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UNIT 6 Options
Recommended Prior Knowledge. It is recommended that the options are taught towards the end of the course as many principles taught in the other five
units are required for certain parts of each option.
Resources. The Option specifications are amplified in Option Booklets available from CIE and also published on the CIE website, www.CIE.org.uk The books
themselves provide detailed information about each topic in the specification so it is essential that all teachers of any option have the relevant book and it is
highly desirable that the students do too. In the Other Resources column the course booklet is given first and other books which deal with the same topic
follow. As a result of the availability of these booklets the need for specific teaching resources is rather different from the requirements for the compulsory
units. Applets are available covering some of the learning outcomes but often they do not tackle topics in the same order or to the same depth. The resources
listed therefore should be thought of as background information. For this reason most of the resources are listed at the start of each option. All of the Applets
can be reached through http://surendranath.tripod.com by using the menu heading ‘OTHER’ The direct address is given in the Online Resources column.
Learning Outcomes
Suggested Teaching Activities
Online Resources
OPTION A: Astrophysics and Cosmology
A1(a)
A1(b)
A1(c)
A1(d)
A1(e)
A1(f)
A2(a)
A2(b)
A2(c)
Contents and Scale of the Universe
Describe the principal contents of the
Universe, including stars, galaxies and
radiation.
Describe the Solar system in terms of the
Sun, planets, planetary satellites and comets.
Details of individual planets are not required.
Define distances measured in astronomical
units (AU), parsecs (pc) and light-years.
Recall the approximate magnitudes, in
metres, of the AU, pc and light-year.
Appreciate the sizes and masses of objects
in the Universe.
Appreciate the distances involved between
objects in the Universe.
The Standard Model of the Universe
Describe and interpret Hubble’s red-shift
observations.
Recall and interpret Hubble’s law.
Convert the Hubble constant (H0) from its
-1
-1
-1
conventional units (km s Mpc ) to SI (s ).
Illustrative material from books etc.
Possible internet research by students
who give short presentations.
Radian measure may need to be
revised.
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vl
ab
Then go to astrophysics
where there are 18 titles.
http://www.ba.infn.it/wwwdi
dattica.html
where there are 4 (less
useful) titles
An opportunity to remind students that
adjectives such as ‘small’ and large’
have no meaning for physicists.
Demonstration of Doppler (e.g. whistle
on a string) is desirable here.
Students should be reminded that, in
the local cluster of galaxies, blue-shift
may be observed.
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/
jave/index.html
where in the waves section
there is a Doppler effect
animation.
www.xtremepapers.net
Other resources
A level Physics Option A
Booklet: Astrophysics and
Cosmology. CIE publication
Ref. TR9702A0001
Cosmology: Milner
ISBN 052178722X
Astrophysics: Ingham
ISBN 0174482396
www.studyguide.pk
A2(d)
A2(e)
A2(f)
A2(g)
A2(h)
A2(i)
A2(j)
A2(k)
A2(m)
A2(n)
A2(l)
A2(o)
Recall Olbers’ paradox.
Interpret Olbers’ paradox to explain why it
suggests that the model of an infinite, static
Universe is incorrect.
Understand what is meant by the
Cosmological Principle.
Describe, and interpret the significance of,
the 3 K microwave background radiation.
Understand that the standard (hot big bang)
model of the Universe implies a finite age for
the Universe.
Recall and use the expression t= 1/H0 to
estimate the order of magnitude of the age of
the Universe.
Describe qualitatively the evolution of the
Universe from 0.01 s after the big bang to the
present, including the production of an
excess of matter over antimatter, the
formation of light nuclei, the recombination of
electrons and nuclei and the formation of
stars, galaxies and galactic clusters.
Understand that the Universe may be ‘open,
‘flat’ or ‘closed’, depending on its density.
Understand that the ultimate fate of the
Universe depends on its density.
Recall that it is currently believed that the
density of the Universe is close to, and
possibly exactly equal to, the critical density
needed for a ‘flat’ cosmology.
Appreciate that the age of the Universe
cannot be determined from the Hubble
constant until its density is known accurately.
