However, excessive fat intake is
associated with various diseases including obesity, cancers, and
coronary heart diseases (Hooper et al., 2001; Rothstein, 2006). Thus,
meat industry is trying to produce meat products with low-fat
without compromising sensory and texture characteristics. Dietary
fiber is one of the ingredients to provide meat products with low-fat
and high fibers. Dietary fiber is defined as the remnant of edible part of
plants and analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and
absorption in human small intestine (Prosky, 1999). Increased intake
of dietary fibers has been recommended due to their effects in
reducing the risk of colon cancer, diabetes, obesity and cardiovascular
diseases in human (Eastwood, 1992). Grigelmo-Miguel, AbadiasSeros and Martin-Belloso (1999) reported that addition of 17% and
29% of peach dietary fiber suspensions to frankfurters increased
viscosity and decreased pH without influencing cooking loss, protein
and collagen contents, and sensory evaluation of the sausages. High
levels of oat bran were associated with decreased expressible moisture
and increased shear stress in low-fat chicken frankfurters (Chang &
Carpenter, 1997). Garcia, Dominguez, Galvez, Casas, and Selgas (2002)
found that high level (3%) of cereal (wheat and oat) and fruit (peach,
apple and orange) fibers caused increased hardness and cohesiveness
and decreased sensory and textural properties in low-fat and dry
fermented sausages. Addition of 1% and 2% of orange fiber to Spain dry
fermented sausages decreased the residual of nitrite and increased the
amounts of micrococcus during fermentation. During the dry-curing,
dietary fibers resulted in changes in pH, water activity and nitrite
residue (Fernandez-Lopez, Sendra, Sayas-Barbera, Navarro, & PerezAlvarez, 2008). Addition of dietary fiber obtained from inner pea and
chicory root improved gel strength and hardness of low-fat fish sausages
without influencing textural and color parameters of the sausages
(Cardoso, Mendes, & Nunes, 2008). Archer, Johnson, Devereux, and
Baxter (2004) reported that a breakfast sausage product added with
lupin-kernel fiber was rated more satiating than full-fat sausages, and
the total fat intake with lupin-kernel fiber-added breakfast sausage was
18 g lower and that with inulin-added one was 26 g lower than control.
The authors concluded that both inulin and lupin-kernel fiber could
replace fat in sausages and reduce fat and energy intake. These studies
support the idea that dietary fibers can be used in cooked meat products
to limit the detrimental effects of fat.
3.1.2. Whey proteins
Whey proteins showed excellent nutritional and functional
properties in low-fat meat products (Perez-Gago & Krochta 2001).
When liquid whey was used in frankfurter-type sausages, it could
replace 100% of ice in frankfurter formula (Yetim, Muller, Dogan, &
Klettner, 2001). Whey proteins improved emulsion stability, provided
better color properties, and resulted in lower chewiness and elasticity,
but caused higher brittleness and hardness in frankfurter-type
sausages (Yetim, Muller, & Eber, 2001). Pre-heated whey protein
isolates formed gel at low protein concentrations and low temperature
in the presence of added salt (Hongsprabhas & Barbut, 1997). When
pre-heated whey protein was used in poultry raw and cooked meat
batter, it resulted in increased water holding capacity, improved
rheological properties, and reduced cooking loss (Hongsprabhas &
Barbut, 1999). In addition, whey proteins can be incorporated into
films and coatings for meat products. During 8 week of refrigerated
storage, whey protein coatings reduced the TBARS and peroxide value
by 31.3% and 27.1%, respectively, in low-fat pork sausages. The growth
of aerobic bacteria and Listeria monocytogenes were inhibited and
moisture loss was decreased by 31.3% in sausages with whey protein
coating (Shon & Chin, 2008).
3.1.3. Wheat proteins
Wheat proteins could be a great additive due to their ability to
form viscoelastic mass of gluten through the interaction with water
(Pritchard & Brock, 1994). Gluten produced from wheat flour can be
used as a binder or extender in sausage products (Janssen, de-Baaij, &
Hagele, 1994). Chymotrypsin-hydrolyzed wheat gluten resulted in
lower microbial transglutaminase activity and improved thermal
gelation and emulsifying properties of myofibrillar protein isolates
(Xiong, Agyare, & Addo, 2008). When wheat proteins at 3% and 6%
were added to smoked sausages made with mechanically separated
poultry meat, hardness of the product increased but springiness
decreased (Li, Carpenter, & Cheney, 1998). Addition of 3.5% wheat
protein flour increased water holding capacity and decreased cooking
3.3. Herbs and spices
Lipid oxidation is the major reaction that deteriorates flavor, color,
texture, and nutritional value of foods (Kanner, 1994). Various synthetic
antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated
hydroxyanisole (BHA) and tertiary-butylhydroquinone have been
used to prevent oxidative deterioration of foods. However, synthetic
antioxidants are not completely accepted by consumers due to health
concerns. Therefore, some natural ingredients including herbs and
spices have been studied especially in Asian countries as potential
antioxidants in meat and meat products (McCarthy, Kerry, Kerry, Lynch,
& Buckley, 2001). Compounds from herbs and spices contain many
phytochemicals which are potential sources of natural antioxidants
including phenolic diterpenes, flavonoids, tannins and phenolic acids
(Dawidowicz, Wianowska, & Baraniak, 2006). These compounds have
antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. In food
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
systems, they can improve flavor, retard lipid oxidation-induced food
deteriorations, inhibit the growth of microorganisms, and play roles in
decreasing the risk of some diseases (Achinewhu, Ogbonna, & Hart,
1995; Tanabe, Yoshida, & Tomita, 2002). Among the spices, clove is
reported to have the strongest antioxidant capacity followed by rose
petals, cinnamon, nutmeg and other spices (Al-Jalay, Blank, McConnel, &
Al-Khayat, 1987). In addition, spices have antimicrobial ability mainly
due to the phenolic compounds. The possible mechanisms for
antimicrobial effect of phenolic compounds include: altering microbial
cell permeability (Bajpai, Rahman, Dung, Huh, & Kang, 2008); interfering
with membrane function including electron transport, nutrient uptake,
protein and nucleic acid synthesis, and enzyme activity (Bajpai et al.,
2008); interacting with membrane proteins causing deformation in
structure and functionality (Rico-Munoz, Bargiota, & Davidson, 1987);
and substituting alkyls into phenol nucleus (Dorman & Deans, 2000).
3.3.1. Rosemary extracts
Rosemary extract contains high levels of phenolic compounds
leading to its great antioxidant activity. Phenolic compounds are
capable of regenerating endogenous tocopherol in the phospholipid
bilayer of lipoprotein (Rice-Evans, Miller, & Paganga, 1996). Sebranek,
Sewalt, Robbins, and Houser (2004) reported that rosemary extracts
added to pork sausages at 2500 ppm level was equal to or more
effective than BHA/BHT in delaying TBARS values in raw and
precooked sausage during refrigerated and frozen storage. In addition,
addition of rosemary extracts improved the color and freshness of pork
sausages (Sebranek et al., 2004). Yu, Scanlin, Wilson, and Schmidt
(2002) added a water-soluble rosemary extract in cooked turkey
products and found that it was effective in retarding lipid oxidation
and preventing color loss evidenced by decreased L value and
increased a* value during refrigerated storage. In restructured
irradiated pork loins, combination of rosemary oleoresin with
tocopherol effectively reduced the volatile hexanal without inducing
any effects on the production of sulfur volatiles (Nam et al., 2006).
Rosemary extracts resulted in better color retention evidenced by
decreased metmyoglobin concentration and increased oxymyoglobin
values during 8 d storage in irradiated minced beef (Formanek, Lynch,
Galvin, Farkas, & Kerry, 2003).
3.3.2. Green tea
Catechins is a predominant group of polyphenols present in green
tea leaves composed of four compounds epicatechin, epicatechin
gallate, epigallocatechin, and epigallocatechin gallate (Zhong et al.,
2009). These tea compounds promote health by preventing lipid
oxidation and providing antibacterial, anticarcinogenic and antiviral
ability (Katiyar & Mukhtar, 1996; Yang, Chung, Yang, Chhabra, & Lee,
2000). Tea catechins were reported to reduce the formation of
peroxides even more effectively than α-tocopherol and BHA in
porcine lard and chicken fat (Chen et al., 1998). Tea polyphenols
could inhibit the formation of mutagens, which was known to be
associated with the breast and colon cancer, during cooking of ground
beef hamburger style meat (Weisburger et al., 2002). Added tea
catechins at 300 ppm level significantly reduced the TBARS values of
beef, duck, ostrich, pork and chicken during 10 d refrigerated storage.
At the same concentration, tea catechins provided two to four times
more antioxidative ability than α-tocopherol depending on meats
from different animal species (Tang, Sheehan, Buckley, Morrissey, &
Kerry, 2001). Green tea extract decreased the formation of TBARS and
the concentration of putrescine and tyramine in a dry fermented
turkey sausage. Addition of green tea, however, had no significant
effects on pH, color and overall sensory quality to sausages (Bozkurt,
2006). In pork sausages, green tea powder could partly substitute
nitrite, and resulted in lower TBARS value and decreased volatile basic
nitrogen contents compared to samples prepared with nitrite alone
(Choi, Kwon, An, Park, & Oh, 2003).
21
3.3.3. Clove
Clove (Eugenia caryophyllus) is known to have antimicrobial
activity for long time due to its active ingredient — eugenol (Cort,
1974). Clove oil at 0.5% and 1% level inhibited the growth of
L. monocytogenes in minced mutton. At 1% level, the number of
L. monocytogenes decreased by 1–3 log cfu/g in the mutton (Menon &
Garg, 2001). In ready-to-eat chicken frankfurters, clove oil at 1% and 2%
level inhibited the growth of L. monocytogenes during storage at 5 °C
and 15 °C (Mytle, Anderson, Doyle, & Smith, 2006). Clove oil was also
effective in inhibiting other food borne pathogens including C. jejuni, S.
Enteritidis, Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus (Smith-Palmer,
Steward, & Fyfe, 1998). Clove was able to prevent discoloration of raw
pork during storage at room temperature and was the strongest
antioxidant in retarding lipid oxidation among spice and herb extracts
including cinnamon, oregano, pomegranate peel and grape seed
(Shan, Cai, Brooks, & Corke, 2009). In another study, addition of
clove oil in combination with lactic acid or vitamin C could decreased
lipid oxidation, maintained high color a* value, and improved the
sensory color in buffalo meat during retail display (Naveena,
Muthukumar, Sen, Babji, & Murthy, 2006).
3.3.4. Garlic
Allicin is known as the main ingredient of garlic that has
antimicrobial activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria. Allicin is enzymatically produced from its precursor aliin via
the intermediate product of allylsulfenic acid (Ellmore & Feldberg,
1994). Many studies demonstrated that garlic extract was effective in
reducing the growth of many pathogens including S. aureus, S. albus, S.
typhi, E. coli, L. monocytogenes, A. niger, Acari parasitus, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, and Proteusmorganni (Kumar & Berwal, 1998; Maidment,
Dembny, & Harding, 1999). In refrigerated poultry meat, aqueous
garlic extract inhibited the growth of microbial contaminants
including facultative aerobic, mesophilic, and faecal coliforms on the
surface of poultry carcasses (Oliveira, Santos-Mendonca, Gomide, &
Vanetti, 2005). Addition of 1% and 3% of garlic juice could lead to
decreased peroxide value, TBARS, residual nitrite and total microbiological counts than those of control in emulsified sausage during cold
storage (Park & Kim, 2009).
3.3.5. Sage
Sage is the dried leaf of a mint family and is commonly used in pork
and pizza sausages. The major antioxidant compounds in sage include
carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmadial, rosmanol, epirosmanol, and methyl
carnosate (Cuvelier, Berset, & Richard, 1994). Addition of sage
essential oil (3%) decreased the TBARS values in raw and cooked
pork sample by 75% and 86%, respectively, while those of raw and
cooked beef decreased by 57% and 62% compared with control
(Fasseas, Mountzouris, Tarantilis, Polissiou, & Zervas, 2008). Sage
extract alone or in combination with sodium isoascorbate resulted in
decreased water activity and pH, reduced mesophilic bacteria and
coliforms counts in raw vacuum-packaged turkey meatballs, but had
better taste in cooked meatballs (Karpinska-Tymoszczyk, 2007). In
high-pressure processed chicken meat, sage protected minced chicken
breast from lipid oxidation during subsequent chilled storage for
2 weeks (Mariutti, Orlien, Bragagnolo, & Skibsted, 2008).
3.3.6. Oregano
Oregano is a traditional Mediterranean spice and the essential oil
from oregano obtained via steam distillation process contains more
than 30 compounds. Among the compounds, carvacrol and thymol
constitute its major antioxidant capacity (Vekiari, Oreopoulou, Tzia, &
Thomopoulos, 1993). Pork and beef added with 3% oregano essential
oil showed lower levels of oxidation after 12 days of refrigerated
storage (Fasseas et al., 2008). Oregano oil could extend the shelf-life of
fresh chicken breast meat by reducing the growth of microorganisms
during refrigerated storage. However, 1% oregano oil could introduce
Author's personal copy
22
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
very strong unfavorable flavor to food products resulting in low
sensory quality (Burt, 2004; Chouliara, Karatapanis, Savvaidis, &
Kontominas, 2007). Oregano essential oil (0.05%, 0.5% and 1%) could
delay the growth of microorganisms and decrease the final counts
of spoilage microorganisms under modified atmosphere conditions
(Skandamis & Nychas, 2001).
3.4. Probiotics and lactic acid bacteria
A probiotic is known as a culture of living microorganisms which
are mainly lactic acid bacteria or bifidobacteria. It can beneficially
affect the health of the host when it is ingested at certain levels by
preventing the growth of harmful bacteria via competitive exclusion
and by generating organic acids and antimicrobial compounds in the
colon (Salminen et al., 1996). Probiotic bacteria are mainly used in dry
sausages which are processed by fermentation without heat treatments. The main strains of probiotic types are listed in Table 6. Lactic
acid bacteria can contribute to flavor generation due to lactic and acetic
acids, and the volatiles resulted from carbohydrate fermentation
(Molly, Demeyer, Civera, & Verplaetse, 1996). The desirable probiotics
should have following properties: resistance to acid and bile toxicity;
adherence to human intestine cells; colonization in human guts;
antagonism against pathogenic bacteria; production of antimicrobial
substances; and immune modulation properties (Brassart & Schiffrin,
2000). Technically, German and Japan are the first two countries to
incorporate probiotic lactic acid bacteria into meat products (Arihara,
2006). These products may be healthy for human and benefit to the
quality of meat products. Most studies supported the idea that
probiotic lactic acid bacteria would not cause significant differences
in overall sensory properties (Muthukumarasamy & Holley, 2006;
Pidcock, Heard, & Henriksson, 2002). However, the use of fermented
meats produced with probiotics in human studies is very rare. Jahreis
Table 6
Examples of microbial strains that are commercially used as probiotics.
