INDUSTRY, ENVIRONMENT AND PEOPLE:
FORMULATING A RESETTLEMENT POLICY
IN INDIA
BY
UDAY H.
SHELAT
Submitted to the Department of Urban Studies and Planning
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree of
MASTER IN CITY PLANNING
at
the
MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
May 1987
(c)
Uday H.
Shelat,
1987
The
author hereby grants M.I.T.
permission to reproduce
distribute copies of this thesis in whole or in part.
Signature
of
Author
~
Department
o4 Urbc
dies
and
and Planning
May 19, 1987
Cert if ied by
Lawrence E. Susskind
Professor
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
-I
Chairman Master
JUN 0 19g?
LIBRARIES
RotCo
Phillif L. Clay
Associate Professor
in City Planning Program
INDUSTRY, ENVIRONMENT AND PEOPLE:
FORMULATING A RESETTLEMENT POLICY
IN INDIA
BY
UDAY H.
SHELAT
and
to
the Department of Urban Studies
Submitted
of
fulfillment
in
partial
19,
1987
on
May
Planning
City
in
requirements of the Degree of Master
the
Planning.
ABSTRACT
and
displacement
the problem of
thesis
presents
This
in
projects
developmental
by
of people affected
resettlement
India.
At present there is no national policy on resettlement
ineffective
and efforts to resettle people so far have proven
and myopic.
water
large-scale
three cases
of
study
examines
The
The first case is of Ukai Dam
resource development projects.
where people were resettled and an
in
the state of Gujarat,
resettlement
is made to evaluate the effectivenss of
attempt
Koel-Karo
Hydrothe
The
second
case presents
planning.
The state government
electric Project in the state of Bihar.
people
have
and
a
policy for resettlement
does
not
have
third
project.
The
the
land acquisition for the
thwarted
of
the
state
case,
the
Sardar
Sarovar Narmada Project in
governis very recent and people have compelled the
Gujarat
ment to formulate a resettlement policy.
The major problems of the resettlement practice are idenas inadequacy of the Land Acquisition Act to deal with
tified
of
lack
of
land for
resettlement,
scarcity
compensation,
public participation, anomaly in distribution of project beneand lack of developmental inputs in resettled villages.
fits,
recomfindings are used to formulate the policy which
These
resettlement
major options' for
mends
major policy choices,
implementaand mechanisms for
developmental
options,
plan,
tion.
Thesis Supervisor:
Lawrence E. Susskind
Title:
Professor of urban Studies and Planning
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
. .. ..
Ab st rac t
Acknowledgements
L ist of
. . . .
. .
List of Figures
,. . . . . .
. . , . . . . . . .
5
.....
......
Tab les
. . . . . . . . .
,..........
...........
6
..........
7
......
8
Introduction
CHAPTER -
I
1: 1: 0
1:2: 0
1: 3: 0
1: 4: 0
1: 5: 0
1: 6: 0
CHAPTER -
II
2: 4: 2
2: 4: 3
2:5:0
2:6: 0
3:1:0
3:2:0
3:3:0
3:4:0
3:5:0
3:5:1
3:5:2
3:5:3
3:6:0
3:7:0
11
Economic Development Versus Environment
Objective of the Study
...............
........
Displacement and Resettlement
........
. .......
Dams and Displacement
...
....
..
...
Impact of Displacement
..............
Compensation Strategies
13
14
16
17
20
RESETTLEMENT IN INDIA:
EFFORTS AND LIMITATIONS
24
AN OVERVIEW
..............
Development of Water Resources in India
Problem of Displacement
The Resettlement Process in India
The Land Acquisition Act of 1894
Administrative Procedure Under
.....
...
............
Land Acquisition Act
... ,. ... . .
Determination of Compensation
.. ... .. .
Problems of Land Acquisition Act
National Efforts Towards Resettlement
P o l ic y . ... .... ... ... .. ... ... .. ... .... .. ..
Resettlement Policies of State Government
2:1: 0
2: 2: 0
2: 3: 0
2:4:0
2: 4: 1
CHAPTER -
....
DAMS AND DISPLACEMENT:
III
THE UKAI
PROJECT
.............
............
11
24
30
31
32
33
35
37
43
45
49
.....
49
...............
.......
The Ukai Dam
. .
51
.
The Project Impact
Administrative Provisions for Resettlement 52
......................
Resettlement Policy
53
...
Socio-economic Impact of Resettlement
64
...
66
Land Utilization in Submerged Villages
70
Development Efforts in Resettled Villages
.. .............
Resettlement and Migration
72
...........
78
Ecological Impacts of Ukai Dam
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
S umma ry
CHAPTER -
IV
KOEL-KARO PROJECT
........................
85
....................
85
4:1:0
The Koel-Karo Project
4: 2: 0
The Project Impact
4:3:0
4:4:0
4:5:0
4 :6 :0
...............
Provision for Resettlement
Implementat ion
Resettlement and Problems in
............
Present Status of the Project
..................................
Summary
90
91
92
94
THE SARDAR SAROVAR NARMADA
96
CHAPTER -
V
5:4:0
5:5:0
5:6:0
5:7:0
5:8:0
5:9:0
VI
6:1:0
6:2:0
6:2:1
6:2:2
6:2:3
6:2:4
6:2:5
6:3:0
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
. . . .
.
. . . . . ....
PROJECT
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
.
8
...
.......
129
...........................
Major Findings
..
Recommendations for Resettlement Policy
Major Policy Choices .........................
......
Resettlement Plan
Major Options for
................
The Developmental Options
Comparing Alternatives ....................
Administrative Mechanism to Implement
Resettlement Policy ..........................
Conclusion
...............................
129
135
137
139
142
149
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBAL PEOPLE ..........
159
151
155
I
II
1979
.....
162
III
GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION DATED MAY 1985
APPENDIX
..
.............
GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION DATED MAY
APPENDIX
.
96
.
..............
........
The Narmada Dam
.99
...................
.. ....
The Project Impact
Water Dispute and Tribunal
Interstate
Aw ard . .......... .. .... .... ............. .. 100
....
106
Land Acquisition, and Public Response
Resettlement and Problems of
.. .......................... 108
Implementation
110
Role of World Bank in Resettlement Efforts
Resettlement Policy .......................... 114
Resettlement:
Sardar Sarovar Narmada
124
...........
Project Vis a Vis Ukai Project
126
Summary ......................................
5:1:0
5:2:0
5:3:0
CHAPTER -
.
..... .. 173
IV
GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION DATED FEBRUARY 1986
BIBLIOGRAPHY
B B .............................
H
175
.................. .177
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish first
have
of all to express my thanks to all those who
during
to me their time and valuable information
given
this research work.
Thesis
I express my special thanks to the members of the
Lawrence Susskind,
Professor
Committee,
MIT, Professor Myron Weiner, Department
Studies and Planning,
of
Science,
Political
of
Department
Department of Urban
MIT,
Judith
and Professor
Urban Studies and
Planning,
MIT,
Tendler,
for
their
guidance and constructive criticism.
For research and for keeping me straight
factual
C.H.
details and information,
I am indebted to
Pathak, M.S. University, Baroda,
Scudder,
California
on
innumerable
Professor
India, Professor Thayer
Institute of Technology,
and
Kashyap Mankodi, Centre for Social Studies, Surat,
Professor
India.
I am especially grateful to my friend Mr. Mayur Raval for
his
and able help,
sincere
without
whom this
work would
not
have been possible.
My
sincere thanks to my friend Dr.
discussions
my work.
Kiran Magiawala
for
and constructive suggestions during the course of
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1
of displacement of people by
Examples
water related projects around the world
....
17
.
30
Table 2
Displacement by irrigation projects in India
Table 3
Submerging Villages -
Table 4
Occupational characteristics .,...............
67
Table 5
Landholding pattern by size-class in
percentages . .................................
68
Table 6
Cropping pattern -
69
Table 7
Investment Characteristics -
Table 8
Tribal block Scheme
under
Expenditure
......................
1975-78 - Ucchal Taluka
Ukai Project
......
,....
........
Ucchal Taluka
Ucchal Taluka
70
...
.....
Migration in the villages of Ukai region
Table 10
Household consumption level -
Ucchal Taluka
Forest area -
...............
11
Surat District
Table 12
Ethnic groups affected -
Narmada Project
13
Land under submergence -
Narmada Project
Table
in Gujarat
Table 14
Villages under submergence
Table 15
Population affected in Gujarat
71
73
Table 9
Table
65
..
.....
........
...............
74
81
101
101
102
102
PAGE
LIST OF FIGURES
............................
26
Figure
1
Map of
F'iure
2
Location of Ukai Dam Project
F50
Location of Koel-Karo Hydroelectric
. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
P roj ect
86
Location of Saradar Sarovar Narmada
.................
............
