A FLEXIBLE SYSTEM FOR
OLYMPIC VILLAGES
by
SE-HACK CHUNG
Bachelor of Science in Architecture
Seoul National University,
Korea, 1981
Master of Science in Urban Engineering
Seoul National University,
Korea, 1983
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN
ARCHITECTURE STUDIES
at the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
June, 1985
@
Se-Hack Chung 1985
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and
to distribute publicly copies of this thesis document in whole
or in part.
Signature
Z_
of Author
Se-Hack Chung
Department of Architecture
May 10, 1985
Certified by
Eric Dluhosch
Associate Professor of Building Technology
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
Julian leinart, Chairman
Department Committee on Graduate Students
Rotch
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE
OF TECIINOLOG-Y
JUN 0 3 1985
-1
A FLEXIBLE SYSTEM FOR
OLYMPIC VILLAGES
BY
SE-HACK CHUNG
Submitted to the department of Architecture on May 11,1985 in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science in Architecture Studies
ABSTRACT
This thesis suggests a flexible system and its systems
approach in constructing Olympic Villages which are used both
during and after the Games.
A historical overview of ancient Olympia and modern
Olympia, as well as a case study of modern Olympic Villages
in the
deal with the conceptual problem which were arisen
between
conflict
the
to
due
Villages,
Olympic
design of
monumentality and practicality, and the contextual problems,
in the building
caused by the pressure of time and cost
process.
the
proposes
approach to appropriate patterns
An
construction of high-rise buildings and solves secondary
priblems in design and construction. A conceptual approach
A
flexibility.
and
complexity
perceptional
suggests
approach suggests the systems approach for fast
contextual
track development which is compared with the conventional
building process.
some notable building systems and their
Analogies of
approaches in the past development of systems suggest an open
system, a dual structure and performance based programming as
the strategy for designing and building future Olympic
Villages
Thesis Superviser: Dr. Eric Dluhosch
Title: Associate Professor of Building Technology
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
------ THANKS TO MY GOD, JESUS!----------
To my parents!
To my advisor, Eric!
To my wife, Seung-Hee!
To my friend, Woo-Hyun!
THANKS.
Without their help, I might
not even stand on this place.
3
*
TABLE OF CONTENTS *
2
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
6
INTRODUCTION
''
1. OLYMPIC VILLAGE
Introduction
1.2
Historical Development
1.4
'
'
'
9
10
1.1
1.3
0
1.2.1
Ancient Olympia
1.2.2
Modern
Olympia
1.2.3
Modern
Olympic Village
General Goals and Requirements
1.3.1
Goals
1.3.2
Requirements
Problems
1.4.1
Conceptual Problem
1.4.2
Contextual Problem
11
.........
24
.........
25
2. APPROACH
2.1
2.2
Patterns
2.1.1
High-Rise or Low-Rise
2.1.2
Construction
2.1.3
Secondary Problems
45
Concept
2.2.1
35
Flexibility
4
2.3
Context
2.3.1
Fast-Track
2.3.2
Systems Approach
3. FLEXIBLE SYSTEMS
-------
47
.........
54
--------- 55
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Analogies related to Building Technologies ......... 56
3.3
3.2.1
Clocklike Systems
3.2.2
Cloudlike Systems
Flexible System Analogies
3.3.1
Wine-Bin Analogy
3.3.2
Bookcase Analogy
3.3.3
Seed
3.3.4
Chess Analogy
---------
63
-
77
Analogy
4. CONCLUSION ; STRATEGY
4.1
Open System vs. Closed System
73
4.2
Dual Structure
82
4.3
Programming
84
APPENDIX
-
87
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.
92
5
1.1 Introduction
the
larger,
sports
urban
to
complexes
Olympic
projects
difficulty in delivering the
projects
as
But,
infrastructures.
becomes
from
ranging
innovations,
technological
and
architectural
creating
for
occasions
been
the Olympic Games in the recent past have
of
Most
the
scale
of
successfully under the pressure of deadlines and cost becomes
building
The
greater.
Village
in
which is due
to
process of the Olympic
particular is constrained by this pressure,
the dual purposes of use for both during and after the Games.
thesis
this
Therefore
systems
approach
Olympic
Villages;
architectural
problems
to
this
and
achive
flexibility
flexible
technological
systems
in
constructing
solve
to
due to time and cost constraints and
the
an
is
approach
strategy
an
and
system
suggests a flexible
the
pressure
for subsequent dual purposes of use.
This
study is largely concerned with a problem-seeking
and a problem-solving process,
process
using the
following
strategy:
A historical overview of ancient Olympia and
(1)
Olympia,
as
modern
well as a case study of modern Olympic Villages
in section 1.2, shows the qualitative needs and quantitative
needs
that
fulfill.
of
the
planning of
the
Olympic
Villages
should
These needs indicate general goals and requirements
planning the Olympic Villages,
discussed in section 1.3.
6
The
1.2.3
case study of modern Olympic Villages sub-section
particularly
conflict
that
shows
between
result
building problems
and
monumentality and practicality
related to time and money in a
contextual problems
a
from
from
building
process.
(2)
Chapter
explained
In
2
order
to solve these
the
problems,
takes the three following approaches,
with a consideration of the related
study
which
resources
in
are
of
land, financing, management, technology and labor:
a) A case study of the modern Olympic Villages shows
a typical typology - a high-rise building with variety. A
High-rise building proposed by the relation to the planning
approaches - centralized planning and decentralized planning.
The cost implication of a high-rise building necessitates the
thereby
industrialized construction method,
of an
use
indicating an desirable design process.
form and
b) The relationship of the perception of
between
conflict
conceptual problem - a
to
function
suggests complexity and
monumentality and practicality flexibility, so that the perception would have much meaning
in our value system.
c) A comparison between the fast - tracking building
process and the conventional building process in terms of
suggests a systems approach which is
and time,
cost
appropriate for fast - track.
(3)
strategy
Responding
to
the
three
above
of search by analogy for a flexible system and
systems approach has been adopted in chapter
the
relationship
systems,
flexible
between
technology
systems
are
and
compared
a
assumptions,
3.
its
Considering
in
architecture
to
"cloudlike"
systems. Examining each type of flexible system in terms of
7
generating and operating flexibility, the "chess analogy"
for open systems is suggested.
(4) An open system, responding to the systems approach as
a
system
flexible
thus regarded
is
analogy",
"chess
for
Olympic
appropriate
the
as
desirable
Some
Villages.
considerations for developing such a system are discussed
in
the following pages
All
various
information
the
fully
systems and past Olympic Villages will not be
in
integrated
thesis.
this
That
is,
much
as
the
of
exemples
to the
related
detailed
technical information as it is not relevant to the choice
an
overall
specific
strategy
design,
for generic approach,
will
not
be
discussed.
rather
than
However,
of
a
the
information which is assumed to be related to this process of
this
thesis,
has been rationalized in order to achieve
the
goal of this thesis.
8
1
OLYMPIC VILLAGE
1.1.
Introduction
1.2,
Historical Development
1.2.1. Ancient Olympia
1.2.2. Modern Olympia
1.2.3. Modern Olympic Villages
1.3.
General Goals and Requirements
1.3.1. Goals
1.3.2. Requirements
1.4.
Problems
1.4.1.
Conceptual Problems
1.4.2. Contextual Problems
9
1.1. Introduction
Buildings and monuments,
Olympic
events,
reflect
especially those for historical
the attitude and the intention
of
those who hold these events. Moreover, the very conditions of
their times and the prevailing economic, social, and cultural
needs are reflected by those architectural witnesses.
The
study
case
of
is
past Olympic Villages
taking
the following factors into consideration:
scale
Sports
implementing
Complex,
the project.
and
the
context
study
will
indicate
some direction for
the
involved
The results reveal the
and problems of planning an Olympic Village.
made
by
super
in
character
Hopefully, this
planning
for
the
future in order to respond to new requirements and needs from
the accomodation of social changes.
10
1.2 Historical Development of Olympic Villages
1.2.1. Ancient Olympia
of
origin
The
- Greece and Rome,
times
ancient
modern Olympic Games can be
2000 to 2500
traced
from
years
ago.
military
the ancient concerns about physical and
Because of
exercises,dances,gymnastics, and games, the architects had to
cope with varied social needs.
respect
of
idea
Olympic
ancient
followed.
of
mind,
the
complex was first and foremost a place
for
sports
in
buildings,
facilities
and other
planning
the site of ancient Olympia provide stimuli for
cultural buildings of the modern Games.
The ancient Olympic structures
stadium
and
facilities,
public
and
the hippodrome,
Grove,
which
from
the
(Fig.1) consisted of
contest
first
which were the
as well as the athletic arena, the swimming pool
baths,
and
educational institution.
a
layout
Even today the general arrangement and the
the sports and
"
fundamental Olympic
dignity
for man and human
Culture,
worship.
With the
the
palestra,
which
the
were
The structures were arranged within
short walk " from the center
of
Atlies,
the
Sacred
which was in harmony with the natural environment and
took
future expansion into
consideration.
the functions of administration,
functions of culture,
worship,
Separated
the
other
transport, catering, and accommodation
were located on the outskirts of the city.
(Wimmer, 1976)
11
( Fig.1
Olympia plan of the site and environs about A.D.200 )
Olympia, plan of the site about A. D. zoo
r.Temple of Zeus, z. Pelopium, 5. Heracum,
4. Metroum, s.Stadium, 6. Echo Portico,
7. Bouleuterion, 8. Leonidaeum. 9. Theokoleon,
to. Baths, i i. Palestra, i z. Gymnasium. t 3. Crypt,
14. Altis wall, 11. Altar of Zeus
Olympia, environs about A. D. zoo
i. Olympia. z. Altis. ;. Stadium. 4. Hippodrome.
i. Alpheus, 6. Cladeus, -. Cronus Hill,
8. Starting line, 9. Grandstand
li2
catering,
The transport,
were
It
the Games - originally lasting
of
no more than five days -
since 468 B.C.,
and
the
and
days,
to spend the
and
night
made them put
the
Games
permanently in their four-year Olympiad
cycle
maintain
directly
two
The practical mind of the Greeks
in the open.
and
- consisting of awnings and tents.
was therefore only in part the climate which allowed
visitors
up
mobile
essentially
facilities
and accommodation
only such buildings as
the religious ceremonies in the
served
Sacred
Precincts.
For
such short-time use, provisional arrangements had to suffice.
the contestants themselves grouped according to the
Equally,
respective
city
accommodations
states,
in a
had
to
make
temporary tent camp,
do
with
their
not far from
the
Sacred Grove.
The
tent camps were used for quite
different
purposes,
which has had repercussions until the present on the planning
of the modern Olympic Villages (Martin Wimmer, 1976)
--
They enabled intensive training for the specified
of
time.
--
They
accommodated the athletes
teachers in simple quarters.
--
They provided the same diet for everybody.
--
They ensured control of prescribed hygiene.
--
They controlled the observance of truce or peace among the
athletes as stipulated by treaties.
--
They provided
talks.
together
period
with
many opportunities for social contact
their
and
*13
1.2.2 Modern Olympia
the
Olympia,
ancient
after
years
1,500
spiritual,
ethical, and aesthetic implications of the ancient Games were
revived
in
1896 by Pierre Baron de
Coubertin,
-
French
the
educationalist and humanist, due to the growing importance of
physical education and sports. He provided a solid foundation
in
International
continuance.
suitable
Committee,
Olympic
Above
all,
he
the
mechanism,
organizational
internationalism and an
which ensured the
emphasized the
Games'
necessity
settings for the staging and operation
of
of
Olympic
games as agents of both physical and cultural renewal having
aesthetic and philosophical meaning.
Therefore,
he demanded
in the preparation
that young architects play an active role
for these competitions.
His
vision
of
"
unrealistic of the time,
Modern
Olympia
",
though
rather
was developed from the first scheme
of ancient Olympia which consisted of following elements:
(1)
The division of the Olympic Complex into two parts:
the semi-sacred precincts, which were in the center of
the city for sports, music, the theater and the library;
and the profane city as the abode of hoteliers and
tradesmen.
(2)
The assignment of no important role to the spectators in
the transmission of Olympic values.