Microbial strain
Lactobacilli
Lactobacillus casei
Imunitass (DN-114 001)
Lactobacillus casei
Shirota (YIT 9029)
Lactobacillus johnsonii
La1 (NCC 533)
Lactobacillus plantarum 299v
Lactobacillus rhamnosus
GG (ATCC 53103)
Bifidobacteria
Bifidobacterium animalis
subsp. lactis Bb12
Bifidobacterium animalis
subsp. lactis Bifidus
Actiregularis (DN 173-010)
Bifidobacterium breve Yakult
Bifidobacterium longum BB 536
Mixtures of lactic acid bacteria
VSL#3 (mixture of eight
strains)
Brand name
Target application
Actimel
Immune response
Yakult
Gut health, digestive
system, natural defense
Gut health, natural defense
LC1
ProViva
Gefilus, Vifit
Digestive system
Gastro-intestinal health,
immune response
Various brand names
Gut microbiota,
immune system
Gut transit
Activia
Bifiene
Various brand names
(yoghurt, powder)
Digestive system/gut
microbiota
Gut microbiota,
immune system
VSL#3 (powder)
Biotherapeutic agent
(irritable bowel syndrome,
bowel diseases)
Other bacteria
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917
Mutaflor (suspension)
Biotherapeutic agent
(gut microbiota, bowel
diseases)
Yeasts
Saccharomyces boulardii
Enterol (pills)
Biotherapeutic agent
(diarrhea, Clostridium)
(Vuyst, Falony & Leroy, 2008).
et al. (2002) reported that the consumption of probiotic sausage increased the antibodies against oxidized low density lipoprotein without
introducing significant effects on the serum concentration of different
cholesterol fractions and triglycerides in human. The CD4 (T-helper)lymphocytes increased and the expression of CD54 (ICAM-1) on
lymphocytes decreased in people after consuming probiotic sausages.
Probiotic bacteria and probiotic products have been reported to have
various functions including modulation of intestinal flora; prevention of
diarrhea; improvement of constipation; prevention and treatment of
food allergies; reduction of cancer risk; lowering plasma cholesterol
level; and lowering faecal enzyme activities (Agrawal, 2005; Arihara,
2006; Stanton et al., 2003).
4. Production of functional components during processing
4.1. Curing
Originally, curing was used as a method to preserve meats.
Nowadays, however, curing is mainly utilized to provide aroma and
flavor as the preservation technologies such as refrigeration, freezing,
packaging and irradiation are developed (Flores, 1997). ‘Curing’ has
different meaning in different countries and products: in Mediterranean
regions and China, ‘curing’ means that the products experience a long
ripening (aging) process. Typical cured meat products include Spanish
Iberian and Serrano hams, Italian Parma and San Daniele hams, French
Bayonne ham, and Chinese Jinhua ham in which curing process can be
up to 2–3 years. In these products, nitrite is not added and smoking is
not utilized. In Northern Europe and America, the ‘curing’ has a more
general meaning and is classified as the meat products added with
nitrite or nitrate, and they usually are smoked and cooked before
consumption (Flores, 1997). During this processing, many biochemical
changes such as proteolysis, lipolysis and oxidation can occur in meat
products especially in dry-cured meat products, and the degradation of
ribonucleotides which play a key role in the typical aromatic volatile
compounds development.
Generally, proteolysis includes three main steps during curing: the
degradation of major myofibrillar proteins; the generation of polypeptides as substrates for peptidases to produce small peptides; and the
production of free amino acids (Toldrá, 2006). Many muscle endogenous
proteases are possibly involved in meat protein hydrolysis including
calpains, cathepsin, dipeptidyl peptidases, and aminopeptidases. Among
these enzymes, cathepsins and calpains are the most important
endopeptidases for muscle proteolysis (Luccia et al., 2005). Many
researchers have used SDS-polyacrylamide electrophoresis (Larrea,
Hernando, Quiles, Lluch, & Pérez-Munuera, 2006), FSCE (Free Solution
Conjugate Electrophoresis) and RP-HPLC (Reversed Phase-High Performance Liquid chromatography) (Rodriguez-Nuñez, Aristoy, & Toldrá,
1995) and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DGE) (Luccia et al.,
2005) to detect the protein changes and map peptides. They reported
that meat products, especially dry-cured products with long-term
ripening, could produce many small peptides and free amino acids.
The main free amino acids generated from curing include alanine,
leucine, valine, arginine, lysine, glutamic and aspartic acids. The levels of
free amino acids depend on aminopeptidase activity and the type of
meat products (Toldrá, Aristoy, & Flores, 2000). These compounds not
only directly attribute to flavor characteristics (Spanier, Spanier, Flores &
McMillin, 1997; Mottram, 1998) and taste properties (Koutsidis et al.,
2007) of meat products, but also serve as water-soluble flavor
precursors. These precursors can further react with reducing sugars to
form Maillard reaction products and Strecker degradation products
contributing to meat flavor (Imafidon & Spanier, 1994). Previous studies
demonstrated that cysteine among many flavor precursors played very
important role for meat flavor formation. Each free amino acid can
provide special taste properties: glycine and alanine are associated with
sweet taste, hydrophobic amino acids contribute to bitter taste, and
sodium salt of glutamic and aspartic acids can enhance taste (Nishimura
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
& Kato, 1988; Rodriguez-Nuñez, Aristoy, & Toldrá, 1995). The angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory peptides generated during the curing
of meat products have been studied extensively. For example, dipeptidyl
peptidases (DPP) could contribute to the generation of antihypertensive
peptides among which Arg–Pro showed the strongest angiotensin
converting enzyme inhibitory activity (Jang & Lee, 2005; Sentandreu
& Toldrá, 2007). Utilizing such components to develop novel meat
products and healthier food ingredient is under study.
During curing, lipolysis and auto-oxidation are responsible for the
changes in lipids (Toldrá, 1998; Coutron-Gambotti & Gandemer, 1999).
Phospholipids (PLs) and triglycerids (TGs) degraded by phospholipases
and lipases release free fatty acids. The fatty acids could undergo
oxidation to form peroxides which further react with peptides, amino
acids leading to secondary oxidation products to form aroma compounds (Toldrá, 2006; Zhou & Zhao, 2007). Three lipase systems are
involved in the break down of TGs: neutral lipase (hormone sensitive
lipases, HSL), basic lipases (lipoprotein lipases, LPL) and acid lipase
(Coutron-Gambotti & Gandemer, 1999). Phospholipases are divided into
three main groups: phospholipases A1 is responsible for the hydrolysis
of fatty acids in sn1 of the glycerol backbone of PLs, A2 is responsible for
the hydrolysis of fatty acids in sn2 of the glycerol backbone of PLs, and
lysophospholipases hydrolyse the remaining fatty acid (CoutronGambotti & Gandemer, 1999). These enzymes can result in the increase
and accumulation of free fatty acids in meat products and provide
substrates for further oxidation. Although oxidation is recognized as the
main causes of deterioration of meat quality during storage and
processing, it is a crucial reaction to develop typical flavor of meat
products, especially for many kinds of dry-cured meat products with
long-term ripening process (Chizzolini, Novelli, & Zanardi, 1998). Now, it
is clear that the main oxidation occurring during meat processing is autooxidation (Gandemer, 1999), which involves with initiation, propagation and termination steps (Frankel, 1984). It is known that polyunsaturated fatty acids undergo auto-oxidation much more readily than mono
or saturated fatty acids (Chizzolini et al., 1998). Therefore, during meat
products processing, the PLs which contain greater proportion of
polyunsaturated fatty acids are more important source for volatiles
compared to TGs (Toldrá, 1998). A large number of volatiles such as
alkanes, aldehydes, alcohols, esters and carboxylic acids are produced
from this process, of which the volatiles with low odor threshold play
important roles for meat flavor perception development. Aldehydes and
several unsaturated ketones and furan derivatives such as C3–C10
aldehydes, C5 and C8 unsaturated ketones and pentyl or pentenyl furans
have low odor thresholds (Bolzoni, Barbieri, & Virgili, 1996; Ruiz et al.,
1999) and produce oily, tallowy, deep-fried, green, metallic, cucumber,
mushroom and fruity odor notes in meat products (Toldrá, 1998).
Ribonucleotides are non-protein substances in meat and are
composed of purine or pyrimidine linked to ribose, and adenine,
guanine, cytosine or uracil. 5´-Ribonucleotides, adenosine monophosphate (AMP), inosine monophosphate (IMP) and guanosine monophosphate (GMP), are important in meat flavor development due to their
umami taste characteristics (Durnford & Shahidi, 1998; Spurvey et al.,
1998). Besides the characteristic umami taste, umami compounds also
can enhance flavor properties, such as meaty, brothy, mouth-filling, dry
and astringent qualities and suppress sulfurous perception (Kuninaka,
1981). Inosinate is an important factor in the taste of meats because of its
taste synergism with glutamate (Kato & Nishimura, 1987). Large
increases in free amino acid contents also occur during the curing of
meat products, and glutamate is the major free amino acid found in the
final product (Córdoba, Rojas, González, & Barroso, 1994). A recent study
suggested that sweet amino acids such as glycine, alanine, and serine
could intensify umami taste of IMP (Kawai, Okiyama, & Ueda, 1999).
4.2. Fermentation
As an ancient method of extending shelf-life of meat products,
fermentation plays a major role in meat industry. A significant number
23
of biochemical and physical reactions take place during the fermentation process. Therefore, the original characteristics of raw materials
are changed remarkably resulting in products with improved
functionality. For examples fermented sausages with characteristics
aroma (Flores, Dura, Marco, & Toldr, 2004; Stahnke, 1994; Schmidt &
Berger, 1998), dry fermented sausages with improved texture
(Ordonez, Hierro, Bruna & de la Hoz, 1999), semi-dry fermented
sausages with improved texture and flavor can be given. Among those
changes, the production of aromatic substances is the key factor that
determines the sensory characteristics of the end product (Rantsiou &
Luca, 2008).
4.2.1. Chemical changes during fermentation
The first evidence of fermented meat product is reported in India
where they produced a fermented meat product using Ghee (clarified
butter) (Hamm, Haller & Ganzle, 2008). The European Union countries
are the major producers of fermented meat products and fermented
meat products account for 20–40% of their total processed meat
(Hamm et al., 2008). Fermented sausages play a major role among
their meat products and are produced by stuffing seasoned raw meat
with a starter culture into casings, which were allowed for fermentation and maturation (Campbell-Platt & Cook, 1995; Lucke, 1998).
The basic starter cultures used in meat industry are selected strains of
homofermentative Lactobacilli (Lactic acid bacteria, LAB) and/or
Pediococci, and Gram-positive catalase–positive cocci (GCC), nonpathogenic, coagulase-negative staphylococci and/or kocuriae. The
rapid production of lactic acid in those products is primarily
responsible for the quality and safety of the product (Campbell-Platt
& Cook, 1995; Hugas & Monfort, 1997; Lucke, 1998). However, the
growth of other unwanted bacteria, sometimes produce detrimental
effect to the product. The growth of spoilage causing Clostridium
bacillus and other mesophillic bacteria have been reported during the
fermentation of meat when the lactic acid production by homofermentative lactic acid bacteria was low (Ray, 2004).
At the same time some LAB such as Lactobacilus plantarum can result
in over acidity which is also not desirable (Coventry & Hickey, 1991;
Hugas & Monfort, 1997; Garriga et al., 1996). Despite the abovementioned problems, meat industry is interested in fermented meat
products due to improvement in functional qualities such as sensory
characteristics and nutritional aspects of the products (JimenezColmenero et al., 2001). Especially the demand for functional foods
has been increased drastically over the past few decades and meat
industry is looking for “functional starter cultures” which can improve
sensory, nutritional quality, health and microbial safety of meat
products (De Vuyst, 2000; De Vuyst , Foulquié Moreno, & Revets, 2003).
Fermentation of meat causes number of physical, biochemical and
microbial changes, which eventually result in functional characteristics
of the products. Those changes include acidification (carbohydrate
catabolism), solubilization and geleation of myofibrilla and srcoplasmic
proteins, degradation of proteins and lipids, reduction of nitrate into
nitrite, formation of nitrosomyoglobin and dehydration (Hamm et al.,
2008). These processes are mainly caused by endogenous and microbial
enzymatic activities (Molly et al., 1997). The taste of fermented meat
products is mainly due to lactic acids and production of low molecular
weights flavor compounds such as peptides and free amino acids,
aldehydes, organic acids and amines resulted from proteolysis of meat
(Naes, Holck, Axelsson, Anderson, & Blom, 1995). Since the flavor of a
product is composed of taste and aroma, aromatic compounds produced
during the fermentation process play a major role. Lipid oxidation
products, free fatty acids, and volatile compounds produced from the
process of fermentation are responsible for the aroma of a meat product
(Ordonez, Hierro, Bruna, & de la Hoz, 1999; Claeys, De Smet, Balcaen,
Raes, & Demeyer, 2004). Although, lactic acid is the major flavor
compound in the fermented meat products, acetic acid also play an
important role in fully dried meat products (Mateo & Zumalacárregui,
1996). These acids are produced from carbohydrates during
Author's personal copy
24
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
fermentation process (Molly et al., 1997) and the desirable lacate to
acetate ratio is in the range of 7:1 to 20:1 (Erkkila, Petaja, et al., 2001;
Hamm et al., 2008).
Degradation of proteins during the fermentation process is one of the
key factors involved in the improvement of functional value of meat
products. Johansson, Berdague, Larsson, Tran, and Borch (1994)
prepared fermented sausages and evaluated the profiles of sarcoplasmic
proteins in the sausages, and found that sarcoplasmic proteins with
molecular weights (MW) 20 and 30 kDa disappeared at the end of the
7d fermentation period. Diaz, Fernandez, Garcia de Fernando, de la Hoz
and Ordonez (1997) also found that proteins with MW of 40, 44, 84 and
100 kDa completely disappeared in the sausages during fermentation at
22 °C for 24 h and ripening for 26 days, while polypeptides with MW of
8, 10, 11, 16, 38 and 49 kDa appeared over the same time period.