Dam Project
97
Figure 3
Figure
4
Ind ia
INTRODUCTION
present study attempts to understand the problems of
The
large-scale water
resettlement of people affected by
development projects in
policy at the national
tlement
state
each
policy
At
present there is no reset-
level and in absence of such a
piecemeal
has its own
The
resettlement.
approach
only legal power with the
in
the British
to
enacted
by
1894.
study examines three cases of
This
development projects,
of Gujarat 2)
and 3)
towards
government
resettlement is the Land Acquisition Act,
handle
Bihar
India.
resource
large water
namely 1) Ukai Dam Project
Koel-Karo Hydroelectric Project
resource
in the state
in the state
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Dam Project
in the
of
state
of Gujarat.
The Ukai Dam was constructed in 1972 and it affected
villages
and
16,080 tribal families.
Government
resettled
these tribals by clearing forest but little efforts were
to
make
people self-sufficient and economically
170
made
productive.
Traditionally land based people were not given enough agricultural land in the new location.
the
tribal
community.
The result was frustration in
Several
families
abandoned
their
villages and migrated to urban areas to become slum dwellers.
The Koel-Karo Project was initiated as early as 1973
8
but
the
affected people refused to give up their
arranged for proper resettlement.
government
result the project
The government
as
policy and
formulate effective resettlement
to
failed
is now almost abandoned.
the
land unless
a
People have shown
their determination and have asserted that proper compensation
and resettlement strategy are essential prerequisites for such
a
development
work.
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Project is a recent
The
The construction of the dam has just
most controversial one.
Totally 68,000 people will be affected in the three
started.
states
namely,
states
the
and
Maharashtra.
The
of
Gujarat,
Madhya
and
Pradesh
interstate dispute was resolved by a special
The
Tribunal and a resettlement policy was announced in 1978.
Bank,
World
also
financing the project,
emphasized
proper
resettlement and have given guidelines for the same.
has been observed that often government machinery
It
not
There
adequate
is
and there
to
resettlement
work.
land where resettlement can take
place
dea-l with the
a dearth of
is
is no developmental
massive
inputs to boost economic
tunities for the affected people.
oppor-
There is no public partici-
pation in the entire planning process and decisions are always
imposed on people without taking them into confidence.
Hence
effective resettlement policy should aim at offering 1) policy
choices 2)
alternatives for
administrative
land 3)
development options and 4)
mechanism to allow public participation.
9
The
proposes
study
will
participants
voluntary agencies,
be drawn from
the
where
level
resettlement council at district
communities,
affected
social workers, architects, planners, and
administrators.
chapter presents an overview of the problems of
The first
resettlement,
displacement,
the history
of water resource
the Land Acquisition Act
strategy
The second
development
and
chapter
India,
in
of 1894 and its limitations,
of the government towards resettlement
efforts
third,
compensation
the objectives of the study.
identifies
discusses
and
and the
policy.
The
fourth, and fifth chapters present the case studies of
Ukai Dam Project, Koel-Karo Project and Sardar Sarovar Narmada
respectively.
Project
The
sixth
chapter
identifies
findings and proposes framework for resettlement policy.
key
The
concludes with a note that development is essential for
study
of the nation but
the
welfare
cost
of poor people.
it should not be done
at
the
The Sardar Sarovar Narmada Project will
administrators, and
offer great
lessons to social scientists,
planners.
The outcome and experience of this project will be
of great
use
in
policy in
formulating resettlement
10
India.
CHAPTER 1
DAMS AND DISPLACEMENT:
This
chapter
development
AN OVERVIEW
introduces
projects
in
the
problems
of
large-scale
developing and developed
world
It discusses the limitations of cost benefit
well.
as
approach
and identifies the objectives of the study.
in the past to study
Several attempts have been made
Here
problems of displacement caused by irrigation projects.
views of various research scholars are presented
the
the
on
the
aspects of resettlement and impact of displacement.
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT VERSES ENVIRONMENT
1:1:0
The development
economic growth.
a
principal
economic
in third world contries essentially meant
Economic development has been considered as
growth,
developing nations have emphasized
exploitation of their natural resources.
a strategy,
In striving
means of fostering well-being.
in fact,
for
maximum
It may be that such
runs counter to the desired objective of
fostering well-being.
It
projects
is a common practice to evaluate economic development
using
the
benefit-cost
approach.
measures the efficient allocation of resources.
11
This
approach
A project is
desirable
considered
Unfortunate-
exceed the costs of construction and management.
ly
important
this approach tends to downplay
Indeed,
impacts.
development
gainers and others net
distributional
projects make some people net
(Evans and Wings
losers
run
long
if the total benefits in the
More-
1977).
over, cost-benefit analysis usually overlooks important social
environmental
and
are
opportunities
and
that
varies
project
with the nature of
projects,
development
water
impacts.
adverse
from
the
Large-scale
impacts.
however,
substantial
create
if all the
Some analysts have concluded that
many
cost,
the
The
infeasible.
tallied
feasibility
water
studies,
would
projects
these
to
according
financing agencies.
dams
One key source of controversy in constructing large
and
reservoirs is that large numbers of people -
communities
must
while
be
are merely an "eye-wash" securing monetary sanctions
critics,
from the
large-scale
a
project.
relevant social and environmental costs were properly
in
not
often
cost and who gets the benefits
projects create fewer adverse
Certain
is are
impact,
(Leistritz and Murdock 1981).
bears
development
increased
possible
over-emphasized while
adverse environmental
featured in.
Who
employment
Increased incomes and
breaking up of neighborhoods and family rela-
rates of crime,
tions,
costs.
move
-
may be forced out of their
shoulder
indeed whole
Those
homes.
a disproportionate share of
the
sharing in a very small fraction of the total
12
who
costs,
benefit.
In
many
cases these people become worse off
displaced.
One group's gain,
therefore,
loss of another in the society.
During
varying
the
size
countries.
last
have
These
lowering
the
dams
cost
of
they
are
becomes the direct
(Gosling, 1979).
three decades,
been
once
hundreds
constructed
in
of
many
dams
developing
have stimulated economic
growth
electricity,
irrigation
improving
systems, enhancing flood control, and easing navigation.
have
generated substantial
involved,
financial returns to
been
plight
of people displaced by economic
compensated.
They
nations
In many developing countries
development
has rarely been the subject of serious debate.
activities
have
promoted the
growth and encouraged inequality.
uneven
the
projects
Such developdistribution
of
(Midgley, 1984)
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
1:2:0
The
impacts
overall
displaced by
am
objective
of my research is to
in
India.
large-scale water resource development
especially
the
Land
the
people
My emphasis will be on populations
interested
in
the
Acquisition Act of
13
projects.
resettlement
designed to help such displaced populations.
India,
study
of large resource development projects on the
and environment
I
the
by
although those who have paid the highest costs have
rarely
ment
of
policies
At present,
1894 is the
only
in
legal
instrument
takes care of
that
displaced
for
I have tried to:
people.
reser-
investigate displacement caused by dams and
1)
voirs in
India;
study
2)
the present Resettlement
Acquisition Act of 1894)
as
well
strategies
Land
(i.e.
Policy,
and the problems it has created;
suggest improvements in
3)
as
'compensation'
for
policy
India's resettlement
mitigating
the
hardships
of
displacement.
DISPLACEMENT AND RESETTLEMENT
1:3:0
There
against
migrate
are several reasons which force people to
their will.
The following are the three major types
of resettlement commonly observed throughout the world.
1)
produce
Resettlement due to political
refugees,
e.g.
upheaval,
as well as other people who
are
wars
uprooted
within the boundaries of the nation.
2)
Resettlement due to natural
quake, flood etc.
14
disasters,
e.g.
earth-
as an element
Resettlement
3)
construction of dams,
of planned change,
e.g.,
industries,
planned location of mines,
docks, airports, firing ranges or weapon testing zones, etc.
some differences in the situations
are
There
forced to migrate and those who choose to move out,
those
of
Decision-
is the key characteristic which differentiates
making
control
them.
Forced migrants possess little power of
decision;
in
extreme cases they are totally powerless.
to Lightfoot
According
of another
"pull",
destination
work as "push",
the home village
external
negative attributes
people tend to move.
mental
decisions,
(Lightfoot,
trauma
Napier
becomes
is
community
in the process of
deep
unhealingly
(1983) believes that the
initial
stressful
because
disintegration
without
of the displacement process is most
stage
the
1979).
govern-
particularly as a result of
the
In
When the
such cases the trauma and stress created are modest.
impetus is from outside,
or
When the positive
is not uncommon in rural societies.
attributes
of
voluntary migration,
of ancestral place without pressure from
abandoning
agents,
(1979),
simultaneously being restructured.