Derive, from Newton’s law of gravitation, the
2
expression r0 =
3H 0
and recognise that
8pG
A difficult concept. Students should
appreciate that, on a large enough
scale, the Universe is homogeneous
and uniform.
Students are frequently confused by
the order of events.
Students should understand the form
of the graph when ‘size’ of Universe is
plotted against time.
This question prompts discussion
estimating the mass of the Universe,
including the extent of the observable
Universe, dark matter etc.
The derivation should be treated as an
exercise in conservation of energy.
General Relativity is needed for a strict
derivation.
2
A2(p)
A2(q)
3H 0
Use the expression r0 =
.
8pG
Determination of the mean number
density of nucleons in the Universe is
an interesting question.
It may be appropriate to outline the
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A2(r)
A3(a)
A3(b)
A3(c)
A3(d)
A3(e)
Appreciate that there is no experimental
evidence for the physics involved at the
energies prevailing during the evolution of the
Universe before about 1 ms.
Outline the difficulties involved in projecting
the evolution of the Universe back before
0.01 s.
role of high-energy physics and
various accelerators in coming to an
understanding of the early Universe.
Techniques of Observation
Appreciate that stars and galaxies are
detected by the electromagnetic radiation
which they emit.
Appreciate that planets are detected by
reflected sunlight.
Describe the transparency of the Earth’s
atmosphere to different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves
to X-rays.
Explain why the transparency of the Earth’s
atmosphere has led to observations which
are terrestrial, high-altitude, from satellites or
from space probes.
Show awareness of the conflict between the
value of astronomical research and economic
consideration.
The different regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum should be
considered, and not just visible light.
The topic may be approached as some
form of debate.
OPTION F: The Physics of Fluids
F1(a)
F1(b)
F1(c)
F1(d)
Buoyant Forces
Derive and use the equation p = rgh.
State that an upthrust is provided by the fluid
displaced by a submerged or floating object.
Calculate the upthrust in terms of the weight
of the displaced fluid.
Show an understanding that, for an object
floating in equilibrium, the upthrust is equal to
the weight of the object.
Upthrust was introduced in 5(d).
A simple experiment can be devised
using an ‘overflow can’.
Icebergs and wood floating on water
are useful examples. Mean density
can be determined in terms of the
density of water. Why does the level
of water in a beaker not change when
floating ice melts?
F1(e)
Show an appreciation that the upthrust on a
floating object acts at the centre of mass of
F1(f)
The torque of a couple may need to be
http://www.walterfendt.de/ph14e
then go to mechanics and
on to hydrostatic pressure
in Liquids and Buoyant
force (upthrust) in liquids
http://webphysics.davidson.
edu
then go to Part 2: Fluids
and on to Chapter 14:
www.xtremepapers.net
A level Physics Option F
Booklet: The Physics of
Fluids. CIE publication Ref.
TR9702F0001
www.studyguide.pk
F1(g)
the displaced fluid (the centre of buoyancy).
Show an appreciation of what is meant by the
metacentre of a floating object, and deduce
the stability of an object from the relative
positions of the metacentre and the centre of
mass of the object.
Apply Archimedes’ principle to marine craft
and submarines.
revised.
Static Fluids and Chapter
15: Fluids in motion.
For a submarine, discussion should be
based not only on change in the
magnitude of the upthrust but also shift
in the centre of buoyancy.
F2(a)
F2(b)
Non-viscous Fluid Flow
Show an understanding of the terms steady
(laminar, streamline) flow, incompressible
flow and non-viscous flow, as applied to the
motion of an ideal fluid.
Show an understanding of how the velocity
vector of a particle in an ideal fluid in motion
is related to the streamline associated with
the particle.
F2(c)
F2(d)
F2(e)
F2(f)
Show an understanding of how streamlines
can be used to define a tube of flow.
Derive and solve problems using the
equation Av = constant (the equation of
continuity) for the flow of an ideal,
incompressible fluid.
Show an appreciation that the equation of
continuity is a form of the principle of
conservation of mass.