(3)
A pastoral setting for the Olympic city, which need
not necessarily be austere and need not exclude joy, but
should be an expression of the dignified and lofty
purpose of the Games
*14
on
insisted
Coubertin
expedient and comfortable accommodation,
accorded
of
comprised
city,
buildings of every description,
without
outskirts,
accessory
and
restaurants
which should be located
and
in
the
honor'
of
the 'court
direct communication with the center
of
of temporary housing for athletes, their
His idea
the city.
from
away
hidden
slightly
but on no
This accommodation was to be in the
account a luxurious one.
profane
being
officials
and
athletes
companies and assistants, was based on practicality, borrowed
from the ancient Greek Olympia,
monumentality
the
which required a contrast to
the permanent center of
of
ancient
the
city.
It
was
Coubertin's
between
idea
sports
town-planning.
Games
of Olympic architecture and
and
art
involving
competitions,
Stockholm
the
until
not
Though
were
the
marriage
art
architecture
and
of
products
the
that
the
reestablished
two disciplines:
(1912)
by
architectural
competitions may be regarded as less original and mediocre in
general
sports
of
until
1948,
the growing
internationalization
and the standardization of the
Olympic
games as by-products of
of
rules and regulations
competitions
had
much
impact on stimulating architecture worthy of the Olympic idea
and the steadily growing Olympic movement.
*15
1952,
Since
I.O.C.(International
the
of
guidelines
the
followed
Committee) and the United Nations
Organization
has
Games
planning for the
architectural
Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), as well as of
the
Group
Study
and
Architects)
of
the
UIA
(International
the " Internatonal Working
Union
of
for
the
Group
(IAKS). They have become the
Construction of Sports Premises
firm backbone for the development of construction techniques,
as
and
practical
the
realization
of
beautiful buildings with the
environment
of
guiding
as
well
peace and understanding.
the design
and
The result of this development has
another important message of the Olympic
delivered
"
idea:
Sports for everybody " (Coubertin), that is, popular and mass
Thus , the Olympic achievements in architecture have
sports.
evoked
has become a world-wide interest
what
expected
and
imposed by society.
an
With
ever-increasing
-contestants,
participants
of
number
substantial
reporters,
officials,
visitors- the problem of housing them has become serious.
developed
by
the
I.O.C.,
buildings
for
and
As
accommodation
(secondary buildings) and the Olympic Village, Press Village,
and
Cultural
Centers as a part of a
housing
program
have
become a major component integrated with sports buildings and
the
infrastructure of the Olympic City in the " standardized
program " of the Olympic Games.
is
An
Olympic
sent
by
which shows the growing importance
example
Village in the Olympic Complex is the
IOC
the
Federation)
ISF
and the
(the
questionnaire
International
the cities which were applied to
to
the
of
Sposts
the
stage
Olympic Games. The following questions are among those asked:
(1)
All of these facilities should not be too far away with
from each other and should be within easy reach of
the Olympic Village.
(2)
What types of Olympic Villages are planned ?
Where will they be situated ?
" Information for Cities Which Desires to Stage
(Source;
the Olympic Games." Lausanne:CIO 1957, P.7 and 12 )
1.2.3. Modern Olympic Villages
companions,
and
assistants
was
by
provided
commercial
establishments chosen by the participants themselves.
interesting case
steamer
in 1912,
In one
the USA teams used an ocean-going
as a hotel and training facility.
few exceptional cases:
their
athletes,
accommodation for
to 1928,
1896
From
There have been a
simple wooden huts were used in Paris
Louis
(1900),
and a primitive wooden hotel was used in
St.
(1904).
But the expand'ing scale of participants,
especially
the increase of spectators, made the problem of accommodation
so
serious
Organizing
contestants
that
in
Committee
in
1923 the IOC
of the Games with
the future.
Hence,
charge
the
accommodating
the
decided
to
the Olympic Village
of
modern times appeared in Los Angeles for the first time in 1932.
17
Since the Los Angeles Olympic Games, the development of
Olympic
Villages has had more comprehensive and far-reaching
consequences
as large scale housing after the
Games.
Three
phases can be seen in this development (Fig.2)
(1)
Suburban colonies consisting of single-story bungalows
idyllic
in a charming scenery of an almost
situated
character such as those built in 1932 and 1936.
(2)
Housing estates of many-storied buildings such as those
built since 1952. It should be noted that Melbourne
(1956) with its single storey wooden houses, was the
last exception in the trend toward multi-story buildings.
(3)
Since 1968,large residential complexes with tower
blocks, which achieved the necessary short walk (economy
the desired communication
of time) and, above all,
between accommodation facilities and their subsidiary
facilities.
A
more detailed description of this development of modern
Olympic Villages is shown in Figure (3).
were
villages of these large residential complexes
The
in close relation to the other facilities,
planned
the press center,
such
as
the cultural center and/or the youth camp,
which were located within or next to the Olympic Village. The
resultant
expanded
and
construction
structure,
center
so
scale
also
the
necessitated
reconstruction of an urban service
infra-
that the planning of an Olympic Village as
a
for planning the Olympic sports complex was based
on
and could be only fulfilled
on
the overall urban structure,
the
has
basis
of cultural overall
comprehensive
town-planning
considerations.
18B
NO
YEAR
PLACE
COMPETITORS
NATION
(total no.)
1896
Athens
13
295
1900
Paris
21
1077
1904
St.Louis
21
554
1908
Lodon
22
2034
1912
Stockhelm
28
2504
1916
(Berlin)
1920
Antwerp
29
2591
1924
Paris
44
3075
1928
Amsterdam
46
2971
1932
Los Angeles
38
1331
1936
Berlin
49
3980
1940
(Tokyo,then Helsinki)
dropped
1944
(London)
dropped
1948
London
58
4062
1952
Helsinki
69
5867
1956
Melborn
67
3184
1960
Rome
84
5396
1964
Tokyo
94
5586
1968
Mexico
125
6626
1972
Munich
123
10088
1976
Montreal
1980
Moscow
1984
Los Angeles
dropped
(sports events; 22)
(sports evants; 21)
132
(sports evants; 23)
Figure 2-: The History of Olympic Summer Games
(Source: Martin Winmer, 1976)
I00
X.19
m3
G
1932, Los Angeles
1952, Helsinki
1960, Rome
1964, Tokyo
e-memamesum
ys
1968, Mexico
1972, Munich
1980, Moscow
( Fig.3
Typological study of modern Olympic Villages )
TYPE (FORM)
camp type
detached houses
(street-front units)
radial layout
in the form of a large stadium
camp type
(single storey)
detached houses
(street-front units)
radial layout
700 units for males
only
Helsinki
walk-up apt. blocks
(three and four floors)
cluster pattern
(each unit with two
or three bedrooms,
kitchen, bathroom,
and small balconies)
1956
Melbourne
detached houses,
(street-front units)
single-storey and two-storey
1932
Los Angeles
1936
Berlin
1952
160 units
one storey bungalows
made of prefabricated
timer section
FACILITIESLOCATIO
FUTURE USE
CONSTRUCTION
SCALE
dismantled after the game
kitchens, dining rooms, open-air stage,
Finnish bath-houses(at
tile-roofed bungalows
billet for officers of
the German army
music
bank,
infirmary,
post office,
lounge, game rooms, dining halls, modern
kitchen &dining rooms, reception room,
administrative buildings, sports arena,
swimming arena, bathing pool in the open,
sauna, stadium
cross-ventilation
residential
quaters (multi-family
housing)
sauna,.meeting rooms,
cottage housing estate
kitchens,
320 units
shops
restaurants
radial layout -
1960
Rome
flat elevator apartments
(medium- rise)
several types arranged in
tight patterns
TYPE
'cast-in-place
concrete column &
beam'
'finished in multicolored tiles'
1,350 units
FUTURE USE
youth hostel
1964
same as Melbourne
196
Mexico
elevator apt. (twenty-one
six-storey to eleven-storey
domestic buildings)
tower form, tower block,
compact centrallized layout
5,000 units
($ 16 million)
1972
Munich
elevator apt.(W: 20 storey,
M: 2,3,4,19 storey), terrace
house(stepped form),
convential high-rise, patio
house, row house, slab form
(single loaded and double
loaded floor), compact
arrangement with ample free
space
M: 2,000 (stepped)
500
(conventioal)
W: 1,800 (in the
flat bldg. and
tall bldg.)
100 acre
12,500 athletes
(8 unit plan: duplex
and extra bedroom)
W: supporting, wind-resistent
frame which forms the loggia:
supporting beam: room size
panel, for 19 storey high rise
poured concrete except for
facade panels and all
horizontal elements cast in a
plant at .the site, for 2-3
storey building
M: poured concrete cross-wall
and slab with partitions 20cm
thick
building for womanstudent's residential
hostel
building for menluxury condominium apt.
1976
Montreal
two pyramidal elevator apt.
(21 and 23 storeys) slab
form, stepped form, gallery
access, terrace house,
balcony house linear layout
980 housing units
(10,000 athletes)
7%, three-bed room
56%, two-bed room
23%, one-bed room
cast-in-place concrete
(finished in 5 months by the
repetitive form work)
3,200 condominium apt.
It was sold for a
fraction of its cost
to a goverment-owned
corporation after the
(2 plans)
14%,studio($95millior)
Games.
1980
Moscow
traditional elevator apt.
(16 floor)
linear ractangular layout
6 U-shaped cluster
12,000 athletes
(2-3 bed room units, precast slab
18 blocks)
new housing complex
14,500 dwellers
brick tower
904 condominium apt.
(urban residential
quarter)
Baldwin hill
the edge of the city)
'architectonically excellent to realize
the Olympic ideals in the landscape'
in the lake dis rict near
Doberitz,west of E Berlin
'the first multi-storey residential
buildings'
simpler forms and less generous standards
in the later village'
separate village for the athletes of
Soviet and the eastern bloc countries'
'later to be used as student housing'
'the first village for woman,
architectonic meaning'
Kapyla
but has no
'the first planned complex residential
quarter: economical use of land having the
district's dense urban character'
'a lively composition with a distinct
identity in the Flamino district'
public housing
(poorly maintained urban
residential quarter)
CONSTRUCTION
SCALE
the first actual modern Olympic Village
Campo Pavioli
FACILITIES.
'the large omnibus station and the
reception building'
'the spacious omnibus station with the
reception building'
lounge, cafeteria, discotheque, outdoor
theater, swimming pool, training
facilities, indoor sports arenas,
international club
'no architectonic meaning'
'an exemplary soluuon to town-planning
problems: the first Olympic City of tall
buildings including complete training
facilities and recreation facilities, the
combination with the Press Centre, an
outpaients departnent, and a restaurant'
urban massing with variety in open space'
decentralized pla nning with
Sports Complex
'harmony with hitry'
Olympic Press Village
(later to be used as welfare housing)
church, shopping area, schools, office
space:recreational facilities, subway
stop, swimming pool & recreational area
at the juncture of each pyramid's ground
floor
'architectonic building and landscape ('Olympics in Green')
'modern town planning-the result of optimalization process after consulting
internationally renowned experts'
'a pedestrian bridge connected the Village with the Oberwiesenfeeld: stops
of a rapid transit system and of the underground'
'deep planters for privacy'
'painted service lines' multi-use and a pneumatic waste collecti on system'
'successful project delivery for a self'sustaining community'
'too gigantic' 'too superfluous'
'Cost: W: $10,150,000, cafeteria/student union: $5,850,000
M: not availihi'
ground floor: domitory, dining facilities,'not real village, but architectural symbol in Viau Park'
'strong resemblance to French architect Minangoy's apt, in the Anges on the
shops, restaurants, commercial and
Cote d'Azure'
professional space
'overall use of exterior side walkways in the sky'
underground floor: parking
'deep overhangs on both sides of each unit'
kindergartens, schools, shopping center,
cultural activities, entertainment,
sports, parking at the perimeter
'planned in the decentralized town plan'
'a sense of regimentation'
'built in the city's rapidly expanding southwest quadrant'
22
The
case
planning
these Villages involves both
quantitative needs.
the
that
shows
study of former Olympic Villages
qualitative needs and
largely based on
The qualitative needs,
indicate
ideas of both ancient and modern Olympia,
Olympic
Villages,
basic
goals and requirements of planning
while
simultaneously responding to their material needs.
addition
those
to
development
needs,
the
facts
of
of
the
host city or
host
In
historical
that
of Olympic Villages evoke certain patterns
future Villages should follow. Meanwhile, the
conditions
the
the
socio-economic
country
has
caused
building problems which will be explained in section 1.4.