Accounts
that
nearly
from various countries in Africa and Asia
one million people have been displaced by
related projects in the
tions,
the
low-income,
last three decades.
status
people with
15
very
water
With a few excep-
large majority of those forced to move have
low
show
little
been
political
Governments can and do move such with little difficul-
power.
ty
(Scudder and Colson,
Objections to such government
1982).
times
Many
have led to political confrontations.
decisions
the displacees have been charged with obstructing the national
interest.
Only
changes
in
government
decisions because of oppositon by people about
to
in
rare
cases have there been
be displaced.
Some populations have been forced to move more than once.
in North America,
Indians
for example,
still facing such a situation
DAMS AND
1:4:0
The
have faced
DISPLACEMENT
anicuts and weirs on a
dams,
of
to proliferate.
in
major rivers
of
entire
States
this
every year.
1930's.
More
the
The
development
Subsequently other countries
United
followed
than two hundred major dams are now
(Petts, 1984).
built
The increasing demand for electri-
city and water for irrigation,
along with
dams
most of the
river basins was first accomplished in the
in the
path.
been dammed.
constructed
however,
In the past fifty years,
the world have
History
river.
In the twentieth century,
to control rivers.
con-
involves
records that as long as 5,000 years ago dams were
began
are
(Khera and Mariella, 1982).
water resource development generally
struction
and
domestic,
and industrial use,
improvements in construction technology have led to
construction
of larger and
larger
16
dams.
Indeed,
the
number
indicators
and size of dams have now become important
of development "success" in developing countries.
With the growth in number and size of dams, the extent of
inundated
rapidly.
increasing
land area and consequent displacement are
Table
displacement
1
gives some of the important
examples
of
in developing countries.
Table 1
OF DISPLACEMENT
EXAMPLES
AROUND THE WORLD
PROJECTS
OF PEOPLE BY WATER RELATED
PEOPLE DISPLACED
COUNTRY
RESERVOIR
Nigeria
Thailand
Egypt
Ghana
Zambia
India
Lake Kainji
11 Projects
Lake Nasser
Lake Volta
Lake Kariba
Ganga Valley
212,000
130,000
120,000
80,000
50,000
300,000
"Resettlement Losses and Compensation"
P.
Gosling,
Source:
Population Resettlement in the Mekong River Basin. 1979.
1:5:0
IMPACT OF DISPLACEMENT
Over
calamities,
the
callousness
of
sightedness of government agents,
accepted.
with
the ages humans have learned to live
officialdom or
the
however, are not so
natural
shortreadily
Recovery from displacement caused by these factors
is extremely difficult to achieve.
Displacement
generates hardships of
various
Stress caused by loss of familiar situations,
17
magnitude.
separation from
relatives, loss of social networks, disruption of the economic
along with feelings of uncertainty,
base
degrees by those involved.
lived;
for
are felt to varying
For some these feelings are short-
others they endure for the rest of
their
lives.
(Scudder and Colson, 1982).
the poor,
In one situation,
and
faced the most adverse
children
(Finsterbusch,
the
et al
impact
of
women
displacement
Although some studies report the con-
1980).
(Napier,
trary
long term residents,
1983),
the most common finding is that
in disintegration and fragmentation
of
The impact of and the response to displacement depend
on
levels
of
reservoirs result
the social order.
the
social,
those
cultural,
displaced.
economic,
People
and educational
with stronger social and
impact more strongly.
roots feel the
cultural
According to Scudder and
(1982) people with better education and people
Colson
in urban setups often do better after relocation and at
living
times
they even welcome it.
The
societies
impact
where
where
of relocation is more severe in
kin are still
the economic base
traditional
the major source of security
is still
traditional and
and
subsistence
oriented.
On
the
cause of the
the displaced people,
disadvantaged position of some
Dunning
(1979) says:
18
of
"Those disadvan-
and with smaller
capital)
the
be
to
seem
compensation
simply be those with less
may
taged
last
family labor
to leave
force.
Generally,
they
region.
They
reservoir
the
or
(money
obviously have the most difficulty in facing the inevitability
of
resettlement.
They do the least to search for new oppor-
tunities and locations and in general they allow themselves to
own
be moved by the events rather than by the action of their
initiative."1
in
leadership at the community
local
among the people.
of
level creates new stress
They may lose their
geographic dispersion or
vacuum
the temporary
On the social and cultural fronts,
leaders either because
for other reasons,
mis-
such as
trust of their leaders because of their collaboration with the
authorities, or by being isolated by the authorities for their
active
resistence to relocation.
the Gwembe
Ghana
forming revolt.
the
Zande
against
constituencies.
Another
Tonga leaders were jailed
(Scudder and Colson,
development
removal
In the Kariba Dam case
scheme the
on the
1982).
leaders
of their community were
who
charge
in
of
Similarly, in
were
fighting
isolated from
their
(Reining, 1982).
type of social and cultural stress comes from
a
major reduction in cultural activities due to a permanent loss
of behavioral patterns,
1.
It
economic practices, institutions, and
has been found that
forced relocatees are subject
to
due to alienation from their original environment.
depression
They find their hard earned skills of little immediate utility
in the new working environment.
in making a living
19
This becomes more serious where people must coexist
symbols.
case
in which
with unfamiliar hosts and dissimilar habitats;
including various farming techniques
many economic practices,
practiced by them in the earlier setting, are no longer applicable.
Also, small commercial operators among the displacees
do
have capital or experience to
not
with
compete
already
established host competitors.
The
losses
technological,
of
displaced
pecuniary,
losses are permanent
people can
be
and psychological.
losses and refer to the
of some factor of production such as land.
can
be
temporary
losses
in
the
such as the
loss
business suffered by a merchant whose clientele is disper-
sed
by
the dam.
temporary
or
work,
permanent,
ancestral
continuity.
1:6:0
Psychological
refer
losses,
which also
to a range
of
land,
and
a
feeling
of
can
be
usually
or unmeasured losses such as loss of
measurable
unnet-
social
stability
and
(Gosling, 1979).
COMPENSATION STRATEGIES
The
prevent
compensation
the
is
basically a mitigation
displaced people from becoming worse
result of forced relocation.
in
loss or reduction
Pecuniary
individual,
into
Technological
or permanent and refer to changes
relative income position of the
of
grouped
policy
off
as
to
a
Economically, this may be either
terms of their material and financial assets,
20
their
on-
the social
respects
inhibiting
which are
aspects
the
psychological
terms,
the
ideology behind planning a mitigation strategy
conditions
types of mitigation strategies are commonly used
Two
formulate programs for compensating the displaced
They are cash compensation and
Cash
contrast,
for
to
population.
compensation in kind.
losses with
compensation consists of paying for the
It does not involve rehabilitating the displacees.
money.
is
(Gosling, 1979).
resettlement.
land
than
are more important
and
social
are
I
measured.
easily
less
the displacees feel satisfied with their
make
after
In
aspects.
economic
to
effects
social
important
there
However,
measured.
These
prospects.
their future economic
aspects are easily
economic
some
or
incomes,
going
In
compensation in kind, which normally includes giving
does involve
land and/or planned resettlement,
the
compensating agency in the rehabilitation process.
Payment in
in urban
societies,
is commmon in developed countries,
cash
and
also in small-scale projects,
while payment
common in the developing world,
more
scale development projects.
Payment
in
the
kind
in
particularly in
large-
(Gosling, 1979).
form of replacement
homes
land and
common in cases where the government assumes the full
sibility
is
for relocating evacuees,
whereas payment
is
respon-
in cash is
associated with resettlement policies which permit evacuees to
manage
their
own resettlement.
The
21
freedom
of
choice
in
in the cash compen-
selecting the new location site is greater
sation policy than it
not possible to state which of
is
It
is in the planned resettlement.
This depends on the
best suits various affected individuals.
of community being displaced.
type
be
A policy which might
for
for one society may be totally inappropriate
appropriate
the land replacement policy is
Generally speaking,
another.
policies
two
the
accepted as a reasonable alternative where replacement land is
as
good as or better than previously owned land.
It is also
agricultural
societies.
suitable
considered
basically
same quality of
the
Finding
in
is not an
however,
land,
easy
In many cases land compensation involves replacement of
task.
fertile
flooded
river
of
marginal
means to make up for
something
such as dams,
highways,
with
land
uplands
productivity.
compensation
Literally,
In the case of public works,
lost.
and the like, it is usually the government which
urban renewal
compensates
the
losses
their
individuals and
arising from the
private
intended public
underlying philosophy is pareto optimality,
to the proposed action
requires
rights
off.
action.
is,
that
individuals better off without making others
some
due
organizations
(Pokharel,
1985).
The
to make
worse
This
for
off
concept
a clear recognition on the part of the state of
the
of the citizens to possess things which make them well
Another
requirement
is that the state's
22
decision
be
on
the
citizens.
As
based
such it can basically function under the norms
prohibit
which
make
its
All
of this probably requires that
the
is only in a
demo-
context that compensation carries full meaning.