Show an appreciation that pressure
differences can arise from different rates of
flow of a fluid (the Bernoulli effect).
F2(g)
F2(h)
F2(i)
Derive the Bernoulli equation in the form
2
2
p1 + ½rv1 = p2 + ½rv2 for the case of a
horizontal tube of flow.
Show an appreciation that the Bernoulli
equation is a form of the principle of
conservation of energy.
Streamlines may be demonstrated
using smoke in a wind tunnel or ink in
flowing water.
The need for care when drawing
streamlines must be stressed.
Smoothness and closeness of lines
together with symmetry need to be
considered.
Many simple demonstrations may be
carried out
e.g. blowing air along one side of a
suspended sheet of paper or tabletennis ball.
the horizontal nature of the flow should
be emphasised.
Students must be able to apply their
knowledge e.g. why air is drawn out of
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F3(a)
F3(b)
F3(c)
F3(d)
F3(e)
F3(f)
F3(g)
F3(h)
F3(i)
F3(j)
F3(k)
Explain how the Bernoulli effect is applied in
the filter pump, in the Venturi meter, in
atomisers and in the flow of air over an
aerofoil.
Viscous Fluids
State that viscous forces in a fluid cause a
retarding force to be exerted on an object
moving through a fluid.
Show an understanding that, in viscous flow,
different layers of the liquid move with
different velocities.
Show an appreciation of what is meant by the
velocity gradient in viscous flow.
Show an understanding of how the
magnitude of the viscous force in fluid flow
depends on the velocity gradient and on the
viscosity of the fluid.
Apply base units to confirm the form of the
equation F = Arhv, where A is a
dimensionless constant (Stokes’ law), for the
drag force under laminar conditions in a
viscous fluid.
Apply Stokes’ law to explain quantitatively
how a body falling through a viscous fluid
under laminar conditions attains a terminal
velocity.
Describe an experiment, based on the
measurement of terminal velocity, to
determine the viscosity of a liquid.
Show an appreciation that, at sufficiently high
velocity, the flow of viscous fluid undergoes a
transition from laminar to turbulent
conditions.
Apply base units to confirm the form of the
2
2
equation F = Br rv , where B is a
dimensionless constant, for the drag force
under turbulent conditions in a viscous fluid.
Show an appreciation that the majority of
practical examples of fluid flow and
resistance to motion in fluids involve
turbulent, rather than laminar, conditions.
Explain qualitatively, in terms of turbulence
a moving car with a partially open
window.
It should be emphasised that the effect
is caused not solely by friction with the
walls of the container.
The direction of this gradient relative to
the direction of flow is important.
Teachers may wish to use, as an
example, the Millikan experiment.
Care needs to be taken to stress that a
decreasing acceleration implies an
increasing velocity.
Steel spheres falling through glycerine
is acceptable. Students need to check
that the speed is terminal.
The Reynold number is not required.
Fuel consumption of a car at different
speeds provides an interesting
example.
It is important that students commence
by understanding and drawing
carefully the streamlines.
F3(l)
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and the Bernoulli effect, for the swing of a
spinning cricket ball and the lift of a spinning
golf ball.
Show an understanding of what is meant by
the drag coefficient of a moving vehicle, and
carry out simple calculations involving the
coefficient.
A discussion can be initiated as to how
manufacturers decrease CD and why
car designs have become more similar
over the last 50 years.
OPTION M: Medical Physics
M1(a)
M1(b)
M1(c)
M1(d)
M1(e)
Medical Imaging
Describe in simple terms the need for noninvasive techniques of diagnosis.
Show a qualitative understanding of the
importance of limiting exposure to radiation
with particular reference to the type of
radiation.
Explain the principles of the production of Xrays by electron bombardment of a metal
target.
Show an understanding of the use of X-rays
in imaging internal body structures, including
a simple analysis of the causes of the
sharpness and contrast in X-ray imaging.
Recall and solve problems using the equation
-mx
M1(f)
M1(g)
I = I0e for the attenuation of X-rays in
matter.