Verplaetse, de Bosschere and Demeyer (1989) reported similar
observations in myofibrillar proteins of fermented (22 °C for 3 days)
and dried sausages (15 °C for 18 days). The degree of degradation in
myosin heavy chain, actin and troponin-T was 49, 33 and 27%,
respectively. The amounts of polypeptides with molecular weights of
14 to 36 kDa increased by 80% during the ripening period. They also
observed disappearance of peptides with MW of 10 to 13 kDa. Molly et
al. (1997) reported 75% and 57% degradation of myosin and actin,
respectively, in fermented (24 °C for 3 days) and dried (at 15 °C for
18 days) sausages. Hughes, Kerry, Arendt, Kenneally, and McSweeney
(2002) characterized the proteolysis of semi-dried fermented sausages
during the ripening period and found six trichloroacetic acid-soluble
peptides from the sarcoplasmic (myoglobin, creatine kinase) and
myofibrillar (troponin-I, troponin-T and myosin light chain-2) proteins.
They concluded that the initial degradation of sarcoplasmic proteins
was due to indigenous proteinases but the degradation of myofibrillar
proteins was due to both indigenous and bacterial enzymes. It also has
been reported that the proteolysis of meat by endogenous enzymes such
as cathepsin D-like enzymes produces peptides during the fermentation
process (Hierro, de la Hoz, & Ordonez, 1999; Molly et al., 1997). Table 7
shows the peptides identified by Hughes et al. (2002) through Reverse
Phase-High Performance Liquid Chromotography (RP-HPLC). During
the fermentation and ripening periods, the amounts of free amino acids
increased in the fermented products. The peptides resulted from
proteolysis can be further degraded by microorganisms resulting in
amino acids, and can be converted to aromatic compounds. Especially
the amounts of hydrophobic amino acids released during the fermentation process were significantly higher than those of other amino acids
(Hughes et al., 2002; Henriksen & Stahnke, 1997). The degradation of
free amino acids plays a major role in the production of volatile
compounds, which is important for the production of characteristic
flavors of dry sausages. Aldehydes, alcohols and acids produced from the
degradation of free amino acids have low threshold values (Montel et al.,
1996). Mateo and Zumalacárregui (1996) detected high amounts of
2-methylpropanal, 2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2-methylpropanol, 2-
and 3-methylbutanol, 2-methylpropanoic, and 2- and 3-methylbutyric acids in Spanish dry fermented sausages. These compounds
were produced from valine, leucine and isoleucine were responsible
for the characteristic sweet odors of those sausages.
Lipolysis produces free fatty acids and has a significant effect on the
development of characteristic flavor in fermented meat products
(Samelis, Aggelis, & Metaxopoulos, 1993; Galgano, Favati, Schirone,
Martuscelli, & Crudele, 2003) because the free fatty acids resulted from
lipolysis are easily oxidized and produce alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
esters and lactones (Viallon et al., 1996; Chizzolini, Novelli, & Zanardi,
1998). These compounds ultimately affect the sensory qualities of
products significantly. The oxidation of free fatty acids and production of
the above-mentioned compounds is mainly attributed to bacteria
during the fermentation process (Molly et al., 1997; Lizaso, Chasco, &
Beriain, 1999). Ansorena, Gimeno, Astiasaran, & Bello (2001) found that
short chain fatty acids (C b 6) are mainly responsible for strong cheesy
odor. Therefore, the biochemical changes occurring during fermentation
play an important role in enhancing the functional value of meat
products. However, the production of flavor- and aroma-related
compounds during fermentation is a very complex procedure and
varies depending upon raw materials (meat, spice and starter culture)
and technology (salting, fermentation, ripening drying, fermentation
and drying procedures) used for the production of meat products.
4.2.2. Production of antibacterial compounds
Bacteriocins are the peptides produced by lactic acid bacteria with
antibacterial properties. These peptides can reduce or inhibit the growth
of other Gram-positive bacteria (Cintas et al., 1995; Cleveland,
Montville, Nes, & Chikindas, 2001; Diep & Nes, 2002), and thus they
can be used to control the growth of food borne pathogens such as L.
monocytogenes in food products (Ennahar, Sonomoto, & Ishizaki, 1999).
Cintas et al. (1995) isolated Pediococcus acidilactici from Spanish dry
fermented sausages and found that they had a strong inhibitory effect
against members of gram-positive genera. It has been observed that
starter cultures containing Lactobacillus sakei reduced the growth of
Listeria in fermented sausages (Hugas et al., 1995; De Martinis and
Franco, 1998). Also, Lactobacillus curvatus and L. plantarum in sausage
starter cultures have shown antilesterial effect (Campanini, Pedrazzoni,
Barbuti & Baldini, 1993; Dicks, Mellet, & Hoffman, 2004). Teixeira de
Carvalho, Aparecida de Paulaa, Mantovani, and Alencar de Moraes
(2006) reported antilisterial effect of a lactic acid bacterium isolated
from Italian salami. Vignolo, Suriani, de Ruiz Holgado and Oliver (1993)
found that nine strains of Lactobacilus casei and three strains of L.
plantarum isolated from dry fermented sausages had an antagonistic
activity against the indicator species tested. The bacteriocin produced by
L. casei was named as Lactocin 705 and showed antibacterial effects
against L. plantarum, L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and a wide range of
Gram-negative bacteria. Production of bacteriocins during fermentation
of meat plays an important role in enhancing the functional value of
Table 7
Identity of peptides isolated by RP-HPLC produced in the ripening of fermented sausages.
Peak no.
N-terminal sequence
Parent protein
Species/muscle
No. AA
Location on protein
N-Terminal cleavage site
% Homology
1
VGGRWK
Troponin-T
2(A)
GKVEADVAGH
Myoglobin
2(A)
PFGNTHNKY
Creatine kinase m-chain
3
DVGDWRKNV
Troponin-I
4(A)
VHIITHGEEK
Myosin light chain 2
4(B)
HAKHPSDFGA
Myoglobin
Rabbit skeletal muscle 2
Chicken skeletal muscle
Bovine heart muscle
Porcine heart muscle
Human skeletal muscle
Rabbit skeletal muscle
Human skeletal muscle
Rabbit skeletal muscle
Human cardiac muscle
Mouse skeletal muscle
Porcine cardiac muscle
Bovine cardiac muscle
159
251
154
154
381
381
183
179
165
166
154
154
Val254–Lys259
Val246–Lys251
Gly16–His25
Gly16–His25
Pro2–Lys9
Pro2–Lys9
Glu139–Asn146
Asp154–Asn161
Val155–Lys164
Val156–Lys16
Gln117–Ala126
His117–Ala126
Lys253–Val254
Lys245–Val246
Trp15–Gly16
Trp15–Gly16
Met1–Pro2
Met1–Pro2
Val138–Glu139
Arg153–Asp154
Leu154–Val155
5 Leu155–Val156
Leu116–Gln117
Leu116–His117
100
100
100
100
88
88
88
100
100
100
70
100
(Hughes et al. 2002).
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
meat products, but production of other antimicrobial compounds by
specific starter cultures can also be used in fermented sausages.
4.2.3. Probitics and fermented meat sausages
The probiotics are microorganisms which can exert some health
benefits to the host when ingested in adequate levels in live (FAO/WHO,
2006). Among those health benefits antimicrobial activity, improvement in lactose metabolism, reduction of gastrointestinal infections,
reduction in serum cholesterol, immune system stimulation, antimutagenic properties, anticarcinogenic properties, anti-diarrheal properties,
recovery in inflammatory bowel disease and suppression of Helicobacter pylori infection can be identified (Sanders & Veld, 1999). The
probiotics foods are the functional group of foods which contain live
probiotics (Arvanitoyannis & van Koukaliaroglou, 2005). Probiotics are
mainly the strains from species of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus
(FAO/WHO, 2006). Other than that some species of Lactococcus,
Enterococcus, Saccharomyces (Sanders & Veld, 1999; Salminen & von
Wright, 1998) and Propionibacterium are considered as probiotics due to
their ability to promote health in the host (Huang & Adams, 2004).
Fermented sausages can be potential candidates for probiotics since
they are subjected to mild heating and may enhance the survival of
probiotic bacteria in the digestive system (Arihara, 2006; De Vuyst,
Falony, & Leroy, 2008). In 2000, Erkkila and Petaja evaluated survival of
lactic acids bacteria from eight meat starter cultures and found that
strains of Lactobacillus sakei and Pediococcus acidilactici have the best
survival capacities under acidic conditions and high levels of bile salt.
However, the use of probiotics in dry fermented meat products is not
common (Erkkila, Suihko, Eerola, Petaja, & Mattila-Sandholm, 2001).
According to Lucke 2000, a probiotic fermented sausage produced with
Bifedobacterium in Germany resulted poor survival of Bifedobacterium
during the sausage ripening suggesting that a very high inoculums is
required for achieving the minimum level of probiotic bacterial
population (6 log cfu/g ) in the final product. Microencapsulation has
been suggested as a promising method to increase the survival ability of
probitics during the meat fermentation (Audet, Paquin, & Lacroix, 1988;
Sheu & Marshall, 1993). Muthukumarasamy & Holley in 2006, observed
no significant difference of sensory evaluation of a fermented dried
sausage containing either unencapsulated or microencapsulated probiotic bacterium of L. reuteri. Rebucci et al., 2007, evaluated potential use
of lactobacillus strains (L. casei, L. paracasei paracasei, Lactobacillus
rhamnosus and L. sakei sakei) isolated from a traditional Italian dry
fermented as probiotics. They fund that L. casei and L. rhamnosus had an
antibacterial activity against E. coli and Salmonella enterica ssp. enterica
(serovar Typhimurium). A study conducted to screen potential probiotic
cultures for the Scandinavian-type fermented sausages from strains
thrive in fermented meat products and a culture collection showed that
non starter culture L. plantarum and L. pentosus, which originated from
fermented meat products were in agreement with definition of
probiotics. Those strains were able to survive and grow in simulated
human gastro intestinal tract condition and inhibit potential pathogenic
bacteria. In addition, the application of those selected strains in the
fermented sausages was a success without affecting the flavor of the
product (Klingberg, Axelsson, Naterstad, Elsser, & Budde, 2005).
However, development of fermented meat products with probiotics
seems challenging since the viability of those bacteria is affected by high
content of curing salt and low pH due to acidification and low water
activity due to drying (De Vuyst, Falony, & Leroy, 2008). A comprehensive review on probiotics in fermented sausages was done by (De Vuyst
et al., 2008).
4.3. Enzyme hydrolysis of proteins
Peptides are short polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
(Shahidi & Zhong, 2008). Peptides which can exert different biological
functions or physiological effects are known as bioactive peptides and
have been generated in vivo in various living organisms or in vitro by
25
enzymatic hydrolysis of various proteins (Smacchi & Gobbetti, 2000).
The bioactive peptides embedded in proteins are usually inactive within
the native proteins and supposed to be released during proteolytic
enzyme digestion or food processing. There are many kinds of bioactive
peptides with antihypertensive (Arihara et al., 2004), antioxidant (Elias,
Kellerby, & Decker, 2008), anticancer (Song et al., 2000), antimicrobial
(Minervini et al., 2003), opioid (Leppala, 2001), mineral binding (Jiang &
Mine, 2000), immunomodulatory (Nelson, Katayama, Mine, & Duarte,
2007), cholesterol-lowering (Jeong et al., 2007) and anti-diabetic
activities (Jianyun, Hu, Ren, & Peng, 2008). There is a growing interest
in potential uses of bioactive molecules in food and health care sectors
(McCann et al., 2005).
Meat has been used as a valuable protein source for the production
of bioactive peptides. Especially, the use of meat proteins for the
production of ACE inhibitory bioactive peptides is very common.
Arihara et al. (2004) evaluated eight different enzymatic hydrolyzates
(by using exogenous enzymes) of porcine skeletal muscle proteins for
the ACE inhibitoty activity and found that the thermolysin digest had
the most potent inhibitory activity among them. Two ACE inhibitory
peptides identified were Met-Asn-Pro-Pro-Lys and Ile-Thr-Thr-AsnPro, and were corresponded to the sequence of myosin heavy chain. In
addition, these peptides showed significant blood pressure-reducing
effect in spontaneous hypertensive rats (Nakashima, Arihara, Sasaki,
Ishikawa, & Itoh, 2002). Saiga et al. (2003) treated chicken breast meat
extract with an Aspergillus protease and gastric proteases (trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and intestinal juice) in order to produce ACE inhibitory
peptides. They observed ACE inhibitory effect in both the extract and
hydrolysate of the extract. Three ACE inhibitory peptides having
common sequence of Gly-X-X-Gly-X-X-Gly-X-X had been identified
and the strongest ACE inhibitory activity was observed with Gly-PheHyp-Gly-Thr-Hyp-Gly-Leu-Hyp-Gly-Phe peptide. In addition, they
evaluated the Aspergillus protease hydrolsate of chicken collagen for
ACE inhibitory activity and found that the responsible peptide have the
sequence of Gly-Ala-Hyp-Gly-Leu-Hyp-Gly-Pro. Also, administration
of the responsible peptide-containing fraction of hydrolysate showed
significant reduction in blood pressure of spontaneous hypertensive
rats. Fu-Yuan, Yu-tse, Tien-chun, Liang-chuan, and Sakata (2008)
evaluated the hydrolysates of chicken leg bones for ACE inhibitory
activity. The hydrolysate obtained by Alkalase enzyme showed the
highest activity. Jang and Lee (2005) reported that a peptide with ValLeu-Ala-Gln-Tyr-Lys sequence from hydrolysates of sarcoplasmic
protein extracts of beef showed a very strong ACE inhibitory ability.
Kazunori et al. (2003) evaluated the pepsin hydrolysate of porcine
skeletal troponin C for the ACE inhibitory activity and found that a
peptide with RMLGQTPT amino acid sequence had a very high ACE
inhibitory activity. Kim, Byun, Park, and Shahidi (2001) sequentially
digested bovine skin gelatin with Alcalase, Pronase E and collagenase
and isolated two peptides with amino acid sequence of Gly-Pro-Leu
and Gly-Pro-Val with high ACE inhibitory activity. A comprehensive
review on ACE inhibitory peptides derived from muscle proteins has
been published by Vercruysse et al. (2005).