23
1.3 General Goals and Requirements
1.3. 1.
Goals
-- to
be
technica 1
be
Games,
international
of
symbolization
:
of
ideals by means of architectural symbols
Olympic
to
harmony
and
friendsh ip
--
expression
symbolic
a
the
and
innovation.
for
available
with
use by the
after
public
social services of every description
the
to
satisfy cultural requirements.
1.3.2. Requirements
--
to
living and contact center for
be a dwelling,
contestants,
the
their coaches and attendants, especially
a convenient dwelling space
to be a comfortable;
for
those who come from many different cultures.
--
to be provided with sports,
facilities,
sports
supply
--
and catering
installations,
and
within a short walk or
and medical equipment,
in a convenient
and recreation
training,
easily accssible location.
to control the observance of peace or truce among
the
treaties,
and
attacked
by
athletes as stipulated by Olympic game
to
protect
the
athletes
from
being
outsiders.
--
to
provide a residential environment for a
unspecified
people,
both
during
and
group
after
of
the
Games.
24
--
housing
to ensure an efficient transition from athlete
other
the
to
future-use functions,
such
as
public
housing, hostels and/or dormitories.
1.4. Problems
The problems of planning Olympic Villages, as implied in
the
and
goals
as well
requirements,
development of Olympic Villages,
categories:
The
conceptual
existence of these
the
historical
can be categorized into two
problems and
problem
as
problems.
contextual
categories,
however,
also
suggest some solution strategies.
1.4.1. Conceptual Problems
planning of the Olympic Village has two conflicting
The
aspects
- monumentality and practicability
vs.
symbolicity
and convenience - which are the result of the dual purpose of
use for both during and after the Games. As a matter of fact,
this conflict has existed since the inception of the idea
a
"Modern
successive
Olympia."
With
the increasing
project and the need to pay back
costs in afteruse,
has become acute.
concepts should
socio-economic
of
scale
its
of
each
escalating
the problems arising from these conflicts
However neither of these two contradictory
be discarded because of their effects on the
concern,which
is
also the
national
policy
25
e.g.,
concern,
the display of national power, and the ideal
Olympic sprit.
regard
we
If
of form,
perception
behaviorally
and practicability (conveniency) as the
conflict
this
function,
based performance of
Clearly,
over function and vice versa (which follows which?).
interdependence cannot be
their
form
receive the old argument over the primacy of
to
tends
visual
the
as
architectural symbolism
which
complexity
contains
two
very
the
Hence,
ignored.
contradictory
seemingly
concepts is also a clue to solving this problem. According to
the discussion about symplicity vs. complexity in post-modern
the attitude
toward
this complexity is relevant to the medium of building
(form)
architecture
by Robert Venturi (1973),
of
clarity
contemporary
(function),
program
building
and
meaning
but
which can give
give richness of
experience by exhilarating
meaning
not
the
to
the
tension
perceptual
rhythmical
between various forms and functions, disposed in
orders.
1.4.2. Contextual Problems
The
units
to
Olympic Village has
developed from
700
temporary
of bungalows for 1,331 athletes in Los Angeles
the
Moscow
planned,
(1932)
complex residential quarters for 12,000 athletes
(1980).
i.e.,
Athlete
in
housing as it
should
be
in
properly
close relationship to the other tertiary
26
facilities, such as the press center and the cultural center,
and
it
"within
of organization.
Olympia"
-
concept
of
the overall planning for
led to excessive additional costs
which
streets,
city
of
than
rather
centralized,
as in the case of the Rome, Tokyo, and Mexico
decentralized,
systems
Thus,
becomes
Village
Olympic
Games,
"Modern
a short walk," must consider the modern
efficiency
the
from the idea of a
originated
peripheral
new
a
for
and
freeways
organizational efforts.
a centralized planning,
such
Within
complex project of the Olympic Village is sharply
According
the
the scale of
increased.
to the master plan for the next Olympic Village in
Seoul, Korea (1988), its capacity is expected to accommodiate
persons in the athlete village
15,000
(later to be used
public housing with 3,850 dwelling units),
in
the
Reporter's
Village
(later to
be
as
and 7,000 persons
used
1,850
for
dwelling units), sited on 621,843 square meters of a suburban
area, next to the National Sports Complex.
the
Therefore,
for
by
economic problem of devouring vast sums
the construction of the Olympic City has become
straining
host
called
to the limit of the financial ability
city or country to pay for such
developing countries,
importance.
The
extravaganzas.
this problem is of
words " gigantism of the Games,"
serious
of
In
the
so
particular
spread
by
the mass media, reflect this concern.
27
responsibility for this problem should not be
the
But,
the Games themselves.
blamed on
If we consider the afteruse
of Olympic buildings as potential public facilities, while at
"
the same time still in keeping with the underlying idea of
e.g.,
Olympia,"
Modern
the concern for costs and benefits
and sports for everybody,
should
focus on the long-term life-cycle of
rather
than
buildings,
the
of
the
With a
few
use during the short time span
their
and on short-term social-welfare aspects.
Games
culture
the importance of physical
exceptions, such as the Los Angeles village (1932), which was
dismantled after the Games,
which
Berlin's Village (1936),
became military barracks, and the Rome Village, which offered
poor
conditions
living
Village,
dubious
provenance
and
poor
utility
walkways),
all
the
and
management,
(such
of
be
to
of which is said
uncertain
exterior side
and
overhangs
design
the
Montreal
due to
as
past
deep
Olympic
have become the successful residential quarters
Villages
as
their designers hoped they would, and are occupied today. For
complaints
experts
Munich
the
example,
as
Village appears to have
of early residents,
overcome
and is now regarded by
one of Europe's most successful postwar
the
many
housing
designs for students and the other use groups.
Hence,
considered
the
costs
in
terms
considerations
of the Games
of
post-game
of post-game utility,
should
use.
definitely
Aside
the host city or
country should take maximum advantage of the construction
be
from
host
or
28
set
to
and
quality
its
of
reconstruction
overall
existing
of
conditions.
environmental
experiences in Tokyo, Mexico and Munich,
the
Furthermore,
improve
shortcomings
the
right
existing
and/or
patterns
urban structure to
which proved that only 10 % of total costs was for the actual
support the hypothesis that
initially
of
tends to
of the buildings of Olympic Villages,
construction
high
the societal repercussion of
investment of
an
public funds pay off in terms
the
future social as well as economic benefits for
host
city in the long run.
spite
In
considerations,
sharply
in
attention
escalating over time,
are worthy
terms of the financial ability
immediate
the
of the construction of an Olympic Village,
costs
been
of the above
and
while have
of
serious
financial
risks of the host country. In the case of the Munich Village,
the total cost of the construction of an Olympic Village
been
has
estimated to be about $ 60 million (10 % of total costs
of $ 600 million).
Futhermore, considering opportunity cost,
it is evident that the priority of investment would be placed
on
the
permanent
That is,
expected.
because
of
future
demand
that
can
be
accurately
the demand for sports facilities varies,
the changing popularity of sports,
while
the
demand for housing is relatively constant.
There have been a few proposals dealing with such large,
extravagant, and increasingly expensive building efforts. One
29
the kinds of Olympic sports
seperates
proposal
if this proposal is accepted,
But,
a different country.
into
and suggests playing each category
distinct clans of events,
in
games
the Olympic Games will be converted into a world championship
The
event.
retain
as
such
earlier
functioned
discussed
benefits,
lasting
the
of
any
Olympic
But this proposal would
Games in a fixed location in Greece.
not
future
proposal is to hold all
other
everybody,"
for
"sports
and
architectural and technical development, and so on.
In addition to the above,
one more year for the
problem,
management,
the
the
to
the
problems
of
With respect
causes
element
time
the
before
four years for the construction
then the
proper becomes too short a time.
cost
If we consider
years
country is selected six
forthcoming Games,
work
project
organizers to check the expediency and
the proposed facilities.
of all
host
the
that
The
for design development(competition), plus
requires one year
suitability
Complex
Sports
Olympic
an
of
development
considered.
be
for the building process must
schedule
usual
the problem of a limited time
control and organization of project delivery. In
case of the Montreal Olympiad
this matter became
quite
clear.
In
1972,
mayor,Jean
Montreal
Drapeau,
self-financing
were
Games,"
City
and its
able
committed to staging
especially
after
energetic
and
a
"modest,
presiding
over
30
and Expo 67.
The budget was $ c.310 million (s c.250 million
for construction,
sum
This was supposed to be a
easily be recovered from anticipated revenues
could
from
income
half of
$ c.60 million for organization),
the cost of the Munich Games.
that
Metro
building projects including Montreal's
large
several
lotteries,
sales,
ticket
rights,
television
-
posters, coins and special endorsements. But the actual final
cost (direct cost: $ 1.4 billion) was more than twice as much
as
and
of the Munich Games ($ 850 million)
that
of one billion
deficit
dollars;
caused
a
construction
furthermore,
could not be completed in time for the games.
Although
inflation escalated sharply,
in
slowly,
and
these played only a small
part
project implementation began
Other factors
the economic failure of the Montreal case.
including
management
maximizing
and
the
the
opportunism
manufacturers and
lax
designs,
too complex architectural
of
project
indulging
only
contractors'
in
investment,
appeared to be the crucial reasons for this economic failure.
Mayor
failed
Drapeau
thus succeeded in political
leadership,
to provide the organizational leadership and
control required for such a large and
complex
but
project
project.(Auf
der Maur, 1976)
31
the
Munich Village,
case of the
semi-public
developers
the
and the student unions provided
Their interests in
Village replanned.
That is,
the
of
of the buildings made the first plan
after-use
Olympic
developers,
private
some
capital for the buildings in the Village.
the
in
constrast to the development process in Montreal,
In
to
capitalists wanted
make adjustments not only in the detail designing but also in
the overall organization. For example, all the buildings were
planned to be built in precast concrete,
woman's
the
cast-in-
the buildings were built in
village,
of
but in the case
place concrete. Especially, owing to the developer's interest
in
or
developing
housing after the Games a number of lowrise
apartments
solding off more buildings as apartments,
rent
had
be
to
layout,
and
raised
from
of
placed within the snaking fabric
the
site
slab blocks on the east of the
eighteen
eight stories to
first
the
were
stories.(Middleton,
1972)
The
all
the participants on the plan of the Olympic Village
the
incorrect cost estimation in the development
particularly
short
of
reasons for these changes were the disagreement
the
planning
and
-
process
change in construction methods due to
the
difficulty
in
and
time
preparation
large
number
of
and
suppliers.
case
This
maintaining
a
exemplifies
the
successfully
under the pressure of deadlines and cost.
trouble
in
delivering
the
project
32
the
Despite
problems with
the
seemingly superfluous and gigantic,
schedule.
Building
Village,
the
which
was
project of sports complex in Munich,
large-scale
on
Olympic
was successfuly finished
was due to the founding of
This
commissoned
Authority,
Committee, which performed
by
the
the
Olympic
Organization
functions similar to those of the
Construction Management approach in a building process.
That
is to say, this group coordinated and controlled the selected
parties:
the
public
consulting firms,
Moreover,
would
agencies,
architects
&
engineers,
material vendors, manufactures, and users.
this group
has set up a macro net-work plan which
coordinate individual micro net-work plans for smaller
construction tasks.
Those plans were based upon the
overall
Olympic construction programming, time scheduling, bugdeting,
estimating, and financing which are important in the building
process.(Johannes Galandi,
33
2. APPROACH
2.1 Patterns
2.1.1 High-Rise o r Low-R ise
2.1.2 Constructio nI
2.1.3 Secondary P roblems
2.2 Concept
2.2.1 Flexibility
2.3 Context
2.3.1 Fast-Track
2.3.2 Systems App roach
34
2.1
Patterns
High-rise or Low-rise
2.1.1
to
relationship
of an Olympic village has an intimate
planning
overall
the
planning of a Sports
Complex.
were
There
which
two types of approach in the overall planning
largely
the
that
of past Olympic villages shows
overview
The
have the following implications:
Centralized planning is more economical because
easy management control and organization.