In a
It
society be organized democratically.
cratic
society
where everything belongs to the state and
state does not recognize and protect
cussion
of the
(Pokhrel, 1985).
market.
the
No
uprooted
move
The
in
real
market
trauma could be more painful for a
from a place where
to a place where
losses
actual
irksome
be more
family than to get
it has lived for generations
it may be a
of
stranger.
total
than being asked to switch
value,
the non-material kind such
not
prices.
an avocation which the family has never practiced
cultural
as
and
And
over
before.
life,
pride,
or psychological brunt can not be compensated
in monetary terms.
into
the actual market
is always lower than the
which would be
losses
nothing could
to
price
one
everything
In such case the compensation price would
market price.
reflect
also demands that there be only
the official price and
official
sense.
less
makes
In countries where a dual market exists,
The
sense
The more autocratic the government, the more
carries two prices:
price.
the
dis-
issue of compensation does not make any
compensation
Similarly,
where
individuals rights,
is that the compensation issue
it
likely
to
that
actions
to take
state
the
worse off.
citizens
its
of
well-being
the
ethics of protecting
The compensation strategies normally take
account material
losses and no attempt can ever be
cessful to monetize the non-material
23
losses.
suc-
CHAPTER II
IN
RESETTLEMENT
problems
of
Acquisition
1894
Act of
mechanism
policy
resettlement
the last
administra-
Act and the problems arising
have made
efforts
from time to time which
is
thereof.
formulate
to
discussed
in
part of the chapter.
DEVELO'PMENT OF WATER RESOURCES
2:1:0
resettle-
is the only legal tool for
governments
state
Various
of the
Land
The
displacement are presented in detail.
ment and attempt has been made here to depict the
tive
the
chapter the history of water resources and
this
In
EFFORTS AND LIMITATIONS
INDIA:
IN INDIA
Besides its traditional use for household consumption and
irrigation
purposes,
water has emerged as a major source
of
Hydroelectric power generation has acquired
energy in India.
the most prominent position in India today.
At the beginning of the
Company
found,
irrigation
systems
the kingdoms of Tanjore
which were remarkably
in need of repairs.
badly
the
in
nineteenth century the East
India
Delhi,
old
sophisticated
but
and
In the north it was the waters of
Jamuna which had been diverted into canals which ran
for
In
the
hundred
of miles and reached as far south as Delhi.
south, an amazing ancient system of anicuts and weirs control-
24
the movement of water through a very intricate system
led
of
channels.2
cost
The Ganges Canal which was opened in 1854 and which
million pounds,
three
tion projects.
was the first of
India's giant
irriga-
It was funded by loans that had been raised in
London.
of the most compelling arguments in favour of
One
irrigaIn the
tion was the protection it provided against monsoons.
latter
India.
major famines in different parts of
consequently
and
time
localized,
before
the famines
were
any
always
the advent of the railway and roadway net-
By 1960,
mitigating
the
irrigation played a very important part
utilization always increased markedly during
India
periods
of
However, the real and professed reason the
Company favoured the extension of
irrigation
not because it protected the public from famines,
and also the presence of
was
but because
revenue from irrigation invariably skyrocketed during
Anicut
2.
Weir
down.
in
impact of droughts and where it was available,
natural calamity.
East
drought
rushing food grains and fodder on a large scale from other
areas.
its
one
relatively
work it was difficult to assign the areas affected by
by
of
Though the monsoon
truant throughout the subcontinent at
played
never
series
half of the nineteenth century there was a.
famines
irrigation made wasteful expenditure
is a small earthern dam preventing water to
is a stone dam.
25
flow
na
G i
R)N"g tngco
of
OtI
Co
-'
YywkY
A~rn.v
.a
......
bi
F
0
r.
Of
eri
Kackf
A
a~
Diu
r
Cochi
fAa
. DCg'wCLnQul
*-Middi
Daman
unat
#
part
B51
car I
jS LA
(ToIndWo)
FPIGURE 1
M{AP OF
INDIA
26
)
on
relief and welfare measures unnecesssarv to the East
1982).
(Whitcombe,
Company.
In
1864,
The British Government
decided that the
should undertake all the irrigation works
surplus
meet
the requirements,
This
was the beginning of the exposure of
ment
to
loans
in
India
government
to
loans.
irrigation developmarket
benefit-cost
the time there was no prospect of
and they were to be raised by
in England.
When
insufficient
funds were raised by means of
the ups and downs of the money
At
state
it can manage.
revenues and available balances were
calculations.
India
(Nag and Kathpalia,
the
1975).
raising
imperial
This was,
however,
the precursor of the current situation:
when inter-
national
financial
mood,
appear
agencies are in
a
generous
dams
in great numbers.
The
massive
last quarter of the nineteenth century was marked
famines which provided an impetus to the
by
development
of transport facilities for relief, since irrigation had, as a
preventive
Famine
and
measure
against
famines,
Commission pointed out,
proved
in 1879,
limited.
that the protective
preventive power of irrigation was confined only to
productive
areas,
and
the
localities in
The
which
some
large-scale
irrigation could be undertaken with significant advantage were
becoming
exhausted.
climate
in the
works
had
Secondly
in
the
worsening
financial
last years of the century productive irrigation
made
a
somewhat
disappointing
(Whitcombe, 1982).
27
contribution.
present
The
the
the limits and tasks of
delineating
provided
nature,
of
India.
It
irrigation in
sufficient capital could be
to
raised
to major works which still provided about 60
natives
percent
the irrigation at the beginning of the century.
Some features of
irrigation development,
the present century.
over
delays.
-
cost more than
78
million
disputes between riparian states,
between Madras and Mysore over the Mettur
Dam,
The scene changed completely after independence and
par-
example,
for
thirty years;
interstate
Also,
rupees.
inordinate
the Sukkur Barrage constructed after discussions
For example,
stretching
included
These
which are quite
in the second quarter
made their first appearance
common now,
of
problem
It emphasized the role of wells and other alter-
build dams.
of
the
in theory, to overcome these limitations imposed
was possible,
by
opinion available on
professional
best
bear
by British Government bringing to
initiated
Commission
Irrigation
Indian
began with the
century
caused delays.
tition, when one third of the irrigated area went to Pakistan.
To
meet
the
food demands of an increasing population with
suddenly reduced irrigated area,
an
the national government made
all-out effort to develop irrigation.
1,500
acreage
projects
in
(The State of
were
initiated after
Between
independence
irrigation more than doubled from 1950
India's Environment
a
1985).
28
1,000
and
and
the
to
1970.
Though a hydroelectricity plant using a
natural waterfall
near Darjeeling to generate 400 KWS, was in operation as early
as
1897
built
1933.
and
urban
rural
independence
KW
Mysore's Cauvery Falls installastep
first opened in 1902 and was greatly enlarged
until
It was the first major project
power stations in the
power to a nearby ordinance factory.
of
pre-
Nilgiris
to
supply
However, when the Tatas
in 1914 to cater to the growing urban and indus-
needs of Bombay City,
the first real
precursor of subsequent developments had made
Up
both
their first 48,000 KW hydroelectric power station
at Bhore Ghat
trial
for
The government
electrification.
by
India had declared to start an experimental 1,000
hydroelectric
constructed
were
most significant hydroelectric projects
the
in Mysore and Bombay.
tions
step
,
until
independence,
the history of
pre-independence
its appearance.
water
resource
development was the history of irrigation, but now there was a
change.
The
emphasis
after
independence
ambitious
multi-purpose
river
basin
There were two reasons for this.
irrigation
diversionary
The second,
large
dams
on
super
projects.
development
The first was that sites for
projects were just about
and more important reason,
-
was
exhausted.
was the link
between
which impounded huge bodies of water and
could be used for flood control and generating power desire to promote
which
and the
industrial and urban development.
3.
Similar plants had sprung up near other Himalayan stations
in the first two decades of the twentieth century.
29
PROBLEM OF DISPLACEMENT
2:2:0
Large numbers of people have been displaced by
such oustees is not known,
of
number
people have been displaced since
in
Durgapur,
Bhilai,
Ltd.
India
at
least
million
one
The four steel plants
and Rourkela displaced
Bokaro,
33,000
displaced another
that only eighteen projects in the states of
Pradesh,
Orissa,
ConMadhya
Gujarat, and Maharashtra have together dis-
placed about 75,000 families,
number
about
families.
sidering
total
exact
Coal mines belonging to four subsidiaries of
20,000 families.