Sakanaka, Tachibana, Ishihara, and Juneja (2005) evaluated ground
beef homogenates incorporated with casein calcium peptides
obtained by using microbial enzyme hydrolysis and observed strong
antioxidant activity against lipid oxidation in it. Wang and Xiong
(2008) investigated the effect of hydrolyzed potato proteins on the
oxidation of isolated myofibril proteins in induced (iron-catalyzed and
metmyoglobin) oxidizing systems and found that the hydrolyzed
potato proteins reduced the oxidation of myofibril proteins in all
physicochemical conditions tested. Rossini, Noren, Cladera-Olivera,
and Brandelli (2009) reported that casein peptides produced using
flavourzyme had greater antioxidant capacity than alcalse-derived
ones. Those peptides were effective in inhibiting lipid peroxidation of
ground beef homogenates and mechanically deboned poultry meat.
Zhang and Zhou (2010) incorporated three fractions of soy bean
hydrolysates obtained from neutral protease treatment into ground
Author's personal copy
26
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
beef and observed significant reduction in lipid peroxidation. These
findings indicated that indicate the potentials of use of bioactive
peptides derived from different food ingredients can also have
potentials to be used in developing functional meat products. The
use and application of artificial antioxidant has become challenging
due to potential health hazards related to synthetic antioxidants
(Branen 1975; Becker, 1993; Mendis, Rajapakse, & Kim, 2005).
Recently it has been observed a significantly increased of utilization
of natural antioxidants (Shahidi, Liyana-Pathirana, & Wall, 2006).
Therefore, use of bioactive antioxidant peptides in meat products
make them functional food by avoiding the potential health risk
associated with artificial anti oxidants.
Addition of protein hydrolysates in order to enhance the flavor of
meat products plays an important role in replacing synthetic flavor
enhancers. Therefore, the products can be made natural. Formation of
bitter tastes has been identified as a problem associated with food
hydrolysates. However, hydrolysates of meat, fish and gelatin are less
bitter than those from other food sources (Johanna, 2007). These results
indicated that meat proteins have a high potential to produce bioactive
peptides and used as functional ingredients for meat products.
Incorporation of these bioactive peptides in meat products in order to
enhance the functional value of meat products may not be practical at
this point, but meat products with bioactive peptides could open door
for a new market since demands for functional foods, especially natural
functional foods, is increasing rapidly (Arihara, 2006).
5. Current status on the consumer acceptance and market for
functional meat products
Consumer acceptance is the key for the success of functional foods
in the market. However, there are very few comprehensive studies on
the consumer acceptance and the market size for functional meat and
meat products. The discussion of this section is mainly based on the
survey and reports of general functional foods. The largest market for
functional foods is USA followed by Europe and Japan. The markets of
these three regions constitute 90% of total global sales of functional
foods (Benkouider, 2005). The estimations of global markets for
functional foods are in the range of 33 billion to 61 billion dollars
(Benkouider, 2004; Hilliam, 2000; Sloan, 2002).
The term “Functional Foods” has been first mentioned in Japan in
early 1980s to define some food products fortified with special
constituents that were beneficial to physiological health for human
(Hardy, 2000; Kwak & Jukes, 2001; Stanton, Ross, Fitzgerald, & Van
Sinderen, 2005). In 1991, Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare
first established the rules for functional foods as foods for specified
health use (FOSHU) (Arihara, 2004; Menrad, 2003). According to this
regulation, FOSHU is expected to have specific health benefits from
the foods or food components. The typical ingredients allowed for
FOSHU include oligosaccharides, fibers, lactic acid bacteria, soy
proteins, sugar alcohols, peptides, calcium, iron, polyphenols, glycosides, sterol esters and diacylglycerols (Arihara, 2004). The markets of
functional foods in Japan have been increasing gradually. There were
more than 500 products to be marked as FOSHU in 2005 in Japan and
the market size for functional foods was around 5.73 billion dollars in
Japan in 2006 (Siró, Kápolna, Kápolna, & Lugasi, 2008). As reviewed by
Arihara (2004), nine FOSHU meat products, which include four
sausage products, one ham product, two hamburger steak products
and two meatball products, have been approved and marketed in
Japan. In these products, vegetable proteins such as soy proteins and
dietary fibers including dietary dextrin are incorporated. They have
been designed and proved to reduce fat content in meat products and
provide beneficial effects for human health and prevent the risk of
diseases.
Western countries have different considerations about the functional
foods compared with Japan. In Europe and USA, functional foods are more
about a concept adding functionality to existing food products without
creating separate group of new food products (Hilliam, 1998). However,
functional products are considered as different class of products and
improvement in functionality is more important than taste (Siró et al.,
2008). In Europe, the European Commission's Concerted Action on
Functional Food Science defined the functional foods as “a food product
can only be considered functional if together with the basic nutritional
impact it has beneficial effects on one or more functions of the human
organism thus either improving the general and physical conditions or/
and decreasing the risk of the evolution of diseases”. The amount of
intake and form of functional foods should be as is normally expected for
dietary purpose. Therefore, it could not be in the form of pill or capsule
but should be in normal food forms (Diplock et al., 1999). The
consumers in Europe are more critical and conditional about functional
foods compared to Americans partly due to food safety consideration in
Europe (Fernandez-Ginés, Fernández-Lópes, Sayas-Barberá, & PérezAlvarez, 2005). For example, consumers in Denmark have strong
suspicion about functional foods and judge them as unnatural and
impure foods. Comparatively, consumers in Central and Northern
parts of Europe are more interested in functional foods than other
Mediterranean countries (Menrad, 2003). The market value of
functional foods in Europe is estimated to be 15 billion dollars by
2006 which represents less than 1% of total foods and drinks market
(Siró et al., 2008). The major countries for functional food market in
Europe are Germany, France, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
However, there are some new emerging markets in European countries
including Hungary, Russia, Poland and Spain. For example, the market
for functional foods in Spain increased approximately by 50% between
2000 and 2005. The share of functional foods in total food markets
was estimated to be increased from 17% in 2006 to 40% in 2020 (Siró
et al., 2008).
USA is the biggest market for functional food in the world and
representing 35–50% of global sales. By the end of 2009, it is estimated
that US market for functional foods could be more than 25 billion
dollars. The market share of functional foods is around 5% of total food
market in the US (Menrad, 2003). The dynamic market in the US is
partly due to the fact that American consumers well aware and ready
to accept the concept of functional foods and try to incorporate them
to their regular diets. In addition, the legislative framework is more
favorable of functional food than Europe (Hilliam, 1998).
6. Future prospects
As the economy develops, meat and meat products is not only
utilized to provide necessary nutrients but also expected to have
additional functions to prevent diseases and improve mental and wellbeing of consumers (Roberfroid, 2000; Siró et al., 2008). These
demands provide great opportunities for meat industry. The strategies
to fortify foods with functional compounds to increase micronutrients
and limit or eliminate undesirable constituents can be done by dietary
supplementation at animal production level, treatments and handling
of meat raw materials, and reformulation of meat products.
However, only limited number of studies on the possible health
benefits of functional meat and meat products in human has been
done. Most conclusions are drawn from the fact that functional
ingredients itself may be beneficial to human. Therefore, further
studies are needed to provide strong evidences for the human health
benefits of functional meat and meat products. With increased
scientific data, meat scientists and industry have to spend more efforts
in informing and educating consumers about the health benefits of
functional meat and meat products. Finally, the bio-availability of
added functional ingredients should be maintained during the
processing and commercial storage. However, many countries have
not legislatively established regulations about functional meat and
meat products. Consumers, even experts of nutrition and foods, cannot
differentiate clearly between conventional and functional foods (Niva,
2007). Thus, more safe and efficient evaluation process to ensure a
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
scientific process for each proposed functional food and provide clear
information to consumers should be established.
Acknowledgement
The work has been supported by the Iowa State University and the
WCU (World Class University) program (R31-10056) through the
National Research Foundation of Korea funded by the Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology.
References
Achinewhu, S. C., Ogbonna, C. C., & Hart, A. D. (1995). Chemical composition of
indigenous wild herbs, spices, fruits, nuts and leafy vegetables used as food. Plant
Foods for Human Nutrition, 48, 341−348.
Agrawal, R. (2005). Probiotics: An emerging food supplement with healthy benefits.
Food Biotechnology, 19, 227−246.
Al-Jalay, B., Blank, G., McConnel, B., & Al-Khayat, M. (1987). Antioxidant activity of
selected spices used in fermented meat sausage. Journal of Food Protection, 50, 25−27.
Appel, L. J., Miller, E. R., Seidler, A. J., & Whelton, P. K. (1993). Does supplementation of
diet with “fish oil” reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical
trials. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 1429−1438.
Ansorena, D., Gimeno, O., Astiasaran, I., & Bello, J. (2001). Analysis of volatile
compounds by GS-MS of a dry fermented sausage: chorizo de Pamplona. Food
Research International, 34, 67−75.
Archer, B. J., Johnson, S. K., Devereux, H. M., & Baxter, A. L. (2004). Effect of fat
replacement by inulin or lupin-kernel fibre on sausage patty acceptability, postmeal perceptions of satiety and food intake in men. British Journal of Nutrition, 91,
591−599.
Arihara, K. (2004). Functional foods. In W. K. Jensen, C. Devine, & M. Dikeman (Eds.),
Encyclopedia of meat sciences (pp. 492−499). Oxford: Elsevier.
Arihara, K. (2006). Strategies for designing novel functional meat products. Meat
Science, 74, 219−229.
Arvanitoyannis, I. S., & van Koukaliaroglou, H. M. (2005). Functional foods: A survey of
health claims, pros and cons, and current legislation. Critical Reviews in Food Science
and Nutrition, 45, 385−404.
Assisi, A., Banzi, R., Buonocore, C. Di., Muzio, M. F., Vitocolonna, M., & Garattini, S.
(2006). Fish oil and mental health: The role of n−3 long-chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids in cognitive development and neurological disorders. International
Clinical Psychopharmacology, 21, 319−336.
Audet, P., Paquin, C., & Lacroix, C. (1988). Immobilized growing lactic acid bacteria with κcarrageenan–locust bean gum gel. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 29, 11−18.
Bajpai, V. K., Rahman, A., Dung, N. T., Huh, M. K., & Kang, S. C. (2008). In vitro inhibition
of food spoilage and food borne pathogenic bacteria by essential oil and leaf
extracts of Magnolia liliflora Desr. Journal of Food Science, 73, 314−320.
Becker, G. L. (1993). Preserving food and health: Antioxidants make functional,
nutritious preservatives. Food Processing (Chicago), 12, 54−56.
Belury, M. A., & Vanden Heuvel, J. P. (1997). Protection against cancer and heart disease
by CLA: Potential mechanisms of action. Nutrition and Disease Update, 1, 58−63.
Benkouider, C. (2004). Functional foods: A global overview. International Food
Ingredients, 5, 66−68.
Benkouider, C. (2005). The world's emerging markets. Functional foods and nutraceuticals Http://www.ffnmag.com/NH/ASP/strArticleID/770/strSite/FFNSite/ article
Display.asp.
Biesalski, H. K. (2005). Meat as a component of a healthy diet — Are there any risks or
benefits if meat is avoided in the diet? Meat Science, 70, 509−524.
Bird, A. C. (1996). Are selenium zinc tablets protection against macular degeneration.
British Medical Journal, 313, 998-998.
Boles, J. A., Kott, R. W., Hatfield, P. G., Bergman, J. W., & Flynn, C. R. (2005). Supplemental
safflower oil affects the fatty acid profile including conjugated linoleic acid of lamb.
Journal of Animal Science, 83, 2175−2181.
Bolzoni, L., Barbieri, G., & Virgili, R. (1996). Changes in volatile compounds of Parma
hard during maturation. Meat Science, 43, 301−310.
Bozkurt, H. (2006). Utilization of natural antioxidants: green tea extract and Thymbra
spicata oil in Turkish dry-fermented sausage. Meat Science, 73, 442−450.
Branen, A. L. (1975). Toxicology and biochemistry of butylated hydroxyanisole and
butylated hydroxytoluene. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 52, 59−63.
Brassart, D., & Schiffrin, E. J. (2000). Pre- and probiotics. In M. K. Schmidl, & T. P. Labuza (Eds.),
Essential of functional foods (pp. 205−216). Gaithersburg MD,: Aspen Publication.
Burt, S. (2004). Essential oils: Their antibacterial properties and potential applications
in foods — A review. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 94, 223−253.
Calder, P. C. (2006). n−3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and inflammatory
diseases. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 83, 1505−1519.
Campbell-Platt, G., & Cook, P. E. (1995). Fermented meats. London: Blackie Academic and
Professional.
Campanini, M., Pedrazzoni, I., Barbuti, S., & Baldini, P. (1993). Behaviour of Listeria
monocytogenes during the maturation of naturally and artificially contaminated
salami: Effect of lactic acid bacteria starter cultures. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 20, 169−175.
Cardoso, C., Mendes, R., & Nunes, M. L. (2008). Development of a healthy low-fat fish
sausage containing dietary fibre. International Journal of Food Science and Technology,
43, 276−283.
27
Carnagey, K. M., Huff-Lonergan, E. J., Trenkle, A., Wertz-Lutz, A. E., Horst, R. L., & Beitz, D. C.
(2008). Use of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and vitamin E to improve tenderness of beef
form longissimus dorsi of heifers. Journal of Animal Science, 86, 1649−1657.
Cavestany, M., Jimenez, C. G., Solas, M. T., & Carballo, J. (1994). Incorporation of sardine
surimi to bologna sausage containing different fat levels. Meat Science, 38, 27−37.
Chan, W. K. M., Hakkarainen, K., Faustman, C., Schaefer, D. M., Scheller, K. K., & Liu, Q.
(1996). Dietary vitamin E effect on color stability and sensory assessment of
spoilage in three beef muscles. Meat Science, 42, 387−399.
Chang, H., & Carpenter, J. A. (1997). Optimizing quality of frankfurters containing oat
bran and added water. Journal of Food Science, 62(194–197), 202.