2)
Decentralized planning is more costly because of
extending higher land prices of sites to be acquired
and the additional costs for the transportation and
service infra-structure systems.
it can
decentralized planning is more costly,
Although
be
utilized for portential or needed urban redevelopment
an
overall
city scale.
Olympic
basic
everybody"- as
Complexes
within
or
and
However,
ideas-"within a short walk" and
well as the cost,
the
"sports
for
that Sports
it is evident
located
Olympic Villages should be
addition
near the core of the metropolitan area
increasing
next
pressure
to the need of such a
together
with
planning,
centralized
on
that
if we consider
high density of population and variety of urban contacts.
the
of
1)
its
In
the
scale which is already exposed in the program for
Seoul Olympic Village
of *cost
on the
(Fig.
developments
),
4
of
predicts
future
the
Olympic
villages.
35
SPACE PROGRAMFOR ATHLETES'
ATHELETES' VILLAGE
Section
Function
RESIDENTIAL Residential
SECTION
Houses
Dining Hall
PUBLIC
SECTION
Reception
Center
Public
Gross
Area
Area
Area
Residential
Units
* Total Area
514,404
7,200
3,800
11,000
a Total Area of Section
525,404
90
670
60
40
80
480
300
620
2,070
Reception /
580
Registration
Lounge
420
Meeting Hall
260
Interview
540
* Total Area
Information
Facilities
Resting
Service
/
150
4650
150
650
1,300
2,370
2,050
590
510
2,960
2,560
750
190
940
500
500
* Total Area
Swimaing Pool
Recreation /
Amusment
Resting
. ..-
VILLAGE
= .-=== .=.=...= ....
.-- .-- .-..-- ....-- ....
....- ..-.- ..---Section
Function
Area
ATHELETES'
VILLAGE
Residential
Section
514,404
Dining Hall
6,000
1,200
Kitchen
3,170
630
* Total Area
Convenience
Recreation
Center
Net
VILLAGE AND REPORTERS'
Residential Houses
Dining Hall
a Total Area of Section
Public
Section
REPORTERS'
VItLAGE
Residential
Section
Reception Center
Convenience Facilities
Recreation Center
Shopping Center
Other Facilities
525,404
2,070
1,300
6.590
2,680
a Total Area of Section
12,640
a Total Area of Village
538,044
Residential Houses
a Total Area of Section
Public
Setion
514,404
11,000
HGs for Reporters'
Village
Reception Center
Internatial Press
Hall
247,269
247,269
850
710
8,790
" Total Area of Section
10,350
" Total Area of Village
257,619
Facilities
Accessory
100
Facilities
a Total Area
30
Management
Services
Stores
Services
60
260
440
120
1,910
510
2,680
130
6,590
OTHER
Shopping
Center
200
1,470
390
a Total Area
a Total Area of Section
12,640
Ca Total Area of Atheletes' Village
538,044
(Fig.
Central
International Architecture
of Competition for '88 Seoul Olympic
4) Source:
Power Plant
" Total Area
** GRAND TOTAL AREA
3,100
3,100
804,835
within a centralized macro-net work plan
Therefore,
Complex,
Sports
and
Village
the
micro-network
plan
for
the
Olympic
to
require
tertiary facilities is likely
its
for
highrise buildings because of following reasons;
1) The low ground coverage tends to reduce the high costs
fill the need to
new land acquisition, and
of
the
in
space
green
for
land
valuable
conserve
Village.
Olympic
the
of
environment
2) The short distances between housing and its facilities
confirm to the idea of Modern Olympia, e.g. sports for
everybody within a short walk.
each high-rise unit can
3) The ground floor area of
facilities
be devoted to administrative or service
such as reception center, convenience facilities,
shopping center, and so on. Hence,
recreation center,
living on upper floors can feel safety
dwellers
against attacks by outsiders.
4) Concentration produces conveniences and ease of social
contacts which are the essence of all communities,
these are for athletes or permanent city
whether
dwellers.
The
since
the
highrise
overview of the typologies in past Olympic Villages
evidence
that
buildings have been more frequently used than
low-
Mexico
buildings
rise
below
Village(1968),
or row houses.
provides
These typologies
are
where high-rise buildings have been defined as
shown
multi-
unit structures in which primary reliance is on elevators for
access to dwelling units.
1) Row houses (terrace houses and patio houses) and walkin some parts of the Munich Village- 2
up apartment:
to 4 stories.
2) Elevator apartments
a) Slabs: Munich village- 19 to 20 stories
Montreal Village- 21 to 23 stories
Moscow Village- 16 stories
37
b) Towers: Mexico Village- 10 stories
can be seen in the program for the next Seoul Olympic
As
tertiary
its
and
scale of an Olympic Village
the
(Fig.3),
Village
dealt
buildings has been sharply expanded This was
with in the preceeding section on Contextural Problems. Since
number
land must be purchased to accommodate many or a great
of
participants and facilities,
high,
the
the
high
and land values are usually
house
use of highrise buildings in the future to
number
expected
of
facilities
concentrated
near the core of
the
for
calls
participants
metropolitan
area of the Olympic City in the fiture.
2.1.2 Construction
Saving
land by the use of high-rise
means
construction
both direct savings in money and indirect savings in benefits
of various kinds as explained in sub-section 2.1.1 (High-Rise
or Low-Rise) However, if high-rise construction is allowed to
increase the building cost unduly,
savings or benefits
intensive land use will be reduced or lost entirely.
to
determine
the
where
real
from
We need
differentials
cost/benefit
between high-rise and low-rise construction occur, so that we
can
those
minimize
capitalize
on
factors which tend
cost
saving
factors,
to
add
thereby
appropriate economies for the selected pattern -
cost,
and
achieving
in this case
high-rise construction.
38
&
architectural
planning
firm
Severns,
Richardson,
of
the
by
Illinois
of
the University
at
made
study
A
Scheeler
& Associates (1963) shows that equivalent buildings
designed
as
to
tend
high-rise
low-rise and alternatively
differ in cost by the added amount spent in the high-rise for
The amount of added
and the area they occupy (1).
elevators
cost for the high-rise unit is then compared with the related
Since
area.
land
elevators
buildings,
residential
service
cannot
crucial
to
be
the
readily
are
high-rise
to
basic
number of elevators or type
of
it
is
changed.(Fig.5)
Hence,
groupings
develop efficiencies in dwelling unit
and corridor relationships which will reduce total floor area
and
offset some of the area
to
tend
unavoidable
in
the
increases
This can
high-rise building.
are
which
be
only
achieved by careful design and programming.
chHTAtsA
TMPE MACRNMttf-+
CAL-Sittn--'
-4 MUMUBE. of
EiEVA TOZ DOE6
Fig. 5
ELEVATOt C0T FACTOES
For
the
maximum economy and to achieve
design
of
cumulative
savings,
a typical residence floor- especially
in
39
a
high-rise unit- should include
the following factors:
an
to
1) Relate the typical floor plan to bay spacings of
appropriate structural system which lends itself
the kind of space arrangement desired.
by
and
2) Be consistent in the use of the structural system
loadings,
similar
regularity of bay spacings,
uniformity of structural elements.
3) Locate openings for elevators, stairs, risers and
ducts to relate to the structure with a minimum of
disturbance.
that
requirements early so
mechanical
4) Determine
to
related
economically
be
may
distribution systems
design.
the structure and the building
5) Use of a limited number of materials to serve similar
functions in a similar manner.
6)
In
Select basic building components carefully and then
use them generally so that a minimum number of types
windows, doors, plumbing fixtures, light fixtures,
of
University Facility
etc can be used. (source;
1963)
Center,
Research
context
relize these
to
order
construction
(assemblies)
and
techniques
(2)
in
the
building
of
development
would be desirable to use industrialized
it
prefabrication,
the
for
capacity
having
factors,
components
prefabricated
the
which have been developed to increase
compatibility between structure and other subsystems with the
use of minimum number of subsystems,
repetitive
buildings
use.
If
this
is so,
can take advantage of the
'industialization' (3),
in terms of
components,
the design
of
and
their
high-rise
actual cost benefit
time,
efficiency
of
and
cost.
40
The measure of 'industrialization'
of
percentage
general
factors.
local
and
the
in
Hence,
housing
conditions.
with
These
D.
high-
favorable
under
by the actural cost
by
Stollman
conventional
industrialized housing
savings
affected
Bernard
a savings of 11% by comparing
estimates
while
factory,
are significantly
costs
construction
regional
rise
done off-site
work
the
is often given as
benefit
of
'industrialization' are the numbers of:
Lower factory wage rates
increasing efficiency.
+15%
taking
account
into
+3.75%
Reduced construction cycle.
-7.5%
Extra cost of amortizing a factory
overhead
over
field
+11.0%
The
Village
overview
of
buildings
the
since
construction
1932
also
types
shows
of
the
Olympic
use
of
industrialized building methods for the construction of highrise
buildings,
and Moscow,
However,
developed
as well as
each
post
use,
lift slab construction in
Montreal.
host country was not willing to use the newly
building technologies and materials
construction
countries
such as panel and slab components in Munich
of
sports
facilities.
That
used
is,
in
the
built the Villages as standard public housing
so that the Villages could be a income source
potential renting and sales.
Thus,
they
the
host
for
by
tried to evade all
41
possible
which would result from
risks
the
by
technology
the misuse
of
new
practices
of
the
skills and
existing
Especially, in a so called
conventional building industry.
in
developing countries which have abundant unskilled labor
or
technologies
related to
economic
the
of
worker (4)
construction
as
the use of a minimum
consideration
careful
use
extensive
the
construction,
conventional
labor
on-site
ratio
employment
These kinds
imported services and materials.
the
industry
total
of
beyond the scope of this study,
considerations are
require
the
of
the most highly industrialization of the building
would
needs
payments (5)
of
and the balance
new
of
reorganization
into a coordinated,
vertical
assembly format of organization,
of
the
sector
building
production-shipping-
with a strong
relationship
to other fields of industry in a different economic condition
of each country.
Therefore,
two
critical
the
points
cost implication on construction raises
in
terms of
high-rise
types
to
be
developed in the Olympic Village:
1) The careful study of the spaces of the units, as well
as access, and service, which should have a relatively
high importance in design.
building
industrialized
2) Construction may well use
gradual
a
in
developed
are
these
if
techniques
of
use
the
with
combined
be
can
process, and which
methods.
conventional building
42
Secondary Problems
2.1.3
The application of industrialized methods to building may
also have some disadvantages.
observe
can
We
the repetitive use of
this
in
monotony
monotony.
excessive
of elements may lead to
numbers
small
That is,
the
Moscow
Rome
and
Though there is no information on the after-use of
villages.
the Moscow Village, the Rome Village failed to be a desirable
living place.
Rome
the
Villages,
brought
Village
of
Buildings
manner,
and
In contrast to the monotony of the Moscow
variety
in the design
of
about a more liveable housing
clustered
various shapes are
in
Munich
the
environment.
compact
a
and the open spaces harmonize with the green spaces.
each
Besides,
arrangements.
dwelling
Each
unit
unit
has varying
room
and
types
can be accessed by galleries or
a
double loaded corridor, and has a terrace or balcony.
Not only monotony but also organizational changes(6)
and
freedom of choice (7) are disadvantages created by
the
situation,
the
less
misuse
of
following
industrialized methods.
considerations
disadvantages,
in
the
In
are
crucial
use
of
this
to
prevent
industrialized
these
building
techniques:
(1) In order to avoid monotony, design should be a process
providing variety, which can give accent in repetition
in design with the use of a small number of building
elements.
43
(2) The design process should evaluate many alternatives
spac.e types and their arrangement in terms of cost.
However,
process
selected
chapter
in order to operate such a design process, the
should
by
will
a
be
shared with
program.
deal
with
all
related
Therefore the study
a contextual
participants
in
approach
the
which
next
may
establish the appropriate framework in which a design process
may function well, as well as a conceptual approach which may
suggest design goals which the design process should
finally
yield.
44
of
2.2 Concept
2.2.1 Flexibility
Our experiences in the variety of meaning are accumulated
on
with
faced
are
is
information
time.
information from
delivered
the
to real users by
This
world.
real
the
buildings at a specific point of
of
functions
during
which
value systems through the perceptual receptors
our
time
and/or
over
a certain period of experiencing an environment
And,
and
forms
our value system makes a decision on whether the
sense of informations will be shifted to
that we value.