Coal
1950.
the
Though
India.
projects in
development
related
irrigation
it
is more than likely that the
of oustees even due to irrigation
seriously underestimated.
projects
is
The following table gives the esti-
mated number of displaced persons by irrigation projects which
completed or planned.
are either
Table 2
DISPLACEMENT BY
Name of the
Project
Bhakra
Ganga Valley
Nagarjun Sagar
Narmada Sagar
Pochampad
Polavaran
Pong
Srisailam
Tehri
Ukai
Source:
IN INDIA
IRRIGATION PROJECTS
Estimated Number
of Displaced
30,000
300,000
25,000
120,000
30,000
100,000
80,000
100,000
70,000
55,000
Singh, Ramchandra, "Civilization in Hurry",
30
1980.
from thousands of
Apart
relocation
forced
when
is often not
of "oustees"
number
exact
occurs en masse -
preparation stage estimates tend to
project
is
resettlement
completed.
protracted process,
a
of
problem
development
magnitude
the
low.
be
there
is
in
of
arising
be
irrigation
the problem of displacement caused
by
inadequate.
appointed by the Lokayan Project of
1981 to study the problems of displacement and
Srisailam
that
worth its name
various
the legal, administrative, and
Delhi,
Centre for the Study of Developing Societies,
concluded
a
If given the
India is by no means negligible.
A fact-finding committee,
the
Since
usually
from
policy mechanisms to facilitate rehabilitation are
in
During
IN INDIA
resettlement
kinds of development projects,
the
the
(Scudder, 1973).
THE RESETTLEMENT PROCESS
The
-
in the population before the process can
increase
natural
2:3:0
known.
the
to
due
e.g.
of a reservoir or a missile testing range
construction
Even
involuntary resettlement of population.
led to
have all
projects
and communication
transportation,
defense,
mines,
industries,
irrigation projects,
Project in the State
of
rehabilitation
Andhra
the Government had no rehabilitation
(Lokayan Bulletin 4).
in
Similarly,
Pradesh,
program
a study
of
the rehabilitation efforts following the construction of Koyna
Dam
in
the State
concludes
that
of Maharashtra
(Karve,
and Nimbkar,
while the Government of Maharashtra
1969),
made
an
honest attempt at rehabilitation, poor planning undermined its
31
is no clear policy of reset-
In Gujarat too there
efficiency.
In the light of the recommendations of
tlement.
1979,
Award,
Tribunal
the
Government of
Narmada
the
recently
Gujarat
passed a resolution laying down guidelines for rehabilitation.
compensation
resolutions deal primarily with
these
However,
for land and provision of minimum facilities at the relocation
site.
They are, at best, a partial response to the problem.
2:4:0
LAND
In
ACQUISITION ACT OF 1894
policy response, it
resettlement
and
land
purpose.
policies.
the legal basis of
legal guidelines for
The
in
providing compensation are contained
for
the
(The
acquiring
Land
the
passed by the British in
This act,
Act.
Acquisition
provides
is necessary to examine
acquisition
of private
Land Acquisition
land
1894,
Act,
the
of
inadequacy
understand better the
to
order
for
1894,
public
Government
of
India).
The
dates
history
of
land acquisition
legislation
back to the beginning of the last century.
relevant piece of
in
India
The
first
legislation was the Bengal Regulation Act of
1824.
It enabled the officers of Government to obtain land or
other
"immovable
property" required for
other public purposes.
public
roads,
canals,
or
Later, as a result of deterioration in
health caused by the
industrial revolution,
32
land
was
taken for urban renewal,
railway and road networks,
and town
expansion.
The Land Acquisition Act of
1894, provided detailed rules
Amendments were made to
regarding the award of compensation.
Act from time to time.
amendments,
Despite these
the
1894
the
administrative procedure has basically remained the
since
1894.
of land acquisition,
In the context
not
the term "Land" does
structures
refer merely to vacant land but includes
Acquisition
"benefits"
arise
out
as
including
and "things attached to the
attached
to
the
The Land Acquisition Act, 1894, Govern-
(Section 3,
earth".
ment of
of land,
permanently fastened to anything
or
earth
to
clearly defines "Land"
Act,
and
Hence Section 3(a) of the
trees which may be existing on it.
Land
same
India.)
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURE UNDER LAND ACQUISITION ACT
2:4:1
An
important administrative principle with regard to the
of
operation
government
the Land Acquistion Act
department
is
that
whenever
or a public authority wants to
any
acquire
land, they must send their requisition proposal to the appropriate officer of the Government who will,
through
on their behalf, go
the various stages of the land acquisition
procedure
until he takes possession of the land and hands it over to the
concerned department
Hence,
or authority.
33
in every district
and large city there
is an Acquisition Officer.
The following
(The Land
are the major stages in the acquisition procedure.
Act,
Acquisition
1.
of
4(1)
1894,
Government
of
India.)
Publication of preliminary notification under Section
the Act by the Government that a particular
is
land
needed or likely to be needed for a public purpose.
2.
cation
Hearing of objections to the above-mentioned notififrom
and
interested parties by the Collector
his
report to the Government in the matter.
3.
Declaration
under
Section
6 of
the
Act
by
the
Government that the land is required for a public purpose.
4.
Notification
under
Section
9 of the
Act
by
the
Collector declaring the Government's intention to acquire land
and
calling
for
claims
for
compensation
from
interested
parties.
5.
Inquiry
into the compensation claims and passing of
awards by the Collector.
6.
payment
Taking possession of the land by the Collector after
of compensation and handing it over to the
authority
requiring the same.
A state government officer dealing with revenue and
4.
acquisition.
34
land
DETERMINATION OF COMPENSATION
2:4:2
The
basic principle accepted by the Act
is the market value of the
compensation
land at the
notification under Section 4,
preliminary
for the award of
date
subject to certain
5
additions for various damages plus 15 percent solatium
in view of the compulsory nature of
market value
As per Section 23
The
1.
acquisition.
The Land Acquisition Act,
(Section II,
India) the factors to be considered
in
market
value of the land on the date of Section
notification.
2.
the
on the
compensation are:
determining
4(1)
of
Government
1894,
of
Damage
sustained due to standing crops or trees
Damage
sustained due to severing the acquired
on
land.
3.
from the remaining
Injurious
4.
immovable"
5.
land of the
owner.
effects
on other
property
"movable
land
or
in any other manner or his earnings.
Expenses of shift of residence or business due to the
acquisition.
a plaintiff to compensate
to
awarded
Damages
5.
personal suffering or grief arising from an injury.
35
him
for
6.
for diminution of the profits from the
Damage
possession of the
and
of Section 6 Declaration
date
the
between
the
land
taking
land by the Collector.
Fifteen percent solatium is added to the market value
7,
in view of the compulsory nature of acquisition.
No attempt has been made in the Act to define exactly the
The normal sense of the term is that
value".
term "market
it
represents the price which a willing purchaser is ready to pay
to
a
willing
seller.
This
has
determination
been
primarily to the Collector and ultimately to the court.
in any acquisition of
in parting with his
land,
as compared to a
Since
choice
free market trans-
has been compensated by being given an additional
he
action,
land the owner does not have any
left
15 percent solatium on the market value of
the
market value of the land,
the
recent
In deciding
land.
the Collector normally
transactions for lands in
areas.
adjacent
checks
The
potential value of the land must also be taken into consideraThe market value of a plot has to be determined
tion.
reference
size, shape,
is
certain characteristics such as
to
road frontage, etc.
very deep,
beyond
is
side
it.
location,
Where a plot abutting a road
land is divided into belts of different values
for purposes of compensation.
road
its
with
The first belt of
kept at a higher value than
the
land for the
belt
coming
6
The valuation procedure is laid down by the Department of
6.
Land Valuation, Government of Gujarat.
36
or not
recent
more than six
value.
potential
and
Usually three belts are taken for depths of 60
feet,
the value of second and third
belts
and the rest,
feet
150
rent
check capitalization of
also
must
tor
relate
The Collec-
(not more than one mile away).
to adjacent lands
(2)
years old and bona fide
be
(1)
must
of land to be checked
transactions
Sales
being 66 percent and 50 percent of that of
is evident
It
the first belt.7
scope
from Section 23 of the Act that the
of compensation is wider than the market value of the land and
includes reasonable damages and expenses payable to the owner.
A
that
relevant factor that should be mentioned here is
the
Collector himself is not a person trained in valuation, though
he often obtains expert advice.
PROBLEMS OF LAND ACQUISITION ACT
2:4:3
The same
1894.
act,
was
Act
The
purpose'.
against the
applicable
all types of
does
country.
It
definition
of tribals)
7.
land
acquiring
for
cash
The government pays compensation in
The Act is not
land it thus acquires.
for
meant
this
Under
is made enforceable even today.
in
government can acquire any privately owned land for
the
'public
Government
passed by the then British
not
for
irrigation
'public purpose'
treat tribals
as a special
(See
category.
Ibid.