Cheah, K. S., & Cheah, A. M. (1981). Mitochondrial calcium transport and calciumactivated phospholipase in porcine malignant hyperthermia. Biochimica Biophysica
Acta, 634, 70−84.
Cheah, K. S., Cheah, A. M., Crosland, A. R., Casey, J. C., & Webb, A. J. (1984).
Relationship between Ca2+ release, sarcoplasmic Ca2+, glycolysis and meat
quality in Halothane-sensitive and Halothane-insensitive pigs. Meat Science, 10,
117−130.
Cheah, K. S., Cheah, A. M., & Krausgrill, D. I. (1995). Effect of dietary supplementation of
vitamin E on pig meat quality. Meat Science, 39, 255−264.
Chen, Z. Y., Wang, L. Y., Chan, P. T., Zhang, Z. S., Chung, H. Y., & Liang, B. (1998).
Antioxidative activity of green tea catechin extract compared with that of rosemary
extract. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 75, 1141−1145.
Chen, T., Zhou, G. H., Xu, X. L., Zhao, G. M., & Li, C. B. (2010). Phospholipase A2 and
antioxidant enzyme activities in normal and PSE pork. Meat Science, 84, 143−146.
Chin, K. B., Keeton, J. T., Miller, R. K., Longnecker, M. T., & Lamkey, J. W. (2000). Evaluation of
konjac blends and soy protein isolate as fat replacements in low-fat bologna. Journal of
Food Science, 65, 756−763.
Chin, S. F., Liu, W., Storkson, J. M., Ha, Y. L., & Pariza, M. W. (1992). Dietary sources of
conjugated dienoic isomers of linoleic acid, a newly recognized class of anticarcinogens.
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 5, 185−197.
Chizzolini, R., Novelli, E., & Zanardi, E. (1998). Oxidation in traditional Mediterranean
meat products. Meat Science, 49, S87−S99.
Choi, S. H., Kwon, H. C., An, D. J., Park, J. R., & Oh, D. H. (2003). Nitrite contents and
storage properties of sausage added with green tea powder. Korean Journal for Food
Science of Animal Resources, 23, 299−308.
Chouliara, E., Karatapanis, A., Savvaidis, I. N., & Kontominas, M. G. (2007). Combined
effect of oregano essential oil and modified atmosphere packaging on shelf-life
extension of fresh chicken breast meat stored at 4 °C. Food Microbiology, 24,
607−617.
Cintas, M. L., Rodriguez, J. M., Fereandez, M. F., Sletten, K., Nes, I. F., Hernandez, P. E.,
et al. (1995). Isolation and characterization of Pediocin l50, a new bacteriocin from
Pediococcus acidilactici with a broad inhibitory spectrum. Applied Environmental
Microbiology, 2643−2648.
Claeys, E., De Smet, S., Balcaen, A., Raes, K., & Demeyer, D. (2004). Quantification of fresh
meat peptides by SDS-PAGE in relation to ageing time and taste intensity. Meat
Science, 67, 281−288.
Clarke, S. D., & Jump, D. B. (1994). Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene
transcription. Annual Review of Nutrition, 14, 83−98.
Claus, J. R., Hunt, M. C., & Kastner, C. L. (1989). Effects of substituting added water for fat
on the textural, sensory, and processing characteristics of bologna. Journal of Muscle
Foods, 1, 1−21.
Cleveland, J., Montville, T. J., Nes, I. F., & Chikindas, M. L. (2001). Bacteriocins: Safe, natural
antimicrobials for food preservation. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 71, 1−20.
Coates, A. M., Sioutis, S., Buckley, J. D., & Howe, P. R. C. (2009). Regular consumption of
n−3 fatty acid-enriched pork modifies cardiovascular risk factors. British Journal
of Nutrition, 101, 592−597.
Córdoba, J. J., Rojas, T. A., González, C. G., & Barroso, J. V. (1994). Evolution of free amino
acids and amines during ripening of Iberian cured ham. Journal of Agriculture and
Food Chemistry, 42, 2296−2301.
Corino, C., Bontempo, V., & Sciannimanico, D. (2002). Effects of dietary conjugated
linoleic acid on some specific immune parameters and acute phase protein in
weaned piglets. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 82, 115−117.
Cort, W. M. (1974). Hemoglobin peroxidation test screens antioxidants. Food
Technology, 28, 60−66.
Coutron-Gambotti, C., & Gandemer, G. (1999). Lipolysis and oxidation in subcutaneous
adipose tissue during dry-cured ham processing. Food Chemistry, 64, 95−101.
Cuvelier, M., Berset, C., & Richard, H. (1994). Antioxidant constituents in sage (Salvia
officinalis). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 665−669.
Coventry, J., & Hickey, M. W. (1991). Growth-characteristics of meat starter cultures. Meat
Science, 30, 41−48.
Dawidowicz, A. L., Wianowska, D., & Baraniak, B. (2006). The antioxidant properties of
alcoholic extracts from Sambucus nigra L. (antioxidant properties of extracts).
Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologic, 39, 308−315.
De Martinis, E. C. P., & Franco, B. D. G. M. (1998). Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes in a
pork product by a Lactobacillus sake strain. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
42, 119−126.
De Vuyst, L. (2000). Technology aspects related to the application of functional starter
cultures. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 38, 105−112.
De Vuyst, L., Falony, G., & Leroy, F. (2008). Review: Probiotics in fermented sausages.
Meat Science, 80, 75−78.
De Vuyst, L., Foulquié Moreno, M. R., & Revets, H. (2003). Screening for enterocins and
detection of hemolysin and vancomycin resistance in enterococci of different
origins. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 84, 299−318.
Diaz, O., Fernandez, M., Garcia de Fernando, G. D., de la Hoz, L., & Ordonez, J. A. (1997).
Proteolysis in dry fermented sausages: The effect of selected exogenous proteases.
Meat Science, 46, 115−128.
Author's personal copy
28
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Díaz-Alarcón, J. P., Miguel Navarro-Alarcón, M., López-García de la Serrana, H. L., &
López-Martínez, M. C. (1996). Determination of selenium in meat products by
hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry — Selenium levels in meat,
organ meats, and sausages in Spain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 44,
1494−1497.
Dicks, L. M. T., Mellet, F. D., & Hoffman, L. C. (2004). Use of bacteriocinproducing starter
cultures of Lactobacillus plantarum and curvatus in production of ostrich meat
salami. Meat Science, 66, 703−708.
Diep, D. B., & Nes, I. F. (2002). Ribosomally synthesized antibacterial peptides in Grampositive bacteria. Current Drug Targets, 3, 107−122.
Diplock, A. T., Aggett, P. J., Ashwell, M., Bornet, F., Fern, E. B., & Roberfroid, M. B. (1999).
Scientific concepts of functional foods in Europe: Consensus document. British
Journal of Nutrition, 81, S1−S27.
Diplock, A. T., Lucy, J. A., Verrinder, M., & Zielenlowski, A. (1977). α-Tocopherol and the
permeability to glucose and chromate of unsaturated liposomes. FEBS Letters, 82,
341−344.
Dorman, H. J. D., & Deans, S. G. (2000). Antimicrobial agents from plants: Antibacterial
activity of plant volatile oils. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 88, 308−316.
Du, M., & Ahn, D. U. (2002). Effect of dietary conjugated linoleic acid on the growth rate
of live birds and on the abdominal fat content and quality of broiler meat. Poultry
Science, 81, 428−433.
Du, M., Ahn, D. U., Nam, K. C., & Sell, J. L. (2000). Influence of dietary conjugated linoleic acid
on volatile profiles color and lipid oxidation of irradiated raw chicken meat. Meat
Science, 56, 387−395.
Du, M., Nam, K. C., Hur, S. J., Ismail, H., Kim, Y. H., & Ahn, D. U. (2003). Quality characteristics
of irradiated chicken breast rolls from broilers fed different levels of conjugated
linoleic acid. Meat Science, 63, 249−255.
Dugan, M. E. R., Aalhus, J. L., & Kramer, J. K. G. (2004). Conjugated linoleic acid pork
research. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 79, 1212−1216.
Dunshea, F. R., D'Souza, D. N., Pethick, D. W., Harper, G. S., & Warner, R. D. (2005). Effects
of dietary factors and other metabolic modifiers on quality and nutritional value of
meat. Meat Science, 71, 8−38.
Durnford, E., & Shahidi, F. (1998). Flavour of fish meat. In F. Shahidi (Ed.), Flavor of meat,
meat products and seafoods (pp. 131−158)., 2nd Ed. London: Blackie Academic &
Professional.
Eggert, J. M., Belury, M. A., Kempa-Steczko, A., Mills, S. E., & Schinckel, A. P. (2001). Effects of
conjugated linoleic acid on the belly firmness and fatty acid composition of genetically
lean pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 79, 2866−2872.
Elias, R. J., Kellerby, S. S., & Decker, E. A. (2008). Antioxidant activity of proteins and
peptides. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 48, 430−441.
Ellmore, G. S., & Feldberg, R. S. (1994). Allin lyase localization in bundle sheaths of the
garlic glove (Allium sativum). American Journal of Botany, 81, 89−94.
Ennahar, S., Sonomoto, K., & Ishizaki, A. (1999). Class IIa bacteriocins from lactic acid
bacteria: Antibacterial activity and food preservation. Journal of Bioscience and
Bioengineering, 87, 705−716.
Erkkila, S., & Petäjä, E. (2000). Screening of commercial meat starter cultures at low pH and
in the presence of bile salts for potential probiotic use. Meat Science, 55, 297−300.
Erkkila, S., Petaja, E., Eerola, S., Lilleberg, L., Mattila-Sandholm, T., & Suihko, M. L. (2001).
Flavor profiles of dry sausages fermented by selected novel meat starter cultures.
Meat Science, 58, 111−116.
Erkkila, S., Suihko, M. L., Eerola, S., Petaja, E., & Mattila-Sandholm, T. (2001). Dry sausages
fermented by Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains. International Journal of Food Microbiology,
64, 205−210.
Eastwood, M. A. (1992). The physiological effect of dietary fiber: An update. Annual
Review of Nutrition, 12, 19−35.
Eulitz, K., Yurawecz, M. P., Sehat, N., Fritsche, J., Roach, J. A. G., Mossoba, M. M., et al. (1999).
Preparation, separation, and conformation of the eight geometrical cis/trans
conjugated linoleic acid isomers 8, 10 through 11, 13–18:2. Lipids, 34, 873−877.
Fasseas, M. K., Mountzouris, K. C., Tarantilis, P. A., Polissiou, M., & Zervas, G. (2008).
Antioxidant activity in meat treated with oregano and sage essential oils. Food
Chemistry, 106, 1188−1194.
Fernandez-Ginés, J. M., Fernández-Lópes, J., Sayas-Barberá, E., & Pérez-Alvarez, J. A. (2005).
Meat products as functional foods: A review. Journal of Food Science, 70, R37−R43.
Fernandez-Lopez, J., Sendra, E., Sayas-Barbera, E., Navarro, C., & Perez-Alvarez, J. A.
(2008). Physico-chemical and microbiological profiles of “salchichon” (Spanish
dry-fermented sausage) enriched with orange fiber. Meat Science, 80, 410−417.
Fisinin, V. I., Papazyan, T. T., & Surai, P. F. (2009). Producing selenium-enriched eggs and
meat to improve the selenium status of the general population. Critical Reviews in
Biotechnology, 29, 18−28.
Flores, J. (1997). Mediterranean vs Northern European meat products. Processing
technologies and main differences. Food Chemistry, 59, 505−510.
Flores, M., Dura, M., Marco, A., & Toldr, F. (2004). Effect of Debaryomyces spp. on aroma
formation and sensory quality of dry-fermented sausages. Meat Science, 68, 439−446.
Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization of the United Nationa
(2006). FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 85. Probiotics in food health and nutritional
properties and guidelines for evaluation, Rome.
Formanek, Z., Lynch, A., Galvin, K., Farkas, J., & Kerry, J. P. (2003). Combined effects of
irradiation and the use of natural antioxidants on the shelf-life stability of
overwrapped minced beef. Meat Science, 63, 433−440.
Foster, L. H., & Sumar, S. (1997). Selenium in healthy and disease: A review. Critical
Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 37, 211−228.
Frankel, E. N. (1984). Lipid oxidation: Mechanisms, products and biological significance. Journal of the American oil Chemists' Society, 61, 1908−1917.
French, P., O'Riordan, E. G., Monahan, F. J., Caffrey, P. J., Vidal, M., Mooney, M. T., et al.
(2000). Meat quality of steers finished on autumn grass, grass silage or concentratebased diets. Meat Science, 56, 173−180.
Fritsche, J., & Steinhardt, H. (1998). Amounts of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in German
foods and evaluation of daily intake. Food Research and Technology, 206, 77−82.
Funahashi, H., Satake, M., Hasan, S., Sawai, H., Reber, H. A., Hines, O. J., et al. (2006). The
n−3 polyunsaturated fatty acid EPA decreases pancreatic cancer cell growth in
vitro. Pancreas, 33, 462-462.
Fu-yuan, C., Yu-tse, L., Tien-chun, W., Liang-chuan, L., & Sakata, R. (2008). The
development of angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitor derived from chicken
bone protein. Animal Science Journal, 79, 122−128.
Galgano, F., Favati, F., Schirone, M., Martuscelli, M., & Crudele, M. A. (2003). Influence of
indigenous starter cultures on the free fatty acids content during ripening in artisan
sausages produced in the Basilicata region. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 41,
253−258.
Gandemer, G. (1999). Lipids and meat quality: lipolysis, oxidation, maillard reaction
and flavour. Sciences des Aliments, 19, 439−458.
Garcia, M. L., Dominguez, R., Galvez, M. D., Casas, C., & Selgas, M. D. (2002). Utilization of
cereal and fruit fibres in low fat dry fermented sausages. Meat Science, 60, 227−236.
Garriga, M., Hugas, M., Gou, P., Aymerich, M. T., Arnau, J., & Monfort, J. M. (1996).
Technological and sensorial evaluation of Lactobacillus strains as starter cultures in
fermented sausages. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 32, 173−183.
Gatlin, L. A., See, M. T., Larick, D. K., Lin, X., & Odle, J. (2002). Conjugated linoleic acid in
combination with supplemental dietary fat alters pork fat quality. Journal of
Nutrition, 132, 3105−3112.