Explain the principles of the generation of
ultrasonic waves using piezo-electric
transducers.
Identify and explain the main ideas behind
the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic
information about internal structures.
M1(h)
Identify and explain the main ideas behind
the use of magnetic resonance to obtain
diagnostic information about internal
structures.
The risks involved in invasive
investigations should be discussed.
‘Balanced risk’ can then be considered
when looking at non-invasive
techniques.
Students should appreciate that risk
increases with density of ionisation.
Numerical values of quality factor are
not required.
Details of an X-ray tube are not
required.
A level Physics Option M
Booklet: Medical Physics.
CIE publication Ref.
TR9702M0001
http://www.colorado.edu/ph
ysics/2000
then go to Einstein’s
Legacy for 14 Applets
giving details of X-rays and
CAT scans
Sharpness and contrast are frequently
confused by students.
Practice in the use of this equation can
be obtained by investigating the
absorption of g–rays in lead.
Generation and use are frequently
confused by students.
The need for pulsed ultra-sound
should be stressed. Reflection and
absorption coefficients are not
required.
Students should appreciate that the
magnetic field determines the locality
of those atoms that give off r.f. signals.
Hence the use of a non-uniform field
www.xtremepapers.net
Medical Physics: Hollins
ISBN 0174482531
Health Physics: McCormic
and Elliott
ISBN 0521787262
www.studyguide.pk
M1(i)
M1(j)
M2(a)
Identify and explain the main ideas behind
the use of lasers inn diagnosis, e.g. in pulse
oximetry and in endoscopes.
Describe examples of the use of radioactive
tracers in diagnosis.
Medical Treatment
Explain in simple terms the effects of ionising
radiation on living matter.
M2(b)
M2(c)
M2(d)
M2(e)
M3(a)
M3(b)
M3(c)
M3(d)
M3(e)
M3(f)
Show a qualitative understanding of the
importance of limiting exposure to ionising
radiation.
Distinguish between dose rate and dose,
paying particular attention to the type of
incident radiation.
Explain the use of X-rays and of implanted
sources in the treatment of malignancy.
Describe examples of the use of lasers in
clinical therapy, e.g. as a scalpel or as a
coagulator.
The Physics of Sight
Explain how the eye forms focused images of
objects at different distances.
Show an understanding of the terms depth of
focus and accommodation.
Distinguish between short sight, long sight
and astigmatism.
Distinguish between converging and
diverging lenses and show an understanding
of the significance of focal length.
Explain how short sight, long sight and
astigmatism can be corrected by using
spectacle lenses or contact lenses.
Recall and apply the lens formula to calculate
the focal length of the auxiliary lenses
required to correct short sight and to correct
long sight.
superimposed on a large constant field
to localise the emitting atoms.
Specific examples will not be
examined unless sufficient detail is
given in the question. Students may
study, for example, localisation and
activity of the thyroid gland, blood
volume assessment.
Direct damage, and indirect damage
as a result of ionisation of water
molecules, of vital molecules within
cells should be discussed.
Students should appreciate that the
length of time over which the dose is
administered is important.
Qualitative only.
Students should realise that the
majority of the deviation of light occurs
at the air/cornea boundary. The lens is
responsible for fine adjustment.
Far point and near point should be
introduced.
Any consistent sign convention may be
used but students should be
encouraged to explain their
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calculations carefully.
M3(g)
Relate the focal length of a lens to its power
in dioptres.
M4(a)
The Physics of Hearing
Explain how the ear responds to an incoming
sound wave.
M4(b)
M4(c)
M4(d)
M4(e)
M4(f)
Show an understanding of the significance of
the terms sensitivity and frequency response.
Show an appreciation of the very wide range
of intensities which can be detected by the
ear and recall the orders of magnitude of the
threshold of hearing and the intensity at
which discomfort is experienced.
Show an understanding of the significance of
the logarithmic response of the ear to
intensity.
Recall and solve problems using the equation
intensity level = 10 lg(I/I0), giving intensity
level in dB in terms of the intensity I and the
threshold intensity I0.