37
specially
It
only.
all
is
over
the
I
for
Appendix
it
legal owner
individual
the
is
compensation,
for the purpose of land acquisition and
Hence,
owner.
is considered to be private property of the
Land
acquiring land,
While
account.
taken into
is
of the land who
the government has to
deal
group,
com-
with the single land owner rather than a family,
difference
This makes a
a village as a whole.
munity,
or
because,
while acquiring land for development purposes,
acquisition affects the entire social
the owner of the
not just
land.
land
hierarchy and order
and
This subtle aspect is missing
in the Land Acquisition Act.
the total land of any one village is not be be
Moreover,
single stroke.
acquired at a
that
several
has
gives
way
In this
it
time,
differential treatment to the oustees in terms of
com-
As far as the Narmada Project is concerned,
this
phase-wise
of
acquisition
quality, but was acquired later, got
with
resettled.
compensation
was
of
It
is
assumed
the
tribal
and
get
themselves
always found later that
the
amount
purchase
It
way
relatively more money.
the compensation in the form of cash,
would
by
One,
land was of the same
Act provides for cash compensation.
The
oustees
less amount
whose
while his neighbor,
compensation,
problems.
has created
was acquired earlier got
land
whose
that
is
it
as
land is being acquired
phases,
land is being acquired at different points of
pensation.
sort
is a massive work
for the particular phase of the work.
required
when
Whenever there
land elsewhere
that was paid in cash was squandered away.
38
of
The
assumption that the tribal oustees can buy land from the
open
market on their own and get themselves resettled has generally
been proved to be
that
experience,
It
is observed from the Ukai Dam
left to themselves, the tribal
oustees could
problems.
their
not solve
incorrect.
The Act does not provide any compensation for the loss of
landless
the
labourers,
employment
to
collectors,
forest land cultivators,
etc.
forest
produce
People engaged in
non-agricultural activities like fishing are also not entitled
For example, there are 750 families along a
to compensation.
150
KM
river stretch downstream of Broach town
Narmada
will
750 families
make
a
The construction of Sardar
living out of catching hilsa fish.
Sarovar
who
and
Dam will interfere with hilsa migration
be rendered unemployed.
Even when compensation is paid to villagers through their
bank
accounts,
it
has been found that part of
it
in
goes
sustaining them during the shift to a new site and much of the
rest
is frittered away in non-productive expenditure.
problem
Another
is that the government takes only land which is to be
submerged
is required for other
or
purposes,
leaving
When part of a
many
village
partly affected people
in the lurch.
is shifted elsewhere,
the families left behind face a life of
isolation.
family's
In
land
some
cases,
is taken over,
the major
when
portion
it can neither survive on
of
a
the
remaining area nor get any compensation for the remaining land
39
if it decides to shift along with fellow villagers.
or house,
So
in
as they have no means of subsistence except for
India's Environment,
State of
Several
below the
bastis
scattered
primitive
quintals of paddy grown by
few
(The
methods.
1985).
are
problems arise from the way in which prices
fixed for acquired land.
are
in
live
Dam
of Shirsagar Koyna
the vicinity
of Maharashtra
the State
poverty line,
a
in
left
the families
all
Almost
villages.
affected
partly
in
isolated
who are
families
for
Act
Acquisition
no provision in the Land
is
there
In pratically every case the oustees
Bhakra
In the
the ones who have to suffer as a result.
Dam reservoir, land acquired from the oustees was evaluated on
the basis of the average price of
the
allotted to them in Harayana was on
land
average price during 1951-57.
land
land during 1942-47,
prices after 1947,
the
whereas
basis
of
Since there was a steep rise in
after
influx of refugees
due to the
to
the
oustees getting much less for their land than they had to
pay
for the
In
the
of
partition
subcontinent,
land allotted to them.
Srisailam
land.
however was Rs.
(Dogra, 1982).
the estimated value of
the oustees was Rs.
per acre of wet
this disparity led
land acquired
from
4,987 per acre of dry land and Rs. 13,682
The average compensation paid per acre
932 and Rs. 2,332 respectively.
Similarly in
the Bedti Project area the compensation paid was a fraction of
the
actual
costs of the acquired
land.
Chaudhary, 1982).
40
(Narendranath
and
the market rate of land is decided on the basis of
Since
registration fees paid on land transactions and since there is
a
tendency to evade stamp duty by
widespread
sale deeds than are actually paid in
on
price
lower
quoting
it
practice,
leads to the underestimation of oustees' land.
A criticism has often been levied that the
tion
proceedings take considerable time to fructify and
this
There
is no
criticism is justified to a considerable extent.
time
limit between Section 4
notification and actual
is
compensation
(1) and Section 6 that is general
land acquisition declaration.
4
Section
and
There
delays.
orders.
But the
based on the market value prevailing on
The three year
date of Section 4 notification.
stay
acquisi-
land
Section 6 notifications
tends
are additional delays due to
Evidently there
is need for a
the
limit between
to
encourage
injunctions
and
limit
for
time
completion of land acquisition proceedings.
Another
too
executive-ridden
Acquisition
instance,
in
within
is that it
Collector enjoy vast discretionary
is
the
Land
powers.
For
which the Government and
the purpose for which the land is to be acquired as
as the question as to which land is to be
well
is
aspect of the Land Acquisition Act
acquired
are
the subjective satisfaction of the Government and this
finally decided by an officer
in the secretariat
who
has
not conducted the inquiry and the scope for judicial review is
extremely
limited.
The
Act makes no provision for any
ag-
grieved party to make a reference to the Court at any stage of
41
the
af-ter the
land acquisition proceedings except to require,
award
has been passed,
court
of
to
with
and any deviation
a!;4ing of
The
recently
from the procedure
the proceedings.
Mulla
Committee
submitted
its
(Rao,
on
from
emphasised
complied
must be strictly
the proceedings
that
time
time
have
The courts
review.
judicial
the
that the same may be referred to
the
in
may result
1979).
Land
report to the
has
(1981)
Acquisition
India
of
Government
is
suggesting some changes in the Land Acquisition Law and it
the government would make appropriate decisions in this
hoped
regard
soon.
The
following
the
committee has recommended
major changes.
1.
for
Setting
up of a high level committee
in every state
implementing the Committees recommendation
and
ensuring
that excessive land is not acquired.
time
A
2.
limit
of
three
years
for
entire
the
proceedings.
3.
4.
use
if
Increase of solatium from 15 percent to 30 percent.
should be possible for the owner to resume
It
it
is not utilized for the purpose for which
been acquired.
42
it
land
has
the Land Acquisition Act raises several
Thus
According to the constitution of
the
considers
state
The
society.
ours is a
India,
independent
wedded to the uplift of the weaker section
state
welfare
questions.
as
tribals
a
of
special
category of people for the purpose of offering them state help
for
Under such a situation if a state
their uplift.
action
(land acquisition) deprives some tribals of their land, house,
it
employment, etc.,
is the duty of the state
to see that they
are properly resettled.
This
the
is not an isolated case of
loss
may
stress
their
but
what
about the
social
by
the
and
generations
of
habitat that they have been
amount
What
about
enjoying
since
past and which the constitution also
safeguards?
These lead to the conclusion that the Land Acquisition Act
not
policy,
2:5:0
in
line with the constitutional provisions and the
for
tribal
of
psychological
and strains which they are subjected to?
right
where
Their economic
and habitat.
may not be compensated for
or
compensation
environment,
acquisition
The oustees are deprived of
compensation would suffice.
their employment,
land
is
state
development.
NATIONAL EFFORTS TOWARDS RESETTLEMENT POLICY
The awareness that resettlement policy over and above the
ninety-two
development
year
old Acquisition Act
related
only during the
is needed to
displacement has been growing
last few years.
Until now,
43
cope
in
it has been
with
India
as-
Acquisition
Land
the
providing compensation to land holders under
that
sumed
them
Act would be sufficient to enable
to
resettle themselves.
In 1980,
India wrote a
the Secretary
letter to all
(Irrigation) of the Government of
"There
state governments saying,
has,
in recent times, been an awakening on the part of people
whose
land and property get submerged as a result of execution
of
irrigation,
major
and
reservoir
multi-purpose
Unless satisfactory measures are kept protecting
projects...
the
power,
interests of the oustees particularly the weaker ones, the
Government
of
India might not entertain
since resettlement
project
of the projects and result
In 1982,
progress
issues might hold up the
in excessive cost escalation."
the Government of
Ministers,
Chief
India called a conference
to formulate recommendations to the
regarding resettlement of displaced tribals.
displaced by such projects,
governments "evolve
and central
at
dispensing
a
of
states
These guidelines
record the conspicuous results of public works on tribals
are
the
of
acceptance
who
and recommend that the state
aimed
and strategies
policies
fresh equitable economic and
social
order
while displacing tribal families for development projects...".
During the 1960's the Ministry of Home Affairs
to all departments of the Government of
should
be
granted
India that concessions
especially at
in employment,
44
suggested
the
lower
to persons losing land for public or defense projects.
level,
More
recently,
down
a
the National Thermal Power
laid
Corporation
oustees,
policy on facilities to be provided to land
coal, and steel have taken some
and the departments of mines,
The
action regarding resettlement, pending common guidelines.