Gavino, V. C., Gavino, G., Leblanc, M. J., & Tuchweber, B. (2000). An isomeric mixture of
conjugated linoleic acids but not pure cis-9, trans-11-octadecadienoic acid affects
body weight gain and plasma lipids in hamsters. Journal of Nutrition, 130, 27−29.
Gnanasambandam, R., & Zayas, J. F. (1992). Functionality of wheat germ protein in
comminuted meat products as compared with corn germ and soy proteins. Journal
of Food Science, 57, 829−833.
Graber, R., Sumida, C., & Nunez, E. A. (1994). Fatty acids and cell signal transduction.
Journal of Lipid Mediators and Cell Signalling, 9, 91−116.
Gramadzinska, J., Reszka, E., Bruzelius, K., Wasowicz, W., & Akesson, B. (2008).
Selenium and cancer: Biomarkers of selenium status and molecular action of
selenium supplements. European Journal of Nutrition, 47, 29−50.
Grigelmo-Miguel, N., Abadias-Seros, M. I., & Martin-Belloso, O. (1999). Characterisation
of low-fat high-dietary fibre frankfurters. Meat Science, 52, 247−256.
Guidera, J., Kerry, J. P., Buckley, D. J., Lynch, P. B., & Morrissey, P. A. (1997). The effect of
dietary vitamin E supplementation on the quality of fresh and frozen lamb meat.
Meat Science, 45, 33−43.
Hamm, W. P., Haller, D., & Ganzle, M. G. (2008). Fermented meat products. In Edward R.
Farnworth (Ed.), Handbook of fermented functional foods, 2nd Ed . USA: CR Press.
Hardy, G. (2000). Nutraceuticals and functional foods: Introduction and meaning.
Nutrition, 16, 688−697.
Harris, S. E., Huff-Lonergan, E., Lonergan, S. M., Jones, W. R., & Rankins, D. (2001).
Antioxidant status affects color stability and tenderness of calcium chlorideinjected beef. Journal of Animal Science, 79, 666−677.
Henriksen, A. P., & Stahnke, L. H. (1997). Sensory and chromatographic evaluations of
water soluble fractions from dried sausages. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 45, 2679−2684.
Hierro, E., de la Hoz, L., & Ordonez, J. A. (1999). Contribution of the microbial and meat
endogenous enzymes to the free amino acid and amine contents of dry fermented
sausages. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47, 1156−1161.
Hilliam, M. (2000). Functional food — How big is the market. The World of Food
Ingredients, 12, 50−52.
Hilliam, M. (1998). The market for functional foods. International Dairy Journal, 8, 349−353.
Ho, K. G., Wilson, L. A., & Sebranek, J. G. (1997). Dried soy tofu powder effects on
frankfurters and pork sausage patties. Journal of Food Science, 62, 434−437.
Hongsprabhas, P., & Barbut, S. (1997). Effect of gelation temperature on Ca2+-induced
gelation of whey protein isolate. Food Science and Technology, 30, 45−49.
Hongsprabhas, P., & Barbut, S. (1999). Effect of pre-heated whey protein level and salt on
texture development of poultry meat batters. Food Research International, 32,
145−149.
Hooper, L., Summerbell, C. D., Higgins, J. P. T., Thompson, R. L., Capps, N. E., Smith, G. D.,
et al. (2001). Dietary fat intake and prevention of cardiovascular disease:
Systematic review. British Medical Journal, 322, 757−763.
Houseknecht, K. L., Vanden Heuvel, J. P., Moya-Camarena, S. Y., Portocarrero, C. P., Peck,
L. W., & Belury, M. A. (1998). Dietary conjugated linoleic acid normalizes impaired
glucose tolerance in the Zucker diabetic fatty fa/fa rat. Biochemical and Biophysical
Research Communications, 244, 678−682.
Howe, P. R. C., Meyer, B. J., Record, S., & Baghurst, K. (2006). Dietary intake of long-chain
ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Contribution of meat sources. Nutrition, 22,
47−53.
Huang, Y., & Adams, M. C. (2004). In vitro assessment of the upper gastrointestinal
tolerance of potential probiotic dairy propionibacteria. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 91, 253−260.
Hugas, M., & Monfort, J. M. (1997). Bacterial starter cultures for meat fermentation.
Food Chemistry, 59, 547−554.
Hugas, M., Garriga, M., Aymerich, M. T., & Monfort, J. M. (1995). Inhibition of Listeria in
dry fermented sausages by the bateriocinogenic Lactobacillus sakei CTC494. Journal
of Applied Bacteriology, 79, 322−330.
Hughes, M. C., Kerry, J. P., Arendt, E. K., Kenneally, P. M., & McSweeney, P. L. H. (2002).
Characterization of proteolysis during the ripening of semi-dry fermented sausages.
Meat Science, 62, 205−216.
Huttunen, J. K. (1997). Selenium and cardiovascular diseases. Biomedical and
Environmental Sciences, 10, 220−226.
Imafidon, G. I., & Spanier, A. M. (1994). Unraveling the secret of meat flavor. Trends in
food science & technology, 5, 315−321.
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Ip, C., Singh, M., Thompson, H., & Scimeca, J. (1994). Conjugated linoleic acid supress
mammary carcinogenesis and proliferative activity of the mammary gland in the rat.
Cancer Research, 54, 1212−1215.
Ivan, M., Mir, P. S., Koenig, K. M., Rode, L. M., Neill, L., Entz, T., et al. (2001). Effects of
dietary sunflower seed oil on rumen protozoa population and tissue concentration
of conjugated linoleic acid in sheep. Small Ruminant Research, 41, 215−227.
Jackson, M. J., Coakley, J., Stokes, M., Edwards, R. H. T., & Oster, O. (1989). Selenium
metabolism and supplementation in patients with muscular dystrophy. Neurology,
39, 655−659.
Jahreis, G., Vogelsang, H., Kiessling, G., Schubert, R., Bunte, C., & Hammers, W. P. (2002).
Influece of probiotic sausage (Lactobacillus paracasei) on blood lipids and immunological parameters of healthy volunteers. Food Research International, 35, 133−138.
Jang, A., & Lee, M. (2005). Purification and identification of angiotensin converting
enzyme inhibitory peptides from beef hydrolysates. Meat Science, 69, 653−661.
Janssen, F. W., de-Baaij, J. A., & Hagele, G. H. (1994). Heat-treated meat-products:
Detection of modified gluten by SDS-electrophoresis, western-blotting andimmunochemical staining. Fleischwirtschaft, 74(168–170), 176−178.
Jeong, J. B., Jeong, H. J., Park, J. H., Lee, S. H., Lee, J. R., Lee, H. K., et al. (2007). Cancerpreventive peptide lunasin from Solanum nigrum L. inhibits acetylation of core
histones H3 and H4 and phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (Rb). Journal of
Agricultural Food Chemistry, 55, 10707−10713.
Jiang, B., & Mine, Y. (2000). Preparation of novel functional oligophosphopeptides from
hen egg yolk phosvitin. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, 48, 990−994.
Jianyun, C., Hu, C., Ren, F., & Peng, C. (2008). Enzyme hydrolysis of silk fibroin and the antidiabetic activity of the hydrolysates.International Journal of Food Engineering, 4, 13 art.
Jimenez-Colmenero, F., Carballo, J., & Cofrades, S. (2001). Healthier meat and meat
products: Their role as functional foods. Meat Science, 59, 5−13.
Johanna, M. (2007). Metalloproteases. In Julio Poaina, & Andrew P. MacCble (Eds.),
Industrial enzymes, structure, function and applications. The Netherlands: Springer
Publisher.
Johansson, G., Berdague, J. L., Larsson, M., Tran, N., & Borch, E. (1994). Lipolysis, proteolysis
and formation of volatile components during ripening of a fermented sausage with
Pediococcus pentosaceous and Staphylococcus xylosus as starter cultures. Meat Science,
38, 203−218.
Joo, S. T., Lee, J. I., Ha, Y. L., & Park, G. B. (2002). Effects of dietary conjugated linoleic acid
on fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation, color, and water-holding capacity of pork
loin. Journal of Animal Science, 80, 108−112.
Juniper, D. T., Phipps, R. H., Ramos-Morales, E., & Bertin, G. (2008). Effect of dietary
supplementation with selenium-enriched yeast or sodium selenite on selenium
tissue distribution and meat quality in beef cattle. Journal of Animal Science, 86,
3100−3109.
Juniper, D. T., Phipps, R. H., Ramos-Morales, E., & Bertin, G. (2008). Effect of high dose
selenium enriched yeast diets on the distribution of total selenium and selenium
species within lamb tissues. Livestock Science, 122, 63−67.
Kanner, J. (1994). Oxidative processes in meat and meat products: Quality implications.
Meat Science, 36, 169−174.
Karpinska-Tymoszczyk, M. (2007). Effects of sage extract (Salvia officinalis L.) and a
mixture of sage extract and sodium isoascorbate on the quality and shelf life of
vacuum-packaged turkey meatballs. Journal of Muscle Foods, 18, 420−434.
Katiyar, S. K., & Mukhtar, H. (1996). Tea in chemoprevention of cancer: Epidemiologic
and experimental studies. International Journal of Oncology, 8, 221−238.
Kato, H., & Nishimura, T. (1987). Umami: A basic taste. In Y. Kawamura, & M. Kare (Eds.),
New York, NY: Marcel Dekker.
Kawahara, S., Takenoyama, S., Takuma, K., Muguruma, M., & Yamauchi, K. (2009). Effects of
dietary supplementation with conjugated linoleic acid on fatty acid composition and
lipid oxidation in chicken breast meat. Animal Science Journal, 80, 468−474.
Kawai, M., Okiyama, A., & Ueda, Y. (1999). Taste interaction between sweet L-a-Amino
acids and IMP. Taste Smell Research, 6, 69−694.
Kazunori, K., Tomatsu, M., Fuchu, H., Sugiyama, M., Kawahara, S., Yamauchi, K., et al.
(2003). Purification and characterization of an angiotensin I-converting enzyme
inhibitory peptide derived from porcine troponin C. Animal Science Journal, 74,
53−58.
Khanal, R. C. (2004). Potential health benefits of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA): A
review. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science, 17, 1315−1328.
Kim, S. K., Byun, H. G., Park, P. J., & Shahidi, F. (2001). Angiotensin I converting enzyme
inhibitory peptides purified from bovine skin gelatin hydrolysate. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 2992−2997.
Kim, Y. Y., & Mahan, D. C. (2001). Comparative effects of high dietary levels of organic
and inorganic selenium on selenium toxicity of growing–finishing pigs. Journal of
Animal Science, 79, 942−948.
Kim, J. Y., Park, H. D., Park, E. J., Chon, J. W., & Park, Y. K. (2009). Growth-inhibitory and
proapoptotic effects of alpha-linoleic acid on estrogen-positive breast cancer cells:
Second look at n−3 fatty acid. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1171,
190−195.
Klingberg, T. D., Axelsson, L., Naterstad, K., Elsser, D., & Budde, B. B. (2005). Identification of
potential probiotic starter cultures for Scandinavian-type fermented sausages.
International Journal of Food Microbiology, 105, 419−431.
Kott, R. W., Hatfield, P. G., Bergman, J. W., Flynn, C. R., Van Wagoner, H., & Boles, J.
(2003). Feedlot performance, carcass composition, and muscle and fat CLA
concentrations of lambs fed diets supplemented with safflower seeds. Small
Ruminant Research, 49, 11−17.
Koutsidis, G., Koutsidis, J. S., Elmore, M. J., Oruna-Concha, M. M., Campo, J. D. W., &
Mottram, D. S. (2007). Water-soluble precursors of beef flavor: II. Effect of postmortem conditioning. Meat Science, 79, 270−277.
Kris-Etherton, P. M., Harris, W. S., & Apel, L. J. (2002). Fish consumption, fish oil, omega3 fatty acids, and cardiovascular diseases. Circulation, 106, 2747−2757.
29
Kumar, M., & Berwal, J. S. (1998). Sensitivity of food pathogens to garlic (Allium
sativum). Journal of Applied Microbiology, 84, 213−215.
Kuninaka, A. (1981). Taste and flavor enhancers. In R. Teranishi, R. A. Flath, & H. Sugisawa
(Eds.), Flavour research recent advances (pp. 305−353). New York & Basel: Marcel
Dekker.
Kwak, N. S., & Jukes, D. J. (2001). Functional foods. Part 1. The development of a
regulatory concept. Food Control, 12, 99−107.
Laclaustra, M., Navas-Acien, A., Stranges, S., Ordovas, J. M., & Guallar, E. (2009). Serum
selenium concentrations and diabetes in U. S. adults: National Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003–2004. Environmental Healthy Perspectives, 117,
1409−1413.
Lanari, M. C., Schaefer, D. M., & Scheller, K. K. (1995). Dietary vitamin E
supplementation and discoloration of pork bone and muscle following modified
atmosphere packaging. Meat Science, 41, 237−250.
Larrea, V., Hernando, I., Quiles, A., & Pérez-Munuera, I. (2006). Changes in proteins
during Teruel dry-cured ham processing. Meat Science, 74, 586−593.
Lawson, R. E., Moss, A. R., & Givens, D. I. (2001). The role of dairy product in supplying
conjugated linoleic acid to man's diet: A review. Nutrition Research Review, 14,
153−172.
Lee, K. N., Kritckesky, D., & Pariza, M. W. (1994). Conjugated linoleic acid and
atherosclerosis in rabbits. Atherosclerosis, 108, 19−25.
Leppala, A. P. (2001). Bioactive peptides derived from bovine whey proteins: Opioid
and ACEI peptides. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 11, 347−356.
Leskanich, C. O., Matthews, K. R., Warkup, C. C., Noble, R. C., & Hazzledine, M. (1997).
The effect of dietary oil containing (n−3) fatty acids on the fatty acid,
physicochemical, and organoleptic characteristics of pig meat and fat. Journal of
Animal Science, 75, 673−683.
Li, R., Carpenter, J. A., & Cheney, R. (1998). Sensory and instrumental properties of
smoked sausage made with mechanically separated poultry (MSP) meat what
protein. Journal of Food Science, 63, 1−7.
Li, Y., & Watkins, B. A. (1998). Conjugated linoleic acids alter bone fatty acid
composition and reduce ex vivo prostaglandin E2 biosynthesis in rats fed n−6 or
n−3 fatty acids. Lipids, 33, 417−425.