Show an understanding that loudness is the
subjective response of an individual to an
intensity level.
It should be stressed that the focal
length must be in metres.
Each stage of the transmission of the
oscillations should be considered –
outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. A
schematic diagram(s) is important.
The distinction between these two
terms needs to be made clear.
A cheap sound level meter may be
used to give practical experience of
typical intensity levels.
OPTION P: Environmental Physics
P1(a)
P1(b)
P1(c)
P1(d)
P1(e)
P1(f)
Power Sources
Show an understanding of the term solar
constant and use it to solve problems.
Show an understanding of the geographical
variation of solar intensity at the Earth’s
surface.
Identify and explain the main components of
the structure of solar cells and solar panels.
Show an appreciation that solar cells produce
electrical energy whereas solar panels
produce thermal energy.
Distinguish between the terms resources and
reserves.
A level Physics Option P
Booklet: Environmental
Physics. CIE publication
Ref. TR9702P0001
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vl
ab/
then go to energy and
environment for 8 relevant
Applets
www.xtremepapers.net
Energy: Sang and
Hutchings
ISBN 0333531094
www.studyguide.pk
P1(g)
State the different types of fossil fuel and
show an understanding that these fuels are
abundant yet finite.
State the principles of the fission process.
P1(h)
P1(i)
P1(j)
P1(k)
P1(l)
P1(m)
Explain the role of fuel rods, moderator,
coolant, control rods and the reactor vessel in
a nuclear reactor.
Calculate the potential energy stored in a
lake, given its average depth, area and
altitude.
Show an understanding of the main
principles of a pumped water storage
scheme.
Estimate the power available from a water
wave of given dimensions.
Show an understanding of how the potential
energy of stored water is used to estimate
the mean power output of a tidal barrage.
Estimate the maximum power available from
a wind generator.
P1(n)
Comment on the difficulties and limitations
associated with the following ‘free’ systems
for producing power: geothermal including
hot aquifers and geysers, biomass, methane
generators from waste products.
P2(a)
P2(b)
P2(c)
P2(d)
P2(e)
Qualitative only to include the concept
of a chain reaction.
Gravitational potential energy = mgh
may need to be revised.
Students should appreciate that the air
must have speed as it leaves the wind
turbine.
This topic may best be considered by
means of short presentations and
subsequent discussions.
Power Consumption
Explain the daily and seasonal variations in
the demand for electrical power.
Describe the complications which arise due
to predictable and unpredictable variations in
demand for electrical power.
Explain the benefits of a pumped water
storage scheme.
Show an understanding that, although the
efficiency of conversion of electrical energy to
internal energy for the consumer is 100%, the
production of electrical energy is far less
efficient.
Evaluate the overall efficiency, from
production to consumer, of various domestic
systems, e.g. cooking by gas or electricity.
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P2(f)
Apply Sankey diagrams.
P2(g)
Predict the possible long-term effects on
resources and on the environment of social
changes such as increasing demand for
housing, increasing affluence of third world
countries and increasing use of air
conditioning.
P3(a)
P3(b)
P3(c)
P3(d)
P3(e)
P3(f)
P3(g)
P3(h)
P4(a)
Heat Engines
Distinguish between an isothermal change
and an adiabatic change.
Illustrate isothermal and adiabatic changes
on indicator diagrams.
Use the indicator diagram to determine the
work done on or by a gas.
Recall the cycle of a four-stroke petrol
engine.
Illustrate and explain the cycle of a fourstroke petrol engine with the aid of an
indicator diagram.
Show an appreciation that the second law of
thermodynamics places an overall limit on
the efficiency of a heat engine, and that this
limit depends on the temperatures between
which the engine is operating.
Recall and solve problems using the equation
EMAX = (1 – TL/TH) where EMAX is the
maximum efficiency.
Deduce from the second law the conclusion
that CHP (combined heat and power)
schemes should be economical propositions.
Pollution
Show an appreciation that zero pollution is
not possible.