World Bank which now finances more and more dams also
issued,
in
1982,
a set of policy guidelines for projects financed by
it
which
affect tribal people.
Projects:
Tribal
(Economic
and
Development
Humas Ecological Considerations, World Bank,
1981).
RESETTLEMENT POLICIES OF STATE GOVERNMENTS
2:6:0
Several state governments have evolved their own policies
regarding resettlement.
Resettlement
the
The government of Maharashtra passed
in
of Project-Displaced Persons Act
Other state governments,
including Gujarat,
Pradesh,
Madhya
Rajasthan, Tripura, and Karnataka also passed resolu-
Orissa,
(Varma,
laying down policy guidelines for resettlement.
tions
1982.
1984).
Maharashtra Act of 1982 empowers the
The
set
Resettlement
to
acquire
available
land
is to be achieved by
for
this
purpose
conferring
on
The law provides for the collection of
authority.
about
to
up special administrative machinery to resettle displaced
persons.
power
government
the land from which people are displaced and
for
resettlement.
the
the
proper
information
the
land
It also provides for restrictions
45
to be placed on transfer,
in
sub-division,
or partition of land
the resettlement
likely to reduce the
is
This
of displaced persons on land acquired for the
given
the zone which benefits from a
from
purpose
for
It provides
the zone which benefits from a project.
project.
from
inequalities which result
many such projects.
be
government
forest lands which may be used for
after deforestation.
to
lands
made
be
in-
he may also
for resettling displaced persons,
available
tion
can
up by the Resettlement Officer which
drawn
clude
list of
Act also stipulates that among the
The
cultiva-
This may exacerbate deforestation
caused by resettlement.
Another
it
provides
that
important feature of the Maharashtra Act is
for
a
modicum of
displaced landless agricultural
land to be
provided
even
to
labourers, provided they leave
with the agriculturists who are resettled on the land provided
by the government.
The
several
resettlement
policies
of other states
works entailing displacement,
merely
compensate
legal owners for
of
it will not suffice
to
property
acquired.
policies adopted by the state governments of Orissa,
Maharashtra
an
offer
in the case
features besides the recognition that
public
also
The
Gujarat,
and Rajasthan are based on precise definitions of
oustee and a family.
These definitions also cover
46
those
who are displaced by development projects without being owners
of
framework
Other state governments rely on the
property.
provided by the awards of tribunals set up to resolve disputes
between riparian states, for example Madhya Pradesh, or do not
define oustees or families precisely.
The rehabilitation of some state governments have evolved
in the context of specific projects -
in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, or the Mahi Bajaj
Project
Dam
Narmada
for example the
in Rajasthan -
whereas those of other states
Sagar
like Tripura
are shaped entirely by central government recommendations.
of the policies adopted by
comparison
A
tural
land -
turists
the provision of alternative agricul-
compensation,
of
if it
state
however, several differences pertaining to
governments shows,
rates
various
is to be made available to oustee
in the first place -
agricul-
and the provision of alternative
housing sites, basic amenities, grants, subsidies, and credit,
health, and educational assistance.
wherein
the
aims
of
stated
than
follow
resettlement
machinary for
regulative
clearly
governments
state
Some
of
communal
relocation
improvement
states
in
and
policies
administrative
implementation of programs are
and
more
While
the
policy in some respects,
the
like Gujarat and Orissa also provide
for
in
the
Maharashtra Act provides a model
policies
resettlement
case
of
others.
in a site of choice and
the standard of
living of
47
the
maintenance
oustees,
or
and
special protection to tribals or other underprivileged
Other states have yet to evolve resettlement policies
groups.
central
government,
Though
tribals.
resettlement
permissible
ment
of
consonance
in
are
which
oustee
of
recommendations
with the
especially
for
the
rehabilitation
the policies of some states
oustees on forest
land,
of
visualize
this is
no
the
of
the
longer
due to the decision of the Department of Environresettlement
of
in view of the critical depletion
of
the central government to prohibit
oustees on forest land,
forest cover.
48
CHAPTER
III
THE UKAI
PROJECT
presented
this chapter the case study of Ukai Dam is
In
to understand the resettlement process undertaken by the state
government
government
and these are
resolutions
THE
originates
Arabian
protection
measures
nineteenth
century
not
it travelled.
was
by
meeting
carried
the
out
British
at
Several
the
Government
the
devastating
settle-
experiences
end
flood
of
the
(Whitcombe,
a multiphased effort to coordinate
flood control,
which
Tapi
The earliest exploration of
history.
the
tion,
river
the city of Surat had ravaging
including
However,
the
river Tapi was the source of
The
throughout
1982).
on
India and flows westward,
in Central
Sea.
situated
is
Dam
floods along the entire route
ments,
impact
UKAI DAM
Ukai
The
with
along
last part of the chapter.
of the Ukai Dam are presented in the
3:1:0
discussed
The socio-economic and ecological
implications.
their
The resettlement was guided by several
of Gujarat.
irriga-
and hydroelectricity along the Tapi was
initated until the 1950's.
49
NDIA
FIGURE 2
LOCATION OF UKAI DAM PROJECT
The
project,
envisaged a 621 metre
the Ukai Dam,
and 14 metre high weir at Kakarapar.
involved
1972,
a
4,928 metre
especially Surat City also
long and 68.6 metre
of electricity and to protect the
mw
Of
land.
million
932.3
rupees,
of
new
II
total cost for phase
million
rupees
dam
generate
were
-
The dam was
from devastating floods.
estimated
an
high
lower Tapi basin
to create 386,000 hectares
designed
completed in
The dam was designed to
across the Tapi near Ukai,
300
The first phase of the
The second phase,
project was completed in 1953.
long
irrigated
of
1,146
earmarked
for
irrigation.
3:2:0
THE PROJECT IMPACT
total
The
districts
two
Maharashtra, A
full
in
in
submerged.
Gujarat -
Dhulia.
reservoir
measured
over
land acquired for the project was spread
A total of
area
345
or
that
the amount of land
of
land
one
and
in
170 villages were affected.
level of 105.16 metres
calculating
The
Surat and Bharuch -
acquired
feet
would
totalled
was
be
60,802
hectares.
Of the
submerged
total
of
170 villages in the reservoir area, 100 were fully
while the remaining were
partially
16,080 families were displaced by the
submerged.
project.
A
Of
8.
The land between the full reservoir level and a high flood
but the
dwellings
level
of
106.98 meters was not acquired,
located on this area were shifted elsewhere.
51
these,
14,148
The remaining
ments.
after
families
accepting
1,932
moved away
families
ad hoc grants averaging 550 Rupees.
(Report of the Department of
ment.
Thus, 138
resettle-
Irrigation, Government of
1972).
Gujarat,
acquired
Land
land
total
own
on their
were resettled in the seventeen groups of
villages
settle-
were resettled in seventeen
for
As
affected by the project.
even at
already
the
mentioned
However, the total area
above, 60,802 hectares were acquired.
affected
of
the project was only a part
full reservoir level
(not high flood
level)
was as follows:
Occupied agricultural land
Government waste land
Government forest land
30,352 hectares
11,568 hectares
22,258 hectares
Total
64,178 hectares
and
Over
cleared
above this,
7,378 hectares
of
forests
were
by the Government of Gujarat and actually distributed
for agricultural purposes.
ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISION FOR RESETTLEMENT
3:3:0
For the purpose of acquiring land and facilitating resettlement
of
the displaced population a
special
organization
headed by an Additional Collector9 and supported by revenue
A state government officer dealing with revenue and
9.
acquisition.
52
land
created
was
staff10
According
a
to
an advisory committee for resettlement was
1968
District
Forests,
the
Resettlement Officers,
included
Development Officers,
formed
also
The com-
under the chairmanship of the Additional Collector.
mittee
Gujarat.
of
government dated November 29,
of the
resolution
Government
the State
by
Conservator
of
Executive
the Ukai
the Registrar of Co-operative Societies, the Super-
Engineer,
Agricultural
intending
Panchayats, and prominent
social
voluntary
leaders and representatives of
local
(Department
organizations
Government of Gujarat,
1968).
District
of
presidents
Officer,
of
Irrigation,
This committee met from time to
time to advise the government about resettlement.
3:4:0
RESETTLEMENT POLICY
The
land was acquired,
compensation was paid,
and
ar-
were made for resettlement under eleven government
rangements
regulations:
1.
Resolution -
This
cleared
October 4,
resolution
forest
1967
provided
land could be sold
under
which
agriculturists,
whose
conditions
the
to
lands were acquired for the project.
A government department mainly collecting taxes and food
10.
grain levy from farmers.