Lizaso, G., Chasco, J., & Beriain, M. J. (1999). Microbiological and biochemical changes
during ripening of salchichon, a Spanish dry cured sausage. Food Microbiology, 16,
219−228.
Lopez-Ferrer, S., Baucells, M. D., Barroeta, A. C., Galobert, J., & Grashorn, M. A. (2001). n−3
Enrichment of chicken meat. 2. Use of precursors of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty
acids: Linseed oil. Poultry Science, 80, 753−761.
Lopez-Ferrer, S., Baucells, M. D., Barroeta, A. C., & Grashorn, M. A. (2001). n−3
Enrichment of chicken meat. 1. Use of very long-chain fatty acids in chicken diets
and their influence on meat quality: Fish oil. Poultry Science, 80, 741−752.
Luccia, A. Di., Picariello, G., Cacace, G., Scaloni, A., Faccia, M., Liuzzi, V., et al. (2005).
Proteomic analysis of water soluble and myofibrillar protein changes occurring in
dry-cured hams. Meat Science, 69, 479−491.
Lucke, F. K. (1998). Fermented sausages. In B. J. B. Wood (Ed.), Microbiology of fermented
foods (pp. 444−483). London: Blackie Academic and Professional.
Lucke, F. K. (2000). Utilization of microbes to process and preserve meat. Meat Science,
56, 105−115.
Mahan, D. C., & Parret, N. A. (1996). Evaluating the efficatcy of selenium-enriched yeast
and sodium slenite on tissue selenium retention and serum glutathione peroxidase
activity in grower and finisher swine. Journal of Animal Science, 74, 2967−2974.
Maidment, D. C. F., Dembny, Z., & Harding, C. (1999). A study into the antibiotic effect of
garlic Allium sativum on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus albus. Nutrition and Food
Science, 4, 170−172.
Mariutti, L. R. B., Orlien, V., Bragagnolo, N., & Skibsted, L. H. (2008). Effect of sage and
garlic on lipid oxidation in high-pressure processed chicken meat. European Food
Research and Technology, 227, 337−344.
Martinez, M., & Ballabriga, A. (1987). Effects of parenteral nutrition with high doses of
linoleate on the developing human liver and brain. Lipids, 22, 133−138.
Mateo, J., & Zumalacárregui, J. M. (1996). Volatile compounds in chorizo and their
changes during ripening. Meat Science, 44, 255−273.
McCann, K. B., Shiellb, B. J., Michalskib, W. P., Leec, A., Wanc, J., Roginskia, H., et al.
(2005). Isolation and characterization of antibacterial peptides derived from the f
(164–207) region of bovine aS2-casein. International Dairy Journal, 15, 133−143.
McCarthy, T. L., Kerry, J. P., Kerry, J. F., Lynch, P. B., & Buckley, D. J. (2001). Assessment of
the antioxidant potential of natural food and plant extracts in fresh and previously
frozen pork patties. Meat Science, 57, 177−184.
McNaughton, S. A., & Marks, G. C. (2002). Selenium content of Australian foods: A
review of literature values. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 15, 169−182.
Mendis, E., Rajapakse, N., & Kim, S. (2005). Antioxidant properties of a radicalscavenging peptide purified from enzymatically prepared fish skin gelatin
hydrolysate. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 581−587.
Menon, K. V., & Garg, S. R. (2001). Inhibitory effect of clove oil on Listeria
monocytogenes in meat and cheese. Food Microbiology, 18, 647−650.
Menrad, K. (2003). Market and marketing of functional food in Europe. Journal of Food
Engineering, 56, 181−188.
Meyer, B. J., Mann, N. J., Lewis, J. L., Milligan, G. C., Sinclair, A. J., & Howe, P. R. C. (2003).
Dietary intakes and food sources of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Lipid, 38, 391−398.
Minervini, F. F. A., Rizzello, C. G., Fox, P. F., Monnet, V., & Gobbetti, M. (2003).
Angiotensin I-converting-enzyme-inhibitory and antibacterial peptides from
Lactobacillus helveticus PR4 proteinase-hydrolyzed caseins of milk from six species.
Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 69, 5297−5305.
Molly, K., Demeyer, D., Civera, T., & Verplaetse, A. (1996). Lipolysis in a Belgian sausage:
Relative importance of endogenous and bacterial enzymes. Meat Science, 43, 235−244.
Author's personal copy
30
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Molly, K., Demeyer, D., Johansson, G., Raemaekers, M., Ghistelinck, M., & Geenenc, I.
(1997). The importance of meat enzymes in ripening and flavor generation in dry
fermented sausages. Food Chemistry, 59, 539−545.
Montel, M. C., Reitz, J., Talon, R., Berdague, R., & Rousset-Akrim, J. L. (1996). Biochemical
activities of Micrococcaceae and their effects on the aromatic profiles and odours of
a dry sausage model. Food Microbiology, 13, 489−499.
Mottram, D. S. (1998). Flavour formation in meat and meat products: A review. Food
Chemistry, 62, 415−424.
Mueller, A. S., Mueller, K., Wolf, N. M., & Pallauf, J. (2009). Selenium and diabetes: An
enigma. Free Radical Research, 43, 1029−1059.
Munday, J. S., Thompson, K. G., & James, K. A. C. (1999). Dietary conjugated linoleic acids
promote fatty streak formation in the C57BL/6 mouse atherosclerosis model. British
Journal of Nutrition, 81, 251−255.
Muthukumarasamy, P., & Holley, R. A. (2006). Microbiological and sensory quality of
dry fermented sausages containing alginate-microencapsulated Lactobacillus
reuteri. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 111, 164−169.
Mytle, N., Anderson, G. L., Doyle, M. P., & Smith, M. A. (2006). Antimicrobial activity of
clove (Syzgium aromaticum) oil in inhibiting Listeria monocytogenes on chicken
frankfurters. Food Control, 17, 102−107.
Nachbaur, J., Colbeau, A., & Vignais, P. M. (1972). Distribution of membraneconfined phospholipases A in the rat hepatocyte. Biochimica Biophysica Acta,
274, 426−446.
Naes, H., Holck, A. L., Axelsson, L., Anderson, H. J., & Blom, H. (1995). Accelerated
ripening of dry fermented sausage by addition of a Lactobacillus proteinase.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 29, 651−659.
Nakashima, Y., Arihara, K., Sasaki, A., Ishikawa, S., & Itoh, M. (2002). Antihypertensive
activities of peptides derived from porcine skeletal muscle myosin in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Food Science, 67, 434−437.
Nam, K. C., Ko, K. Y., Min, B. R., Ismail, H., Lee, E. J., Cordray, J., et al. (2006). Influence of
rosemary–tocopherol/packaging combination on meat quality and the survival of
pathogens in restructured irradiated pork loins. Meat Science, 74, 380−387.
Natella, F., Fidale, M., Tubaro, F., Ursini, F., & Scaccini, C. (2007). Selenium
supplementation prevents the increase in atherogenic electronegative LDL (LDL
minus) in the postprandial phase. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases,
17, 649−656.
Naveena, B. M., Muthukumar, M., Sen, A. R., Babji, Y., & Murthy, T. R. K. (2006).
Improvement of shelf-life of buffalo meat using lactic acid, clove oil and vitamin C
during retail display. Meat Science, 74, 409−415.
Nelson, R., Katayama, S., Mine, Y., & Duarte, J. M. C. (2007). Immunomodulating effects
of egg yolk low lipid peptic digests in a murine model. Food and Agricultural
Immunology, 18, 1−15.
Nishimura, T., & Kato, H. (1988). Taste of free amino acids and peptides. Food Research
International, 4, 175−194.
Niva, M. (2007). All foods affect health: Understandings of functional foods and healthy
eating among health-orientated Finns. Appetite, 48, 384−393.
Oliveira, K. A. M., Santos-Mendonca, R. C., Gomide, L. A. M., & Vanetti, M. C. D. (2005).
Aqueous garlic extract and microbiological quality of refrigerated poultry meat.
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 29, 98−108.
Olivo, R., Soares, A. L., Ida, E. I., & Shimokomaki, M. (2001). Dietary vitamin E inhibits
poultry PSE and improves meat functional properties. Journal of Muscle Food, 25,
271−283.
Ordonez, J. A., Hierro, E. M., Bruna, J. M., & de la Hoz, L. (1999). Changes in the
components of dry-fermented sausages during ripening. Critical Reviews in Food
Science and Nutrition, 39, 329−367.
Ostrowska, E., Muralitharan, M., Cross, R. F., Bauman, D. E., & Dunshea, F. R. (1999).
Dietary conjugated linoleic acids increase lean tissue and decrease fat deposition in
growing pigs. Journal of Nutrition, 129, 2037−2042.
Papp, L. V., Lu, J., Holmgren, A., & Khanna, K. K. (2007). From selenium to
selenoproteins: Synthesis, identity, and their role in human health. Antioxidants
and Redox Signalling, 9, 775−806.
Pariza, M. W., Park, Y., & Cook, M. E. (1999). Conjugated linoleic acid and the control of
cancer and obesity. Toxicological Sciences, 52, 107−110.
Park, Y., Albright, K. J., Liu, W., Storkson, J. M., Cook, M. E., & Pariza, M. W. (1997). Effect
of conjugated linoleic acid on body composition in mice. Lipids, 32, 853−858.
Park, Y., Albright, K. J., Storkson, J. M., Liu, W., & Pariza, M. W. (1999). Evidence that the
trans-10, cis-12 isomer of conjugated linoleic acid induces body composition
changes in mice. Lipid, 34, 235−241.
Park, W. Y., & Kim, Y. J. (2009). Effect of garlic and onion juice addition on the lipid
oxidation, total plate counts and residual nitrite contents of emulsified sausage during
cold storage. Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources, 29, 612−618.
Park, Y., Storkson, J. M., Ntambi, J. M., Cook, M. E., Sih, C. J., & Pariza, M. W. (2000).
Inhibition of hepatic stearoyl-CoA desaturase activity by trans-10, cis-12 conjugated
linoleic acid and its derivatives. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1486, 285−292.
Perez-Gago, M. B., & Krochta, J. M. (2001). Denaturation time and temperature effects
on solubility, tensile properties and oxygen permeability of whey protein edible
films. Journal of Food Science, 66, 705−710.
Pidcock, K., Heard, G. M., & Henriksson, A. (2002). Application of nontraditional meat
starter cultures in production of Hungarian salami. International Journal of Food
Microbiology, 76, 75−81.
Pollard, M. R., Gunstone, F. D., James, A. T., & Morris, L. J. (1980). Desaturation of
positional and geometric isomers of monoenoic fatty acids by microsomal
preparations from rat liver. Lipids, 15, 306−314.
Porcella, M. I., Sanchez, G., Vaudagna, S. R., Zanelli, M. L., Descalzo, A. M., Meichtri, L. H.,
et al. (2001). Soy protein isolate added to vacuum-packaged chorizos: Effect on drip
loss, quality characteristics and stability during refrigerated storage. Meat Science,
57, 437−443.
Pritchard, P. E., & Brock, C. J. (1994). The glutenin fraction of wheat protein: The
importance of genetic background on its quantity and quality. Journal of Science and
Food Agriculture, 65, 401−406.
Prosky, L. (1999). What is fiber? Current controversies. Trend in Food Science and
Technology, 10, 271−275.
Rakosky, J. J. (1970). Soy products for the meat industry. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 18, 1005−1009.
Ramsay, T. G., Evock-Clover, C. M., Steele, N. C., & Azain, M. J. (2001). Dietary conjugated
linoleic acid alters fatty acid composition of pig skeletal muscle and fat. Journal of
Animal Science, 79, 2152−2161.
Rantsiou, K., & Luca, C. (2008). Fermented meat products food. In L. Cocolin, & D.
Ercolini (Eds.), Microbiology and food safety — Molecular techniques in the microbial
ecology of fermented foods. New York: Springer.
Ray, B. (2004). Fundamentals of food microbiology. USA: CRS Press.
Rayman, M. P. (2005). Selenium in cancer prevention: A review of the evidence of
mechanism of action. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 64, 527−542.
Realini, C. E., Duckett, S. K., Brito, G. W., Dalla Rizza, M., & De Mattos, D. (2004). Effect of
pasture vs. concentrate feeding with or without antioxidants on carcass
characteristics, fatty acid composition, and quality of Uruguayan beef. Meat Science,
66, 567−577.
Rebucci, R., Sangalli, L., Fava, M., Bersani, C., Cantoni, C., & Baldi, A. (2007). Evaluation of
functional aspects in Lactobacillus strains isolated from dry fermented sausages.
Journal of food quality, 30, 187−201.
Reilly, C. (1993). Selenium in health and disease: A review. Australian Journal of
Nutrition and Dietetics, 50, 136−144.
Rice-Evans, C. A., Miller, N. J., & Paganga, G. (1996). Structure–antioxidant activity
relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine,
207, 933−956.
Rico-Munoz, E., Bargiota, E., & Davidson, P. M. (1987). Effect of selected phenolic
compounds on the membrane-bound adenosine triphosphate of Staphylococcus
aureus. Food Microbiology, 4, 239−249.
Roberfroid, M. B. (2000). An European consensus of scientific concepts of functional
foods. Nutrition, 16, 689−691.
Rodriguez-Nuñez, E., Aristoy, M. -C., & Toldrá, F. (1995). Peptide generation in the
processing of dry-cured ham. Food Chemistry, 53, 187−190.
Rossini, K., Noren, C. P. Z., Cladera-Olivera, F., & Brandelli, A. (2009). Casein peptides
with inhibitory activity on lipid oxidation in beef homogenates and mechanically
deboned poultry meat. LWT—Food Science and Technology, 42, 862−867.
Rothstein, W. G. (2006). Dietary fat, coronary heart disease, and cancer: A historical
review. Preventive Medicine, 43, 356−360.
Rowe, L. J., Maddock, K. R., Lonergan, S. M., & Huff-Lonergan, E. (2004). Oxidation
environments decrease tenderization of beef steaks through inactivation of μcalpain. Journal of Animal Science, 82, 3254−3266.
Roy, B. D., & Antolic, A. (2009). Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and bone health: A
review. Current Topics in Nutraceutical Research, 7, 27−36.
Ruiz, J., Garcia, C., del Carmen, D. M., Cava, R., Tejeda, J. F., & Ventanas, J. (1999). Drycured Iberian ham non-volatile components as affected by the length of the curing
process. Food Research International, 32, 643−651.
