Critical Thinking Supplement – 6
Argumentation and Persuasion
In each and every essay, the writer goes about making a point through two
complementary forms: argumentation and persuasion.
Argumentation:
Argumentation is the process wherein the writer attempts to convince the reader
through logic, which works through inference. Argumentation through logic takes two
opposite forms, deduction and induction. Deduction accepts a general principle as true,
and then applies it to specific cases, such as in the syllogism (line of reasoning) below.
Deduction
General principle: All dogs have spots.
Specific Case: Roy is a dog.
Conclusion: Roy has spots.
One must be careful, when using this form of logic, that one's general principle or
major premise is acceptable to the reader. The problem is that as a society we often
disagree on general principles, such as "progress is good". If your specific case is that we
should do X because X is progress, your reader must agree that "progress is good".
Otherwise, your conclusion will be rejected.
General Principle: Progress is good.
Specific Case:
Conclusion:
X is progress.
X is good.
Progress is not necessarily good.
OR Progress is bad.
X is progress.
X is not necessarily good.
OR X is bad.
Induction
Since we often disagree on major premises such as "progress is good", many
contemporary essays argue through induction. Induction is the process whereby one
moves from particular cases to a general conclusion as in the example below.
Technological advancements in India have raised the standard of living there.
Technological advances in North America have extended life expectancies.
Innovative communication networks have make long-distance phone calls cheaper.
Therefore, progress is good.
Deduction: General Premise ––> Particular Cases
Induction: Particular Cases ––> General Conclusion
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments, which is not good if you are trying to write
strong arguments.
Strong arguments:
•
have good premises – both true and relevant to your issue, clear and complete
•
have premises which support your conclusion (not some other conclusion or no
conclusion)
•
have premises and conclusions which focus on the main points of importance for
your issue
•
have premises which are free of excessive, subtle persuasion
•
have premises which are credible (free of bias and from an expert/reliable source)
•
have premises that are reasonable (sensible, drawn from evidence/common sense)
•
have premises which are sufficient and substantive
•
put forward an acknowledgment and consideration of the other side (not always
necessary)
Evidence is what is being offered in support of a conclusion. Evidence can include:
•
statistics
•
artifacts
•
observations (things seen, heard, and felt)
•
statements from experts
•
reports of experiences (personal anecdotes)
•
ideas, beliefs, and feelings
There is a separate sheet for different types of fallacies if you are interested in
specifically identifying argument flaws.
Persuasion:
Persuasion is the process wherein the writer attempts to convince the reader
through rhetoric, which appeals to the emotions. The skilled rhetoritician will imply
meaning through various devices.
Major Persuasive Elements:
•
word choice
•
example
•
repetition of particular words, phrases, or ideas
•
exaggeration
•
analogy and figures of speech
•
irony
•
appeal to authority or prestige
•
fear
•
climax