Subsequently,
the memeory
images
our behaviour is then strongly
affected by these images. (Fig.6)
VALUE SYSTEM
PERCEPTUAL
RECEPTS
INFORMATION
SEARCH
IMAGE
REAL WORLD
DECISION
BEHAVIOR
( Fig. 6
Roger M. Downs, Geographic Space Perception,
Progress in Geography, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
London, 1970,
p.85 )
45
the above environmental perception of a building
If
appropriate
enough to affect users' behaviour,
may
the building
building
words,
In other
would have real symbolic meaning.
is
be seen as important artifacts that satisfy their users,
because they symbolize something that the users value.
question about
important
An
in
complexity
urban
and
the
to
1920s
the
of
theory
Architectural
architecture
modern
especially the concepts of the international
configurations.
the
vast
form
of
simplicity
and
design.
and
1940s,
favored
style,
geometric
regular
highly
versus
simplicity
be how the everyday user perceives
would
perception
environmental
But how do users perceive such forms? First,
majority
of
users do not
perceive
subtlety
of
geometic configuration, especially when it is only noticeable
in plan and cannot be appreciated without the most
difficult
of intellectural exercises. Nor do people prefer the stark or
brutal
simplicity
of
many
Second,
buildings.
modern
curiosity, play, exploratory behaviour, and human development
are stimulated by variety and complexity in the
environment.
Passive exposure to environments can actually be detrimental,
and
redundancy
variety
and
can
lead
complexity
to
lead
arrested
to
an
development,
active
while
commerce,
exploration and development. (Gary T. Moore, 1979)
46
In
order
to create an environment having
variety
and
complexity, physical objects for a setting of the environment
may well have flexibility which can be frequently defined
by
other basic terms:
(1) variability:
"apt to change or vary;
from one another".
to make
different
This is the intrinsic ability to make
otherwise
vary while
or
different
maintaining stability.
(2) adaptability: "to make suitable by changing; to adjust to
new circumstances".
Adaptability emphases the maintenance
stability through the exercising of
inherent ability to adjust to changes
external conditions. (Oxmen, 1976)
of
an
in
2.3 Context
The
in
section 1.4,
propagation
world will
The spread of the Olympic idea
of competitive sports in all parts
of
and
the
probably lead to a further increase in the number
of participants,
Olympic
described
are to a large extend due to the increasing
of the projects.
scale
the
conceptual problem and contextual problem
Games.
officials,
reporters and spectators at the
In addition to a few proposals for
the
operation of the Games,
for
moderation
changing
there has also been the
in the scale of the Games by
the
demand
countries
47
Not only the spiritual idea of
concerned with Olympic Games.
the
from
under which
but also the present system,
the Olympic Games,
revenues
federations involved in the Games share in the
against
work
events,
their
not for avoiding the
should be provided,
strategy
to the increasing scale,
related
involved
problems
the
solving
Hence,
moderation.
in
problems
accomodating
but for
large
a
and
project
scale
delivery.
2.3.1 Fast Track
contextual
most
brief,
In
of deadlines and cost tied to large
pressure
Here,
building
process
including
appropriate
In the traditional building
process,
and construction phases of work are usually
arranged
reduce building costs.
sequentially
end
to end.
In a very large scale
projects,
money,
kind of process easily leads to wasted time and
this
and
planning
appears, in order to shorten building time and to
execution,
design
programming,
the
project
scale
need for searching for an
the
delivery.
to
due
problems are
different interests of the many people
especially because of
involved and because of the increased project complexity.
In
contrast
construction
phases
reduces
to
proc-esses,
conventional
building delivery time.
design
design
and
the fast-track process overlaps the
of the building delivery process
fast-tracking,
linear
and
(Fig.7),
and
Depending on the degree
construction
time
may
thus
of
be
48
reduced
as
much as 25 to 50
following
the
has
approach
percent.
In
addition,
this
over
advantages
conventional process:
inflation by completing
the
--
It
reduces the impact of
building sooner.
--
It keeps design options open longer.
--
interim
It can save costs because of shorter periods of
financing during construction, and higher income or
cash flow, due to earlier occupancy.
(Fig .7)
Fast track
d
D
il d dsO4
Linear
Cost cton
D...$
id eao
g
Fast track
Time saved
inme saved
Linear
$
Con
Pio
CD$ SD DD
Bi. ocumnent
If
fast-track
considerations
1)
is
to
work
successfully,
the
following
should be kept in mind:
Because of early commitment to decisions not only by
the designer but also by the owner, decisions become
even the bad ones. Hence, careful
irrevocable,
construction scheduling and planning, coordination
and constant communication with all the team members
are essential for the A/E (Architect and Engineer)'s
work and the construction to proceed in a continuous
and logical sequence.
of
the
services
Hereit
is
esirable to use
construction management, which has the expert knowledge
of estimating the accurate cost of multibidding,
developing scheduling network diagrams or the critical
path method, forecasting and managing cash flow,
49
helping the project team make fast
much updatated information, and so on.
2)
decisions
(Fig.8)
with
Deferring as many sensitive decisions as possible by
interval between
fast-tracking reduces the time
design and construction, and limits potential design
obsolescence; both technical and social.
TRADITIONAL APPROACH
DESIGN/BUILD APPROACH
CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT APPROACH
I
-
Constructibn manager
Contractual relationship
Therefore,
one
(Fig.8 Three Approaches to
the Building Process)
Source: Parsons, 1979
----
Supervisory relationship
of
the first decisions should
to
be
divide the total building procedure into a set of subtasks.
While
these decision are being made,
the following
points
should be considered:
50
1) The spagehtti. effect (A.van Randen 1976) (Fig.9), due
interactions between
to complicated and unexpected
the various decisions taken in the building process
should be limited, so that earlier decisions would
not have much influence on later decisions.
2) Local approving agencies must issue building permits
to start construction without having a complete
set of drawings and specifications to review.
3) Local trade jurisdictions,
subcontractor availability
and workload, dollar value of the contract and bonding
capacity of probable constractors, and local
construction practices are should be also considered.
Aou.siehy Coti.o.
( Fig. 9
,-
-C----I.,
Spaghetti
Effect;
If someone pulls on the
end of one piece of
spaghetti, he gets
movement at the most
unexpected places on
con trC to
~li-Coxtracto7'
t he p latee. O n ce he
starts noticing it, he
can hardly stop. )
Source; A. van Randen,
1976
2.3.2. The Systems Approach
Because
decisions
of
multibidding
and the early
in the fast tracking approach,
the
commitment
owner
to
cannot
estimate the final total cost of the project. This means that
the
financial risk of the owner becames greater.
One way to
51
reduce
risk is to employ
systems
building;
pre-engineered
building components can be costed out far
manufactured
can the site-built portions of a
more
accurately
than
building.
Therefore,
a detailed construction budget is established for
the related groups of subsystems and the design is
as
scrutinized
it
considers and evaluates
carefully
possible
other
combinations or packages of subsystems. In addition, existing
as well
building systems allow for a short design phase,
On some systems-built
early bidding and delivery time.
for
as
projects as much as 75 percent of the price is under contract
early
in
design phase, i.e.,
the
a
year
possible when using conventional construction
a
is
sooner- than
methods.
And,
large portion ( 50 percent ) of a building systems project
can be bid by manufacturers very early, i.e.,
the first month
into the design process.
Furthermore,
the correct information about the cost
and
performance of subsystems and/or their combinations facilates
value
engineering
cycle
cost analysis,
combinations
by
and
life-cycle cost analysis.
In
life-
we can compare subsysrems and/or their
predicting
the
total
building throughout its assumed life.
cost
of
owning
a
This comparison can be
done by estimating total costs or a building's present worth,
which consider maintenance, operation,replacement, and so on.
The
great
fast tracking approach in a building process
advantage
assemblage
for
systems which can be defined
of the subsystems or components by
a
offers
some
as
the
regular
52
or interdependence.
interaction
Therefore the fast tracking
approach can be conceived as one part of the systems approach
to building.
of
While the conventional approach to building is
composed
design,
bidding,
sequential steps such as
contracting,
programming,
and execution, the systems approach allows some
steps to be arranged in a parallel or even in reversed order,
which
is
Therefore,
also appropriate for the fast
tracking
approach.
the systems approach has the following advantages
over the conventional process:
final building result
(1) Predictability of the
is more accurate.
design and construction
of
(2) The development of alternatives can be achieved with
low cost.
(3) The feedback process exerts influence on the decision
at the time of concern.
53
3. FLEXIBLE SYSTEMS
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Analogies related to Industrialized
Building
Technology
3.2.1. Clocklike Systems
3.2.2. Cloudlike Systems
3.3. Flexible System Analogies
3.3.1. Wine-Bin Analogy
3.3.2. Bookcase Analogy
3.3.3. Seed Analogy
3.3.4. Chess Analogy
54
3.1. Introduction
flexibility
systems)
intends
choice
This
chapter
are more appropriate
to show which types of systems
obtaining
(building
buildings
rationalization(8).
of
means
by
has
The systems approach
prefabricated
for
developed
been
for
Olympic Villages.
in
design
the
obtaining
is appropriate for
approach
systems
a
that
of the preceding chapter shows
discussion
The
and change of function
in
form
and
buildings in general.
common
Some
types
of
systems
are
by
categorized
analogies, so that their meanings in generating and operating
systems
can
be compared
concept
analyzed.
industrialized
with
technology
are dealt with by the analogies of
"clouds".
The
second
set
of
of
the
First,
connected
flexibility,
the
and
ideas,
ideas
building
concerned
are characterized by analogies to
and
"clocks"
with
"wine-bins",
"bookcases", "seeds" and "chess sets".
Though the analogies may be symbolic, the concepts would
revealed
by them,
provide a good paradigm for developing
a
systems approach for flexibility in building systems.
the extent
to
"Analogies are convenient only
they are helpful in establishing a general
that
to
which otherwise would be difficult
context
the
distorting
in a few words without
express
message to be conveyed." ( E. Dluhosch, 1973 )
55
3.2.
to
related
Analogies
Building
Industrialized
Technologies
in writing about systems, distinguishes
Karl Popper,
between "clocklike" systems - which function like
predetermined
predictable,
producing
clockwork,
- and
final products
"cloudlike" systems - which behave like a cluster of gnats or
but
sense,
predictable only in a general
a school of fish,
not in terms of individual elements.
3.2.1. Clocklike Systems
Buckminster
10),
1927 Dynamaxion 1 House
(Fig.
work
- the
a ten - deck house design -
which
Fuller's
along the lines of his previous
developed
Stockade building system,
was designed as a self- contained universal unit in which the
was totally controlled by innovative
environment
and
new
materials
idea
-
founded
was
attitude
on
project.
His
whole
the
imperatives with
technical
"The individual can take initiatives without anybody's
permission" (Fuller 1927).
home
this
invented for
technology
as
a
machine can be fully supplied
But,
production.
The theme of his work was that the
his
by
factory
mass
idea only ended in the realization of
the Wichita experiment, and had little impact on the existing
housing
industry.
consideration
building,
and
The
was
cause
of local conditions,
the
traditional
the
lack
full
of
conventional methods
patterns
of
family
of
life.
56
Predictability,
in
the basis of his approach, was accurate only
the technology and the science areas.
approach could not have total control over
and needs,
However,
such
unspecified
an
uses
and did not take into consideration real needs of
the participants
\
in
the building process.
/
-A
I II I
JVV\
BASE F02%
MA)?
/\/Vk7V'
WIV
MIOe
T00
M
27WIC
I
7
VVVV\/\
Z ',_
/\/Ikzv\/\/VV\/\V\
V\A/\/V\/\i7
Fig.10
Elevation and Plan of MINIMUM DYMAXION HOME
This kind of an approach can be compared to a
which
system
predetermined
functions
final
like
results,
prefabricated housing programs,
1946.