Rule, D. C., Broughton, K. S., Shellito, S. M., & Maiorano, G. (2002). Comparison of muscle
fatty acid profiles and cholesterol concentrations of bison, beef cattle, elk, and
chicken. Journal of Animal Science, 80, 1202−1211.
Saiga, A., Okumura, T., Makihara, T., Katsuta, S., Shimizu, T., Yamada, R., et al. (2003).
Angiotensin I-converting enzymes inhibitory peptides in a hydrolyzed chicken
breast muscle extract. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 174−1745.
Sakanaka, S., Tachibana, Y., Ishihara, N., & Juneja, L. R. (2005). Antioxidant properties of
casein calcium peptides and their effects on lipid oxidation in beef homogenates.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 464−648.
Salminen, S., Laine, M., von Wright, A., Vuopio-Varkila, J., Korhonen, T., & MattilaSandholm, T. (1996). Development of selection criteria for probiotic strains to assess
their potential in functional foods: A Nordic and European approach. Bioscience
Microflora, 15, 61−67.
Salminen, S., & von Wright, A. (1998). Current probiotics — Safety assured? Microbial
Ecology in Health and Disease, 10, 68−77.
Samelis, J., Aggelis, G., & Metaxopoulos, J. (1993). Lipolytic and microbial changes
during the natural fermentation and ripening of Greek dry sausages. Meat Science,
35, 371−385.
Sanders, M., & Veld, H. J. (1999). Bringing a probiotic-containing functional food to the
market: Microbiological, product, regulatory and labeling issues. Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, 76, 293−315.
Schmidt, S., & Berger, G. (1998). Aroma compounds in fermented sausages of different
origins. Lebensm Wiss. u.-Technology, 31, 559−567.
Schubert, A., Holden, J. M., & Wolf, W. R. (1987). Selenium content of a core group of
foods based on a critical evaluation of published analytical data. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 87, 285−299.
Sebranek, J. G., Sewalt, V. J. H., Robbins, K. L., & Houser, T. A. (2004). Comparison of a
natural rosemary extract and BHA/BHT for relative antioxidant effectiveness in
pork sausage. Meat Science, 69, 289−296.
Shahidi, F., Liyana-Pathirana, C. M., & Wall, D. S. (2006). Antioxidant activity of white
and black sesame seeds and their hull fractions. Food Chemistry, 99, 478−483.
Shahidi, G., & Zhong, J. (2008). Bioactive peptides. Journal of AOAC International, 91, 914−931.
Shan, B., Cai, Y., Brooks, J. D., & Corke, H. (2009). Antibacterial and antioxidant effects of
five spice and herb extracts as natural preservatives of raw pork. Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 89, 1879−1885.
Shantha, N. C., Moody, W. G., & Tabeidi, Z. (1997). A research note: Conjugated linoleic
acid concentration in semimembranosus muscle of grass- and grain-fed and
zeranol-implanted beef cattle. Journal of Muscle Foods, 8, 105−110.
Author's personal copy
W. Zhang et al. / Meat Science 86 (2010) 15–31
Shearer, T. R., Mccormack, D. W., Desart, D. J., Britton, J. L., & Lopez, M. T. (1980). Histologicalevaluation of selenium induced cataracts. Experimental Eye Research, 31, 327−333.
Sheu, T. Y., & Marshall, R. T. (1993). Micro-encapsulation of lactobacilli in calcium
alginate gels. Journal of Food Science, 54, 557−561.
Shon, J., & Chin, K. B. (2008). Effect of whey protein coating on quality attributes of lowfat, aerobically packaged sausage during refrigerated storage. Journal of Food
Science, 73, 469−475.
Simopoulos, A. P. (1999). New products from the agri-food industry: The return of n−3
fatty acids into the food supply. Lipids, 34, 297−301.
Siró, I., Kápolna, E., Kápolna, B., & Lugasi, A. (2008). Functional food. Product development,
marketing and consumer acceptance — A review. Appetite, 51, 456−467.
Skandamis, P. N., & Nychas, G. J. E. (2001). Effect of oregano essential oil on
microbiological and physico-chemical attributes of minced meat stored in air and
modified atmospheres. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 91, 1011−1022.
Skrivan, M., Marounek, M., Dlouha, G., & Sevcikova, S. (2008). Dietary selenium increases
vitamin E contents of egg yolk and chicken meat. British Poultry Science, 49, 482−486.
Sloan, E. (2002). The top 10 functional food trends. The next generation. Technology, 56,
32−57.
Smacchi, E., & Gobbetti, M. (2000). Bioactive peptides in dairy products: synthesis and
interaction with proteolytic enzymes. Food Microbiology, 17, 129−141.
Smedman, A., & Vessby, B. (2001). Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans —
Metabolic effects. Journal of Nutrition, 36, 773−781.
Smith, G. C., Hynunil, J., Carpenter, Z. L., Mattil, K. F., & Cater, C. M. (1973). Efficacy of protein
additives as emulsion stabilizers in frankfurters. Journal of Food Science, 38, 849−855.
Smith-Palmer, A., Steward, J., & Fyfe, L. (1998). Antimicrobial properties of plant
essential oil and essences against five important food-borne pathogens. Letters in
Applied Microbiology, 26, 118−122.
Song, E. K., Kim, H. H., Kim, J. Y., Kang, Y. I., Woo, H. J., & Lee, H. J. (2000). Anticancer
activity of hydrophobic peptides from soy proteins. Journal of BioFactors, 12,
4151−4155.
Spanier, A. M., Spanier, M., Flores, K. W., & McMillin, B. T. D. (1997). The effect of postmortem aging on meat flavor quality in Brangus beef: Correlation of treatments,
sensory, instrumental and chemical descriptors. Food Chemistry, 59, 531−538.
Spurvey, S., Pan, B. S., & Shahidi, F. (1998). Flavour of shellfish. In F. Shahidi (Ed.), Flavor
of meat, meat products and seafoods (pp. 159−196)., 2nd Ed London: Blackie
Academic and Professional.
Stahnke, L. H. (1994). Aroma components from dried sausages fermented with
Staphylococcus xylosus. Meat Science, 38, 39−53.
Stanton, C., Desmond, C., Coakley, M., Collins, J. K., Fitzgerald, G., & Ross, P. (2003).
Challenges facing development of probiotic-containing functional foods. In E. R.
Farnworth (Ed.), Handbook of fermented functional foods (pp. 27−58). Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
Stanton, C., Ross, R. P., Fitzgerald, G. F., & Van Sinderen, D. (2005). Fermented functional
food based on probiotics and their biogenic metabolites. Current Opinion in
Biotechnology, 16, 198−203.
Sugano, M., Tsujita, A., Yamasaki, M., Noguchi, M., & Yamada, K. (1998). Conjugated
linoleic acid modulates tissue levels of chemical mediators and immunoglobulins in
rats. Lipids, 33, 521−527.
Szymczyk, B., Pisulewski, P. M., Szczurek, W., & Hanczakowski, P. (2001). Effects of
conjugated linoleic acid on growth performance, feed conversion and subsequent
carcass quality in broiler chickens. British Journal of Nutrition, 85, 465−473.
Tanabe, H., Yoshida, M., & Tomita, N. (2002). Comparison of the antioxidant activities of
22 commonly used culinary herbs and spices on the lipid oxidation of pork meat.
Animal Science Journal, 73, 389−393.
Tang, S., Sheehan, D., Buckley, D. J., Morrissey, P. A., & Kerry, J. P. (2001). Anti-oxidant
activity of added tea catechins on lipid oxidation of raw minced red meat, poultry
and fish muscle. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 36, 685−692.
Tarp, U. (1995). Selenium in theumatoid-arthritis — A review. Analyst, 120, 877−881.
Teixeira de Carvalho, A. A., Aparecida de Paulaa, R., Mantovani, H. C., & Alencar de
Moraes, C. (2006). Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by a lactic acid bacterium
isolated from Italian salami. Food Microbiology, 23, 213−219.
Terpstra, A. H. M., Beynen, A. C., Everts, H., Kocsis, S., Katan, M. B., & Zock, P. L. (2002). The
decrease in body fat in mice fed conjugated linoleic acid is due to increases in energy
expenditure and energy loss in the excreta. Journal of Nutrition, 132, 940−945.
Toldrá, F. (1998). Proteolysis and lipolysis in flavour development of dry-cured meat
products. Meat Science, 49, S101−S110.
Toldrá, F. (2006). The role of muscle enzymes in dry-cured meat products with different
drying conditions. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 17, 164−168.
Toldrá, F. (2007). Evaluation of ACE inhibitory activity of dipeptides generated by the
action of porcine muscle dipeptidyl peptidases. Food Chemistry, 102, 511−515.
Toldrá, F., Aristoy, M. C., & Flores, M. (2000). Contribution of muscle aminopeptidases to
flavor development in dry-cured ham. Food Research International, 33, 181−185.
31
Ursini, F., Maiorino, M., & Roveri, A. (1997). Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione
peroxidase (PHGPx): More than an antioxidant enzyme? Biomedical and Environmental
Sciences, 10, 327−332.
Vallejo-Cordoba, B., Nakai, S., Powrie, W. D., & Beveridge, T. (1987). Extended shelf life
of frankfurters and fish frankfurter-analogs with added soy protein hydrolysates.
Journal of Food Science, 52, 1133−1136.
Vekiari, S. A., Oreopoulou, V., Tzia, C., & Thomopoulos, C. D. (1993). Oregano flavonoids
as lipid antioxidants. Journal of American Oil Chemistry Society, 70, 483−487.
Vercruysse, L., van Camp, J., & Smagghe, G. J. (2005). ACE Inhibitory peptides derived
from enzymatic hydrolysates of animal muscle protein: A review. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 8106−8115.
Verplaetse, A., De Bosschere, M., & Demeyer, D. (1989). Proteolysis during dry sausage
ripening. Proceedings 35th international congress on meat science and technology.
Copenhaegen, Denmark.
Viallon, C., Berdague, J. L., Montel, M. C., Talon, R., Martin, J. F., Kondjoyan, N., et al.
(1996). The effect of stage of ripening and packaging on volatile content and
flavour of dry sausage. Food Research International, 29, 667−674.
Vignolo, G. M., Suriani, F., de Ruiz Holgado, A. P., & Oliver, G. (1993). Antibacterial
activity of Lactobacillus strains isolated from dry fermented sausages. Journal of
Applied Microbiology, 75, 344−349.
Virtamo, J., Valkeila, E., Alfthan, G., Punsar, S., Huttunen, J. K., & Karvonen, M. J. (1985).
Serum selenium and the risk of coronary heart-disease and stroke. American Journal
of Epidemiology, 122, 276−282.
Vuyst, L. D., Falony, G., & Leroy, F. (2008). Probiotics in fermented sausages. Meat
Science, 80, 75−78.
Wahle, K. W. J., Heys, S. D., & Rotondo, D. (2004). Conjugated linoleic acids: Are they
beneficial or detrimental to healthy? Progress in Lipid Research, 43, 553−587.
Wang, L. L., & Xiong, Y. I. (2008). Inhibition of oxidant-induced biochemical changes of
pork myofibrillar protein by hydrolyzed potato protein. Journal of Food Science, 73,
C482−C487.
Weber, T. E., Richert, B. T., Belury, M. A., Gu, Y., Enright, K., & Schinckel, A. P. (2006).
Evaluation of the effects of dietary fat, conjugated linoleic acid, and ractopamine on
growth performance, pork quality, and fatty acid profiles in genetically lean gilts.
Journal of Animal Science, 84, 720−732.
Weisburger, J. H., Veliath, E., Larios, E., Pittman, B., Zang, E., & Hara, Y. (2002). Tea
polyphenols inhibit the formation of mutagens during the cooking of meat.
Mutation Research-Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 516, 19−22.
Wiegand, B. R., Parrish, F. C., Jr., Swan, J. E., Larsen, S. T., & Bass, T. J. (2001). Conjugated
linoleic acid improves feed efficiency, decreases subcutaneous fat, and improves
certain aspects of meat quality in stress-genotype pigs. Journal of Animal Science, 79,
2187−2195.
Wiegand, B. R., Sparks, J. C., Parrish, F. C., Jr., & Zimmerman, D. R. (2002). Duration of
feeding conjugated linoleic acid influences growth performance, carcass traits, and
meat quality of finishing barrows. Journal of Animal Science, 80, 637−643.
Xiong, Y. L., Agyare, K. K., & Addo, K. (2008). Hydrolyzed wheat gluten suppresses
transglutaminase mediated gelation but improves emulsification of pork myofibrillar
protein. Meat Science, 80, 535−544.
Yang, C. S., Chung, J. Y., Yang, G. Y., Chhabra, S. K., & Lee, M. J. (2000). Tea and tea
polyphenols in cancer prevention. Journal of Nutrition, 130, S472−S478.
Yetim, H., Muller, W. D., Dogan, M., & Klettner, P. G. (2001). Using fluid whey in
comminuted meat products: Effects on textural properties of frankfuter-type
sausages. Journal of Muscle Foods, 17, 354−366.
Yetim, H., Muller, W. D., & Eber, M. (2001). Using fluid whey in comminuted meat
products: effects on technological, chemical and sensory properties of frankfutertype sausages. Food Research International, 34, 97−101.
Yu, L., Scanlin, L., Wilson, J., & Schmidt, G. (2002). Rosemary extracts as inhibitors of
lipid oxidation and color change in cooked turkey products during refrigerated
storage. Journal of Food Science, 67, 582−585.
Zambell, K. L., Keim, N. L., Van Loan, M. D., Gale, B., Benito, P., Kelly, D. S., et al. (2000).
Conjugated linoleic acid supplementation in humans: effects on body composition
and energy expenditure. Lipids, 35, 777−782.
Zhang, L., & Zhou, J. L. K. (2010). Chelating and radical scavenging activities of soy
protein hydrolysates prepared from microbial proteases and their effect on meat
lipid peroxidation. Bioresource Technology, 101, 2084−2089.
Zhong, R. Z., Tan, C. Y., Han, X. F., Tang, S. X., Tan, Z. L., & Zeng, B. (2009). Effect of dietary
tea catechins supplementation in goats on the quality of meat kept under
refrigeration. Small Ruminant Research, 87, 122−125.
Zhou, G. H., & Zhao, G. M. (2007). Biochemical changes during processing of traditional
Jinhua ham. Meat Science, 77, 114−120.