P4(b)
Distinguish the burning of fossil fuels from
nuclear and hydroelectric power schemes in
terms of the release of carbon dioxide into
Students could investigate the energy
changes when an electric motor lifts a
weight and then draw the appropriate
Sankey diagram.
Cycles other than the four-stroke petrol
engine could be used as examination
material. To illustrate the theory, the
idealised diesel engine may be
considered.
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/
java/index.html
then go to thermodynamics
and on to ‘Carnot heat
engine’
Students should appreciate that ‘clean’
systems may produce pollution
elsewhere e.g. an electric car or train.
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the atmosphere.
P4(c)
P4(d)
Show an understanding why carbon dioxide
levels in the atmosphere are not rising
rapidly.
Show an understanding of other forms of
pollution such as thermal pollution of the
atmosphere, noise pollution, pollution of
rivers.
OPTION T: Telecommunications
T1(a)
Communication Principles
Recall that any waveform can be resolved
into or synthesised from sinusoidal
components.
T1(b)
T1(c)
T1(d)
T1(e)
T1(f)
T1(g)
T1(h)
Understand the term modulation and
distinguish between amplitude modulation
(AM) and frequency modulation (FM).
Recall that a carrier wave, amplitude
modulated by a single audio frequency, is
equivalent to the carrier wave frequency
together with two sideband frequencies,
leading t an understanding of the term
bandwidth.
Demonstrate awareness of the relative
advantages of FM and AM transmissions.
Recall the advantages of transmission of
data in digital form.
Understand that the digital transmission of
speech of music involves analogue-to-digital
conversion on transmission and digital-toanalogue conversion on reception.
Demonstrate an awareness of how
waveforms are encoded by digital sampling.
Appreciate the scientific and economic
advantages of fibre optic transmission,
compared with metal cable and radio
transmission.
The concept should be illustrated with
only simple waveforms e.g. a
fundamental and an overtone. The
use of two wave generators, blocking
capacitors and a c.r.o. provide visual
images.
Students should appreciate how, for
AM and for FM, the amplitude and
frequency of the signal are carried.
A level Physics Option T
Booklet:
Telecommunications.
CIE publication
Ref. TR9702T0001
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/
java/index.html
then go to waves and on to
5. Superposition principle of
wave and to the particularly
good 7. Fourier synthesis.
Students should understand digital
numbers. An exercise in coding an
analogue signal and then de-coding
provides valuable experience.
www.xtremepapers.net
Telecommunications:
Kennedy
ISBN 0521797470
Telecommunications: Allen
ISBN 0174482167
www.studyguide.pk
T1(i)
Demonstrate an awareness of social,
economic and technological changes arising
from modern communication methods.
T2(a)
T2(b)
T2(c)
T2(d)
T2(e)
T3(a)
T3(b)
T3(c)
Communication Channels
Appreciate that information may be carried by
a number of different channels, including wire
pairs, coaxial cables, radio and microwave
links, and optic fibres.
Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of channels of communication
in terms of available bandwidth, noise, crosslinking, security, signal attenuation, repeaters
and regeneration, cost and convenience.
Understand and use signal attenuation
expressed in dB per unit length, including
recall and use of the expression
number of decibels (dB) = 10 lg(P1/P2) for the
ratio of two powers.
Understand and use repeater gain measured
in dB.
Estimate and use typical power levels and
attenuations associated with different
channels of communication.
Radio Communication
Appreciate the effect of the Earth’s surface
on the propagation of radio waves over long
distances, and the use of the ionosphere as a
reflector if the waves are to be propagated
over long distances.
Describe the use of satellites in radio
communication and appreciate the
importance of geostationary satellites.
Recall the wavelengths used in different
modes of radio communication.
Within students’ lifetime, the growth of
the uses of portable phones has
blossomed. This topic could initiate a
useful discussion. The use of
geostationary and polar satellites
provide useful links with other sections
of the syllabus {T3(b)}
It is important that students are aware
of typical power levels and
attenuations.
Far too frequently, students do not
realise why the ionosphere is
unreliable and that communication by
this means also involves reflection at
the Earth’s surface.
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