The
Lustron
company ,
as
clockwork,
exemplified
clocklike
producing
by
American
such as the Lustron House in
created by the
engineer
and
inventor Carl Strandlund, built a practically all-steel house
57
interlocking porcelain enameled
with welded frame components,
But the Lustron production line was closed
etc.
assemblies,
only
complete window and door
for in - and outside walls,
panels
after it
years
four
in
production
- was mirrored
house
create
Lustron to
- a
house
package
vernacular
commenced
having
up,
set
The attempt by
1949.
industrialized
"Ultramodern"
was
in
an
so-called
Britain,
post-1945
the implications of such an approach were being worked
where
related components at
dimensionally
by
(9),
Hertfordshire
their
though
later by the Modular Society (10),
and
Arcon
and
the use of grids,
out in terms of modular coordination,
works may not belong to "Clocklike" systems.
that
At
due
was
failure
it
time,
may be
to the lack of
concluded
Lustron's
that
distribution
network
and
financial mechanism such as in automobile industry.
But, the
a
"closed"
more
important cause was that the production of
housing system, which was produced by concentrating mainly on
components
packaged
manufacturing
because
cope
variety
with the
in a disaggregated cyclical market.
demands
reach
not
could
technology,
the
of
plant
required
the
produced
in
of
In other words,
single
a
and unmodifiable at the site
economy of scale
failure of meeting
for
user
housing
mass
expensive
did
not
production
requirements
for
variety and diversity.
5
mis-interpretation
of
problems
in
highly
a
confronting
complex
society in which the planning of human shelter
satisfy
man's
social,
economic,
there is no
answer or solution for " wicked" problems,
contrast
the
to
not
these
clear
with,
whether
directions,
goals and
In
words,
other
related to building tend to be
in
and
scientists
problems have been solved.
problems
societal
complex and
e.g.
which
problems
"tame"
engineers handle with
or
definite
problems that planners deal
societal
must
needs.
and psychological
According to Rittel and Webber (1973),
intractable
the
of these systems are basically due to
failures
The
more
and
more complex than pure engineering problems, so that a single
view
not
enough
the large amount of information which is
accommodate
to
a predetermined result is
to
leading
to
needed
formulate and solve problems in planning which have
both
technical and socio / cultural implications.
Therefore,
industrialized
definition
of
it is evident that the planning approach for
building
systems
the "wicked"
should
start
problems.
societal
from
As
a
stated
above, this approach cannot have pure true-false solutions as
formulated
"wicked"
which
user
in
problems
groups.
are
hard
sciences.
But
the
can provide a holistic
approach
framework
alternative solutions can be given to
many
individual
which
the
That is,
in such a holistic
controlled
and
harmonized
within
different
framework,
can make his own decisions using his own
with
the
for
each
values,
other's
59
desirable
a
Thus,
decisions.
for
approach
systems
industrialized residential buildings may well be conceived as
for
cloudlike
the
predictable
a
in
but not in terms of individual elements which
general sense,
the
include
may
systems which can be
clocklike
such
Therefore,
systems.
"Cloudlike" systems are discussed in the following section.
3.2.2. Cloudlike Systems
11),
(Fig.
industrial
project
scheme
for
low-cost
housing
was based on
the
and
architects
and
the user wit h the possibility to adjust
these
needs.
These
thus
the
provided
and materials to meet their changing
products
components
or
subsystems
organized
hierarchically
secondary
elements
constantly
the
The
from
components
building
of
separation
Wall elements
elements
theoretically
building.
a
other structu ral framework.
primary
infill
approach
His
secondary
the
was
which
production.
Domino
Le Corbusier introduced the
1914,
In
may
thus
be
while
primary structure during the
life
final
these
to be capable of exchanging
environment,
with
heir
product
of
and
inter-related
this kind
of
keeping
of
system
the
is
therefore predictable in a general sense, but not in terms of
individual elements.
so
Corbusier's Domino Project
took industrialization to
be a "cloudlike" process)
(Fig.11
The system resulting from this approach can be regarded
can
both as an hierarchic system and as on open system which
be de fined -as follows:
(1) Simon (1962), in his paper on hierarchy as a form of
organization for complex structures, has defined the
hierarchic system as a system that is composed of
inter-related subsystems, each of the latter being ,
in turn, hierarchic in structure until we reach some
lowest level of elementary sub - system.
(2) Von Bertalanffy (1968) has defined an open system as
a system in exchange of matter with its environment,
building up and
presenting import and export,
components.
breaking down of its material
notion
The
of
a hierarchical open system
advocated by many architects and groups in the mid
century.
them,
Among
been
has
twentieth
N.J.Habraken developed his theory and
design method based on "Support and Detachable Units", and C.
Alexander
(11)
in his
"Pattern Language".
Archigram
The
group
who
and the Japanese Metabolists (12) were among those
planned
for
hierarchical
variety
and
change
with
the
open system on the city scale,
notion
of
though some
a
of
51
their
works
were,
eventually
realized
"clocklike"
as
systems.
open systems can
Hierarchical
real
final
respond to the needs of
users in housing by the nature of the indeterminacy
of
separation
of
building
results and the hierarchical
Salient
features
of
elements.
flexible
systems are further explained by the
the
"wine-bin",
the "bookcase",
kinds
of
analogies
of
these
building
the "seed" and the
"chess
set".
62
3.3. Flexible System Analogies
3.3.1. Wine-Bin Analogy
The idea of the Domino project was further developed in
the Marseilles Block in 1947 (Fig.12),
be taken down as the
which was supposed to
fixed frame and inf ills.
Both are
(Fig. 12.)
Upper: Cortusier's Marseilles brought
foward tie idea of industrialization
he preseatc' in the Domino Project
Lower: CorLtusier thought of the
Marseilles olock apartments as
bottles bein3 slid into a wine bin
analogous
to
shape
and
other
words,
the wine bin and wine
size,
having
but containing wine of every
this type of system has fixed bays
which divide spaces repetitively,
a
bottles,
fixed
variety.
and
In
spans
thereby accommodating only
few differentiated groups of functions.
But the users
can
only achieve such flexibility by using different arrangements
of
furniture as in any kind of apartment,
partition walls in a cell.
and some
These systems are usually
movable
either
63
composed
of the open frame as a support and the rigid
boxes
as infills, or the rigid box as self-supporting units and the
panels
as infills.
This analogy can be extended to the idea
of capsule dwellings.
(1) In 1964, Warren Chalk, one of the Archigram Group,
devised a capsule dwelling, with wedge-shaped units
sitting in a tower, which was to be the preferred type
It consisted of a set of
in a "plug-in" city.
components which were capable total inter-changeability
technical
and
changing needs
for
provide
to
were
dwelling
of
a
capsule
obsolescence. The main parts
Reinforced
(Glassfiber
GRP
made of pressed metal and/or
though later the possibility of using
Polyster),
pressed paper started to interest the Group.
idea of the capsule dwelling was explored by
(2) The
in
Kisho Kurokawa, one of the Japanese Metabolists,
in
It was finally realized in several locations
1963.
Japan in the early 1970s.
(3) The wine-bin analogy was applied to the Welton Becket
using
13)at Disney World,
(Fig.
Contemporary Hotel
and
completion
speed
to
modules
room
steel
prefabricated
in
refurbishing
room
of
rapid
to build in the possibility
steel
the future. That is, the modules were held by huge
A-frames, and completely equipped with all what a hotel
room must contain.
(Fig.13)Contemporary Resort Hotel, Walt Disney World,
Orlando, Florida. 14-storey A-Frame structure with
rooms terraced up both sides to form a vast interior
lobby concourse through which a monorail passes. The
end walls are glass sheeted. The 1050 room units were
pre-assembled steel construction.
Architects: Welton Becket and Associats)
ad4
In terms of variety and change,
"wine-bin"
which
buildings
the future use of the
ultimately dictates a few generalized living
determined by high technology. That is, such
which
may
Given
be
since
formalism,
actually
on approach for
but can only accommodate one type of
units,
is not a real open society.
capsules
no
considered
they
as
no
more
than
could not be interchanged
more transient than the
considerations
users
the use
Furthermore,
of
symbolic
and
were
structure.
supporting
these deficiences in supposedly flexible
following
patterns
systems cannot accommodate plural users of multi-
"wine-bin"
dwelling
frame,
fixed
is predetermined by the
systems
should be kept into mind
when
the
we
develop flexible systems are developed.
(1)
The use of high technology should enable users to
operate the flexibility of a building directlyas much
as possible.
(2)
The separation of building elements into supports and
infills should be based on flexibility, both between
rooms and between dwelling units.
(3)
Building with box-type units can shorten assembly time
factory
be produced under controlled
site,
on
conditions, and reduce labor costs per housing unit.
box - type construction puts certain limits
However,
of
terms
in
design and use
architectural
on
flexibility, because of allowable shipping widths and
many other constraints. The above discussion does not
but is
cover the full range of possible examples,
the
for
framework
conceptual
basic
a
meant to provide
following discussion.
65
3.3.2. Bookcase Analogy
1930's
Erik
when
support
and
infills
in
of
flats
system was composed
of
so-called
The
of
the
one
of
the
Townland
14),
(Fig.
which
provides
a
devised
Breakthrough(13) also
system,
of
kind
similar
components
of
Operation
in
competitors
the
can be changed with the exception
connections.
plumbing
all
wine-bin analogy,
the
in
and
support
Differing from the
infill units.
units
'bookcase'
Friberger designed a block
Sweden.
Gothenburg,
mid
the
of this analogy can be found in
origin
The
variety
and
adaptability in conventional multi-family housing. Within the
frame, the system provides flexible space for various housing
types.
the
However,
realized
in
the
implementation
because
Administration),
scheme could
original
of
by
HUD
(Federal
the lack of much
commitment.
long-term
governmental
obstacles
were user reluctance,
fully
be
not
Housing
broader
Besides,
the
and
other
the application of Townland
to low income housing and the location of project.
-
4(Fig.14
Townland's bookcase
analogy went beyond the winebin in offering flexibility
and diversity to the users
of the housing)
66
bookcase analogy can accomodate
The
does the wine-bin analogy.
multi-functions than
do
undetermined
more
In order to
accomodate
it requires variable bays and spans to
that,
different shapes and sizes.
this
In common systems applying
bookcase analogy, the panels are agglomerated by the skeleton
the wall-supported floor (bearing wall
structures ---
frame
the
and
structure)
column-supported
or the framed boxes or open boxes are stacked
structure)---,
But,
as self supported boxes.
to
the application of box system
because
has restriction in flexibility
cases
these
column
floor(post
of
allowable shipping widths.
design method suggested by Habraken has
The
theoretical
categorized
spaces,determined
to
lead
analysis,
a
from
limitation
configurations in actual practice.
are not rectangular or square,
Furthermore,
the
the
of
functions
this
of
zone
the
margin
and
various
spaces whose shapes
and for complex tower
method cannot handle situations in
the
spaces are
and/or
space
For example, there is the
of how this method can arrange
question
the
But the fixed dimensions and locations of
analogy.
bookcase
as
process
the building design
for
goal
same
the
the
different
same
in
forms.
which
different
vertical
horizontal
zones
Furthermore,
though the decisions on zones can be well
zones.
made
by a full consideration of the user's requirements, they also
should
be based on the optimal distribution
characteristics
of all the involved subsystems.
67
It
is
discussed
evident
bookcase
However,
building costs.
and
larger spans are necessary,
screens, folding doors,
operating walls,
are usually more expensive than fixed
ones.
These
costs must be weighed against the savings incurred by
higher
more efficient infrastructure through higher
often
which
-
excessive variability often increases
Generally,
demountable walls,
and etc.
system
above are quite flexible compared with the wine
bin analogy.
a
that the examples of
leads to the
with additional low-rise buildings,
having
high land price,
high-rise
building of
-
densities
buildings
particularly on the site
compared to other housing types
of
equivalent quality.
3.3.3. Seed Analogy
The
Danish
al.,
visualize
just
as
plant,
a
Peter Stephensen and Oruno
expandable and shrinkable houses
seed does not have the form
of
the
as
et
seeds;
full-grown
minimal housing unit does not have the same form as a
completed
considers
included
architects,
building.
Habraken's
organic
analogy
which
the urban fabric as tissues and cells can also
this
analogy.
The
seed,
having space
for
be
the
minimum requirements of living and sleeping, can grow by both
temporary and permanent addit-ions.
68
idea
This
furnished
the
sites and services in which
of
concept
the
on
of seed analogy is originally based
only
is
user
site.
a building lot with services brought to the
With
the
varying degrees of user participation
jobs
are
transferred
use after
the
first
(
building
builders'work,
e.g.,
different ways of implementing industrialized housing,
the
problems of
to
low
to
soluitons based on this analogy
may
implementation in housing projects,
due
and
the
However,
this.analogy.
create
belong
house (14) and the core house (15)
evolving
unspecified responsibility of the participants,
levels of user education resulting in poor
organization
and skills. Though, the main reason for the use of "sites and
services"
possible
is economical to provide basic services at
cost,
can
growth,
"seed growth" due to economic
the result of
provide
particular variety.
user
the
Hence,
lowest
with
much
flexibility
in
the careful cosideration of the
practical process to distribute and operate subsystems should
be taken.
The later Archigram and
Metabolist movement took steps
toward a metamorphosis concerned with changes in the physical
form and structure of cities that would respond to the
needs
Gasket
Homes
of
a
dynamic
designed
society.
The examples of
the
by Ron Herron and Warren Chalk (1965),
the Sky by Isozaki,
City by Kikutake,
the Helix City by Kurokawa,
the City in
and
Marina
show that all these groups and individuals
69
provide
to
tried
change,
variety,
more
Unfortunately, none of these
needs.
conceptual approximations.
for
undetermined
in a flexible megastructure(16) for
expansion
scope
and
examples were more than
The formal idea of Megastructures
based more on architectural phantasies about technology,
was
the
than on the technological realities of
rather
industry
building
and the ability of clients to realize such
utopias
or something along these lines.
3.3.4. Chess Analogy
This analogy implies a type of system which consists of a
kit of parts,
similar to chessmen and a chess board,
set of rules,
allowing different
of
outcomes
the game.
different
many
The kit of parts is not
systems
and/or
interchangeable and compatible.
performance
properties
may
make
be
but may
a
subsystems
which
moves
in
the
of
are
The set of rules is a set of
and
modular
function
game--manufacturer,
and
corordination
compared to the chessboard on which all the
their
specific
be composed
specifications which indicate the
of the kit-of-parts,
a
moves to achieve different
or a package of subsystems,
system
and
players
contractor,
client and architect--as players.
70
these
of
examples
Typical
of
systems
(17)
(Fig.
type
(1953) by Karl Coch
Techbuilt
house
Marburger
University Building system in Germany
are
the
15),
the
(1956)(Fig.
Special
the CLASP (Consortium of the Local Authorities
16),
1957)(Fig. 17), and the SCSD (School Construction
Programme,
Systems
1961)(Fig.
Development,
The CLASP system was
18).
developed on the basis of the Hertfordshire program , thereby
elaborate
an
up
setting
such as the working team,
coordination
groups,
development
serial
of a dimensional coordination system and
development
success
The
contracting.
of
the
and
cooperation
of
system
CLASP
of
program
on
prefabricated schools by following contractual procedures
the basis of a serial production, affected the development of
the
program,
SCSD
system.
which represents a
is the
example
Another
successful
flexible
also
Marburg system which
applied the chess analogy.
the
In
components
Marburg
- structural
system,
the
(load-bearing)
elements
structural (skin, infill, partitions, etc.)
convention
Meanwhile,
possible
in the SCSD system,
structure,
roof,
lighting/ceiling,
and
on
cabinets
junction
non-
and
are coordinated
on a tartan grid which is particularly useful for
clear
catalog
predesigned
indicating
19).
types(Fig.
six integrated subsystems
heating/ventilating/air
-
conditioning,
partitions (fixed, movable, and operable),
and fixed laboratory furniture lockers
-
are
integrated.
71
( Fig.15
: Techbuilt House,
Carl Koch, 1953
top; Exterior View
left; Exploded Perspective
1
--
(Fig.16 Section through Coordinated
Structure/ Service System in Marburg
Example)
Source: Marburger Bausystem, Marburg:
Staatliches Universitatsneubauamt,
Juli 1971.
72
)
' s
(Fig. 17 Isometric projection of
typical building showing the
relationship between the various
components and the module lines,
both vertical and horizontal)
Source: The story of CLASP, 1961.
(Fig.18 Diagram of the SCSD system,
illustrating all the major components)
73
L-junction
Example:
Facade + Partition junction
Butt-junctions
.inear junction + Crossing wi
iartitions at right angels
+-junction)
Element 1
Element 2
Element 3
T-junction
(Fig.1S! Coordination of modular elements (tartan grid))
The
subsystems
of
the
SCSD
system
have
high
compatibility because of the use of performance standards
part
of
integrated
the
rule system.
on
a
The
structural
subsystems
5 foot by 5 foot horizontal and a
2
as
are
foot
vertical module or multiples of these modules. The partitions
and
with
the
the
other interior subsystems are
structure
on
a
horizontal
tightly
4
inch
integrated
by
4
inch
module(Fig. 20).
(Fig.20 The SCSD system: modular
coordination of subsystems.)
74
SCSD
The
providing
variety,
spatial
of
change
vertical
building
and sites.
Therefore,
$680,000
investment
in
requirements,
much
changeability,
and the feasibility
for
of
different
the waves generated by
from
the
the
cut costs, and accelerated construction schedules
developed
systems,
long-range
immediate
of
SCSD are still radiating
in many parts of the U.S.
similar
possibility
in
and here effectively raised school design
original projects,
were
result
system
configurations
contexts
standards,
Marburg
horizontal expansion,
various
realizing
the
fuctions,
spaces and
and
the
and
system
for
they
and Canada.
Though these
educational facilities
having
could be used as precedents
reducing
similar
to
tactics for generating and operating other
thereby
systems
develop
flexible
possible constraints to
provide
flexibility and solving some of the problems which were
indicated
in the previous sections.
Here are some
possible
generating and operating tactics for flexible systems:
(1) Both of the following sets of tactics can be used as
solutions for the problems formed in the wine-bin and
bookcase analogies.
(a) The SCSD System:
The use of a long-span (long roof
span),
demountable partition walls,
integrated
zoning
under the roof for HVAC, and tight
on
structure and infills
integration
of
differentiated modular grids.
the
The
independence of
(b) The Marburg System,
the partitions from the loadenvelope and
"by-passing"
bearing columns (the so called
solution)(Fig. 21).
75
(Fig. 21)
Meeting of structural elements with
non-structural, facade-partition elements
requires "special" shorter "filler" elements.
This is "joint-coordinated"
By-passing, allows maintenance of standard
length of infill elements, and simplification
of junctions/joints
(2) Building process, selected by a consortium and its
working team has following advantages especially when
compared to the seed analogy:
(a) A consortium and its working team can set up an
intimate relationship between client and architect,
the architect can take into account
so that
as
much
requirements
user's
all
important
as possible, compared with the organization in a
conventional builbing process, in which client
cannot operate enough control over architects'
the
with
Anew
relationship
work.
manufacturer and the contractor, particularly in
the prebidding conference can shorten the time of
projectso
that they can share the
economic
from savings due to the
benefits resulting
shortened time.
(b) The
use of performance specifications
by
a
and early bidding for each
consortium,
package of building jobs by prebidding conference
by
development
technical
can
accomodate
manufacturers who can have more assured time to
develop, simultaneously enable manufacturers to
thereby
have a system of mass production and
obtaining better economies of scale.
76
4. CONCLUSION ; STRATEGY
4.1
Open System vs. Closed System
4.2
Dual Structure
4.3
Programming
77
4.1 Open System vs. Closed System
problem
context,
certain
a
in
is
operational answer to the problem.
in
can
it
an
give
not
Nonetheless, the material
3 shows that the problems associated
Chapter
the
analogy is a helpful tool to analyze what
Though
past
with
developments of building systems, especially for housing, lie
primarily
in the relationship between clocklike systems
cloudlike
systems,
relationship
as well as in the
and
between
technology and architecture.
resemble
respectively
closed systems and
open
systems
systems
in
can also be respectively defined as a closed
they
building,
cloudlike
and
systems
clocklike
Since
system and a open system as follows:
(1)
Closed systems: A system in which components or
subsystems are peculiar to that system and cannot be
combined with those of other systems. Hence, the
final product is predetermined and fixed over time.
(2)
Open systems: A system in which components or
subsystems are interchangeable with those of other
not
is
product
final
the
Hence,
systems.
predetermined but predicted and is not definite over
time.
past
the
In
rationalization
systems
and
development
the
of
housing
standardization
systems,
used
the
closed
in
of industrialized housing - which aim at the optimum
of
utilization
labour,
building
tools
elements,
and
equipment,with the realization of economies of scale for mass
production
-
have
led
to
the
loss
of
identity,
78
and
internal
the
a both
in
privacy
and
individuality,
external housing environments. For example, the extensive use
of
industrialized
an
in
single system on a large scale
a
is,
That
project has yielded problematic results.
building
repitition has led to monotony. Futhermore, the single closed
not
does
system
respond to
the
technical
and/or
and
socio-economic change
which result from
obsolescence
social
rapid development of technology over time. Though the purpose
of
standardization and rationalization
it
quantity,
and
quality
in
resulted
has
actual
an
due
of the housing environment over time,
deterioration
both
was to improve
to
obsolescence and inability to adapt to change.
Industrialized
flexible systems,
housing can be improved by developing
such as
hierarchical open systems,
allow for variety in housing design,
and
user
more
of
composed
participation.
hierarchical
which
adaptability to change,
be
Such a system
may
well
which
are
produced
sub-systems
either in factories or by conventional means. If conventional
means
are
used,
they
be
should
and
units
based
which are
materials,
sections,
compatible
with open systems approach,
on
the
adapted
use
of
to
be
even by conventional
handicraft methods following plans and specifications for
an
individual building. If hierarchical open systems are applied
to develop flexible systems,
even
a
large-scale
the use of many subsystems in
housing project will can
satisfy
the
various needs of dwellers who may live in such mixed types of
79
housing -
so called multi-dwelling units.
hierarchical
Considering
systems,
flexible
the wine-bin,
with
analogized
appropriate
systems
study of open
the
as
open systems
the bookcase and
the
game,
shows that the systems belonging to the chess
have
generally
of
belonging
systems
and
analogy
wine-bin
and
the
bookcase
the development of these systems
analogy,
can
marketing,
chess
characteristics
of
other
solve
technology
of
modes
architecture, and which are caused by existing
the
the
design,
the
lie in the relationship between
which
financing,
Thus,
the
chess game
the
to
belonging
problems
to
Simultaneously,
analogies.
chess
the use of buildings than the other types
and
construction,
in
flexibility
more
were
which
land use, and management conditions .
analogy
open
reveals
systems,
in
the
most
contrast
intrinsic
to
closed
systems, and the ensuing potentials for greater possibility
to provide variability, as shown in the following comparison:
OPEN SYSTEM
CLOSED SYSTEM
many kind of subsystems and
a
providing
components
unlimited number of possible
assemblies
a kit of parts providing
a limited number of possible
assemblies
modular coordination
internal coordination
control capacity
planning grids
planning grids (in some cases)
and
60
related
dimensionally related
components
dimensionally
components
internal and external
and
interchangeability
compatibility
internal interchangeability
and compatibility
manufactured in larger
batches
manufactured
batches
continuous marketability
localized marketability
comprehensive subsystems
market
sensitive to
fluctuation
In
order
to
improve
open
systems,
in
smaller
economy
the
following
considerations should be kept into mind as follows:
of
interchangeability
and the
compatibility
(1)The
the
by
achieved
be
subsystems and components should
adequate use of dimensional coordination, especially,
performance
and
regard to jointing problems
with
providing greater operational
specifications,thereby
variety.
(2) Team cooperation and coordination, e.g., a consortium
or a working team, should be developed, in order to
perpetuate and maintain large continuous market could
be maintained.
81
4.2
Dual Structure
university
The
our
for
appropriate
organization of decision-making in operating flexibility
the
Olympic
Village building system.
buildings in school,
of
The owner
be
the
in
different
are
concerns,
to
suggested
and
the chess analogy
to
compared
were
which
systems
residential building
for
school
can control
usually a school distract,
the
desirable flexibility with the help of an architect over
the
relatively long-term life of
ownership of Olympic Village
It means that there is a
great possibility for the overall system to go wrong,
the
individual
lack of flexibility provided in its
is
failure
a
such
The
subsystems.
and/or
most economical way for
to provide
a
due to
systems
preventing
framework
physical
optimal flexibility which lies in the
accommodating
the
public to
usually changes from
or an other public agency.
private
But,
buildings.
the
for
balance
between monotony(rigidity) and excessive variety,or, in other
words, between standardization and individualization.
could be seen in the bookcase
As
can
framework
"detachable
regarded as a support
be
units",
dwelling
secondary
units.
can be
fully
accommodating
interchanged
or differing user requirements
changing
satisfy
which
for
physical
a
analogy,
elements into
the dual
structure.
decision for this seperaton is made in system design
which
multi-
in
It is crucial to seperate the primary
building
to
and
The
process
the generation of flexible system is dependent on
the
82
prediction
the
of the operation of flexibility in space and
overall system over time.
in
A desirable process of system
design for support/infill systems is as follows:
1) Defining the operational flexibility by secondary
in order to express user requirements for future
elements,
types of flexibility, thereby setting up the characters of
each space and the possible arrangement of such spaces.
a)
subdividability,
flexibility:
Short-term
functional
and
variability
functional
each room.
of
exchangeability
b)
variability of size and
Long-term flexibility:
size,
of unit
variability
rooms,
number of
functional
and
size,
unit
of
subdividability
infra-structure.
service
of
obsolescence
2) Identifying the physical variables which can serve
shadings,
the above operational flexibility : facades,
demountable
and
doors
partitions,
moving
balconies,
partitions, as well as moving bath, moving kitchen, moving
furniture, and moving storage space which have a rather highlevel of hierarchy in a building.
3) Devising the objective scale, e.g. morphological box
flexibility
operational
measure the performance of
to
which each group of sub-systems can provide.
the physical
Comparison and identification of
4)
are most sensitive to the requirements
variables which
of the target user group and/or individuals.
5) Comparision of projected support and detachable
units in terms of cost and performance specifications for
as
well
as
requirements,
material
and
technical
of
feedback
generates
which
marketability for manufacturers,
this process.
6) Deciding on the choice of sub-systems for support
units, and whether to select existing
and detachable
develop new sub-systems by means of
to
or
sub-systems
performance sprcifications.
83
such
Finally,
support
would also act as
"chess
a
for a game of variety, and the detachable units could
board"
seen
be
a
to
as "chessmen" to be moved about according
the
rules.
4.3. Programming
One of the steps in the systems approach is programming,
problem-seeking process,
a
is
which
while
a
is
design
problem-solving process. The final result of programming is a
total
the
of
statement
problem,
is
which
composed
subproblems determind by four major considerations:
of
function,
form, economy, and time. Such a statement gives a sound basis
for solving the problems.
Therefore, the study in Chapter 1
was carried out to make such a program.
The character of programming may be either
that
specific
is,
with regard to
physical
prescriptive,
solutions,
or
performance oriented, that indicates criterias for developing
solutions.
alternative
process
which
can
be
Our concern is to suggest a building
efficiently back
and
forth
for the fast tracking approach within a
appropriate
approach.
Hence,
expressed
as
a
the
final
result of programming
performance statement to be
used
to
be
systems
can
for
be
the
84
i.e., already-developed products. The
selection of existing,
result will,
and
time needed for procurement
therefore, shorten
rather than suggesting
give more choice,
specific
the
solution.
The
performance
approach
consists of following steps:
1) Clarification of user requirements
2) Definition of performance requirements
3) Development of parameters to satisfy these requirements
4) Test and evaluation of the usage of results.
5) Statement of performance criteria for physical solutions.
the first two
According to this study's concern,
steps
are related to flexibility, the third step is a clarification
of
variables
physical
the
flexibility,
measurement
the
while
which
fourth and fifth steps
the
to
related
are
are
for
a
of satisfaction - how much flexibility each kind
of system which may belong to such "chess" analogy as defined
in
chapter
3,
has,
when operating within
its
such
own
physical variables.
dealing
In
with
the
performance
approach,
it
necessary to keep the following considerations in mind.
resultant program would hopefully
is
The
become an integral part of
the general program, on which host country or host city would
rely,
in
order to develop its specific program within
its
own context ,thereby avoiding unnecessary risks.
B5
(1)
The program should be appropriate to select a
flexible building system for the Olympic Village for
and to provide adaptable
its various forms
functions.
(2)
The forms for athlete housing are restricted to
tower type.
buildings of slab and/or
highrise
(3)
are restricted to public housing,
Future functions
of
hostel, hotel,or dormetories. The functions
dormetories may be more meaningful to study because
existing
used
Los Angeles Games
last
the
the
accomodating
for
dormitories
university
good
by
successfully,
athletes and their attendants
the
and
Games
the
of
management of the operation
use of sports facilities, with reducing financial
risks of host city.
Be
* APPENDIX *
1)
p.
39
The study finds that under the conditions of time and place
of comparative evaluation, high-rise buildings constructed on
sites exceeding $2.85 per square foot would result in a
savings of total costs per student housed. The study further
indicates that with a building construction cost of $15 per
it would be well to evaluate total cost
square foot,
comparisons when the land value is as low as $12.50 per
foot. The study assumes a relatively level site
square
adjacent to improved streets and basic utilities. Special
costs such as grading, demolition, or extension of campus
roads and utilities should be indicated as part of the total
land cost if these apply in a given case.
(University Facilities Research Center, 1963)
2)
p. 40
Assemblies or prefabricated components:
sections, and units are used to produce,
Materials,
either on or off the site, a wide variety of complex
functional
and
dimensional
definite
with
components
or
assemblies
called
are
These
characteristics.
prefabricated components, and include heating, sanitary,
wall and floor panels;
and gas equipment;
electrical
lintels; and other
stairs;
windows;
doors;
funiture;
building elements.
3)
p.40
Carlo Testa proposed the definition:
"Industrialization is a process, which by means of
and
organizational concepts
development,
technological
increase
to
tends
investment,
capital
and
methods,
productivity and to upgrade perfomance."
4)
p.42
The employment ratio is the ratio of employment to working
the
that
think
economists
Some
population.
age
the
diagnosing
is more useful for
ratio
employment
unemployment
the
is
than
slowdown
severity of an economic
ratio.
87
5)
p.
42
The balance of payments is a country's balance of trade plus
other financial transactions such as international loans. It
is a systematic record of all economic transactions between
residents of. a country and residents of the rest of the world
(including international institutions) in a given period of
time, usually a year. If such a balance shows a net inflow,
said to be "favorable" or surplus." A persisistent
is
it
substantial deficit usually results in a depreciation of the
currency in question on the world exchange markets.
6)
p. 4 3
As governmental and corporate agencies move into the homeindustry, the old architect/client/builder trio
building
teams,
In its place are management
becomes obsolete.
economists, market analysts, manufacturers, transporters, and
computer programmers. Hence, the potential for monopolies,
inefficiency
extinction of "little" entrepreneurs, and the
result.
can
bureaucracy
of
and inertia
7)
p. 4 3
A few large companies, once established, can lower prices to
eliminate the smaller competing firms. When the competition
is removed, prices could go up-- and the consumer would have
no choice but to accept the products offered.
8)
p.55
Rationalization means the use of organizational, planning and
and
control techniques in building to improve quality
increase productivity. It aims at the optimum utilization of
labour, building elements, tools and equipment.
9)
p.58
The Authority of Hertfordshire County in Great Britain
developed flexible school-building system in order to cope
with the rapidly increasing school population and to solve
the problem of a shortage of skilled labor. This system was
designed as a set of components-structural elements, windows,
roof deck units, etc.,-which could be handled and assembled
easily with a minimum of building labour, and which would
88
still produce a wide range of different buildings
for
different
requirements. The design of each school was to be
treated on an individual basis so as to meet the special
conditions of the locality and the educational purpose of the
school. (The Story of CLASP)
10)
p.58
Moduar Coordination is a system desired to co-ordinate the
sizes of
factory-made building parts with the designs of
buildings. It is a method by which the dimensions of standard
building components and of the buildings which incorporate
them are related to each other by a common unit of size. This
unit, which is both a common denominator of all the sizes, a
is called "The
dimensional factor and an increment of sizes,
Basic Module", which derives from the Latin word "Modulus",
meaning a small measure.'(Modular Co-ordination European
Productirity Agency, 1961)
11)
p.6 1
In the 1960s, the Archigram Group was composed of the young
London architects Peter Cook, Warren Chalk, Dennis Crompton,
David Green, et al. Their twentieth century visions followed
the
Buckminster Fuller and Paolo Soleri. But,
those of
former have had a more practical effect than those two
architects. The core of Archigram's thinking was the idea of
metamorphosis, the continually changing but always existing
environment. They suggest applying innovative technology to
real urban problems by inventing new artifacts and new
statement in the
situations. They made an architectural
"Walking City", the "Plug-in City", the "Living Pod", and the
"Instant City", as shelter and its urbanism.
12)
p.61
The Japanese Metabolist group was composed of the four
- and one
Maki,
Otaka
Kikutake,
architects-Kurokawa,
architectural critic - Kawazoe. They worked with Kenzo Tange
on the Megastructure to solve the expanding urban problem.
Their theme was the separation of city elements into longlife and short-life ones, so that this organic urban fabric
can accomodate change ,mainly by shafts,
bridges,and prefab
modulars, utilizing high technology.
89
13)
p.66
'Operation Breakthrough' was set up by Housing and Urban
Development agency (HUD), to invite proposals from consortia
of designers and developers. Its approach was influenced by
the adoption of industrialized building by governments in
Britain and other European countries during the sixties.
Another factor to influence this approach has been the
success of the Ehrenkrantz work with SCSD and UABS, and its
implied suggestion that such an approach could be applied in
has also
other areas. Habitat, at the Montreal Expo 67,
such an
renewed popular interest in the possibilities of
approach.
residential
a
broad
is
Breakthrough
Operation
development program designed to resolve a multitude of
problems in order to make available quality housing in large
quantities. It aims to do this by utilizing modern design and
technology, and through contemporary approaches to financing,
marketing, land use, and management. One major objective of
large,
the program is to demonstrate that with the kind of
continuous market enjoed by the manufacturers of other
consumer products, producers of housing in volume can realize
investment-- in
they can recover their
economies of scale:
research and development, in improvements to their design
methods amd in plants and equipment necessary for volume
production.
14)
p.69
Part of the
(Expandable Dwelling Unit):
Evolving House
dwelling unit has services, unilities and partitioning. This
portion may be finished or unfinished. An additional area is
for furture growth. This area of growth can be
available
or
finished
for
with or without services,
provided
unfinished.
15)
p.69
a physical structure, generally comprising a
Core house:
bathroom and kitchen with possibly a single, unfinished room
adjacent.
90
16)
p.70
very large multi-functional urban complexes
Megastructure:
containing transient smaller units adaptable to changing
needs.
17)
p. 7 1
Karl Koch designed the Acorn House in 1947 and the Techbuilt
House in 1953. Based on his experience in these, he developed
his techcrete systems, large spans of hollow core slabs
(32
ft), to be used in large scale apartment buildings in Roxbury
near Boston, in 1965. His proposal in the Breakthrough
programme was then made on the basis of his schemes for
prefabricated methods in building. In spite of containing
the
valuable ideas for the development of flexible housing,
Techcrete system has received less pubicity because of a lack
of long-term governmental support.
The Acorn (1947) was a demountable house built by timber
and steel construction: one that can be set up, taken down,
trucked three or a thousand miles, and set up again as neatly
as it began. It was designed as a two bedroom affair, 24 by
35 feet. It unfolds the bedrooms, living room and dining room
from a central core containing the kitchen, bathroom and
utilities. It is factory produced, moving as one package, by
truck, to its
site.
The techbuilt house (1953), a modular component design,
was produced by Techbuilt Inc. The company arranged for the
fabrication of timber structural posts and beams, exterior
wall panels, roof and floor, according to specification, by
producers
in the corporation. That part of the package was
shipped by the producers direct to the builder-dealers. Other
parts, pre-hung doors and the like, bought by Techbuilt on a
volume basis- were shipped to the builder responding to the
client's requirements through the maker's regular channels of
distribution. Techbuilt came, not so much a "package",
but as a system of conveying components.
properly speaking,
As
such,
the
manufacturing and
distribution
system
established by Techbuilt was different from that of the
"At Home With
(source; Koch,
majority of prefabricators.
Tomorrow" and Russel, 1981)
91
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