53
Area of land
acquired
Area of land made available
in new settlement
Up to 3 acres
3 to 9 acres
9 to 12 acres
More than 12 acres
actual area acquired
3 acres
1/3rd of actual area acquired
4 acres
of
area
This
for
land made available
clearing forests was to be sold at
poses
after
priate
price determined by the government.
paid
15 percent solatium,
included a
compensation
The
compensation
considering
inadequate,
acquired
was
offered
the quality of
land was mostly fertile,
of
all
Resolution 1,
too little to be
1967).
Moreover, it was the
constantly
enriched
the
drained
irrigation
Government
land whose forest
and hence instead of
it was vulnerable
to
continuous
It was not, therefore, an adequate substitute
for the land that was acquired.
a
(see
economical
being
the
The
Against this, the land offered in return was
was removed overnight as it were,
When
was by
It was also well
cover
impoverishment.
quite
acquired.
land
enriched as it
deposited on the riverbanks.
or fertilizers.
given
For
land.
all
of
first
and capable of yielding multiple crops even without
first
Rs.
and ranged between
land the compensation paid was only Rs. 40 per acre.
The
silt
appro-
some
600 to Rs. 960 per acre for different catagories of
waste
pur-
agricultural
(Mistry and Purohit,
villages were resettled,
maximum of four acres of
land in
54
1982).
each landholder
areas
cleared
was
of
land
cultivating
large
cases,
head
in old settlements, many persons had been
Earlier,
forests.
that was not in their name,
joint-family holdings were
land.
in building wells,
of
Many
use of forest resource,
land improvement,
people
However,
and electricity.
carried
these promised measures were actually
(Mankodi and Gangopathyay,
title-
The cultivators were promised help
removal of tree stumps and leaves,
none
the
of
in the name
In these cases only one
of the household only.
holder got a plot of
several
or in
out.
1983).
in the obey area11
suffering from forced idleness
complained that they were
(Choudhari and
Since
they could only grow one crop during a
tural
operations
1969).
Choksi,
agricul-
year,
which kept most of them busy all
the
year
round in their former villages could only keep them busy for a
short period in the resettled village.
One
result of this has been an increase in the incidence
of social problems like drunkenness and gambling.
observed
indulge
that
were
that
due to forced idleness more people
in drinking.
In one village
It has been
tended
(Tokarwa) it was
some outsiders who had settled in the resettled
operating a matka
Obey area 11.
of dam.
to
found
village
(number gambling) ring which systemati-
Upstream area not benefitted by construction
- Area under control for
area
Command
Area benefitted by construction of dam.
55
irrigation
purposes.
cally soaked up a fair part of the cash available from the new
economic activites, like marketing milk or fish.
Gangopathyay,
2.
1983).
Resolution
Since
(Mankodi and
-
October
7,
1967
the extent of area submerged was not determined
at
the time and since the spread of the reservoir would vary from
to
time
time
depending upon the rainfall
in
the water released from the dam
areas
and
these
resolutions
catchment
the
for
utilization,
which
the
submerged,
the
determined the condition under
reservoir banks could be cultivated.
Until such time as the acquired land was
owners were allowed to cultivate it on an annual basis
former
Agricul-
after paying double revenue and various other taxes.
whose
turists
preference
was
three acres with a
limit of a
total
sixteen acres which the agriculturists could cultivate
inclusive of all their other lands.
allowed
normally on an annual
triennial
periods.
twelve
thus
of
in all,
Bed cultivation was to be
basis with the
possibility
of
leases where the lands remained unsubmerged for
long
plots
was
The
land
revenue
collected from such
or
revenue
the event of any damage
to crops
times the normal rate and no compensation
exemption could be claimed
in
given
be
The maximum area
for bed/bank cultivation.
available
made
lands were under submergence were to
in
such plots due to floods.
If the acquired land
56
remained
if
owners
former
the
longer periods they could be returned to
for
unsubmerged
paid by
compensation
the
government
is
refunded.
because
The scheme under this resolution did not succeed
of
the distance between the new settlement and the river
of
the
cultivation at
Moreover, people were reluctant
two locations.
to accept the proposal due to the
continuous threat of
flood,
and
double
in case of damage to the crops,
compensation
no
manage
efficiently
People could not
village.
old
bed
revenue charged by the government..
Resolution
3.
-
November 28,
could
Landholders
percent
themselves
avail
of
six
at
loans
interest through the Ukai Navnirman Sangh, a voluntary
social organization,
a
1967
for the purpose of additional acres with
maximum of eight extra acres.
Most
facilities
of
the
because
farmers
of
were
was
in
escalation
location and limited loan amount.
land
unable
to
land
Moreover,
loan
the
use
values
new
in
the quality
poor and farmers did not feel confident
to
of
invest
money where return was uncertain.
4.
Resolution -
February 3,
1968;
July 1, 1963;
March 6,
and October 7,
1967.
57
1968;
October 7,
1967;
resolutions laid down the conditions for the erec-
These
alternative dwellings for the displaced.
owners
were to be given residential plots of eighty
forty
feet
plots
of
including
belongings,
pro-
provided
value of the construction material to be transported
was
within
the
than Rs.
less
5,000/- and the shifting was done
period.
stipulated
available at 7 percent
and
given
construction materials was to be
vided free of cost to the oustees by the governemnt,
the
by
material
for
Transportation
feet square.
feet
be
and those who did not own land were to
forty
land-
Oustee
tion of
Loans
for
building
for
oustees
were
houses
interest up to a maximum of Rs.
in exceptional cases Rs 5,000/-,
to certain standards.
new
4,000/-
provided they conformed
Extra plots could be purchased by
the use of family members under
the
condi-
certain
tions.
A
every
well was to be constructed in the new settlements
hundred persons to be resettled,
for
with water facilities
for cattle.
Wells
providing
submerged
had
were
not dug because the official policy
of
help for digging a new well only against every well
in the reservoir.
Since all the submerged villages
direct access to the river earlier,
necessary
was
wells had
in the old location of the villages.
wells were dug for the resettled cultivators.
58
not
been
Hence no new
subject
Free transportation of construction material was
to a maximum of Rs. 5000 and thus the new houses built were of
tion
if
ment
no
namely that
attached to it,
not ready with all the promised amenities and the governMoreover
was in a hurry to acquire the reservoir site.
was provided for domestic use
electricity
or
Only
in
did the availability of drinking water improve
Some
resettlement.
colonies
illu-
for
By and large the facilities provided
the resettlement villages were inadequate.
village
of the roads provided in the
(Mankodi and Gangopadhyay, 1983).
resettlement colonies,
dam site where
those who plan,
from the project
Resolution -
every
the
are the lush gardens and lawns and the
lit and more than comfortable dwellings provided at
In
after
settlement
In sharp contrast to the dry dusty and bleak look of
5.
one
are completely unusable due to poor construction and
maintenance.
well
for
villages
This created problem because the new
minating public places.
in
it was to be available only
the oustees were to follow the government's timetable
the shifting.
were
The free transportation had a condi-
inferior quality.
a very
build,
maintain,
the
and benefit
stay.
March 2,
1967.
resettled village about one half acre of
was to be reserved for cattle.
59
land
cattle
per
household.
Even if
it amounts to four hundred cattle
seventeen new settlements),
half acre of
a
The
resolution
hundred
one
only
(actually 138 villages were resettled in
families in a village
and
we assume
four
to
three
least
have at
usually
families
Tribal
land is not sufficient
did not provide for the
purpose.
for that
the
in
grazing land
resettled villages posing a major problem for the cattle.
6.
Resolution -
In
village
resettlement
every
reserved
1967.
October 25,
some
public purposes like crematoria,
for
village
playgrounds,
local
government,
and
to
was
land
manure
be
pits,
kindergarten
buildings.
7.
Resolution -
Schools
villages.
necessary
villages.
Resolution -
villages
the
and other pertinent works were to be provided to the
resettlement
8.
1966.
roads and connecting roads with
Approach
culverts
January 17,
October 7,
and
1965.
public buildings existing in
prior to 1964 would be replaced in the
In
the
affected
resettlement
those villages where such facilities
did
not
occur, demands for such public buildings were to be considered
on a priority basis.
60
The schemes under resolutions 6,
7,
ideal but
and 8 were
very
little materialized due to lack of strong local
ment
and consensus among people.
Most of the promised
con-
not take place and the land earmarked for
did
struction
govern-
the
public purpose was eventually squatted illegally.
9.
Resolution -
January 5,
1967.
resolution granted exemption from stamp
This
the oustee families that could be
levied on agreements signed.
was a good gesture on the part of the government and
This
helped smooth the
10.
duty 12to
Resolution -
it
legal procedures for land transaction.
October 21,
1967.
For those who were willing to undergo training in certain
training
crafts,
classes in
carpentry,
masonery,
turning,
tailoring, blacksmithing, and fitting were started in Ukai.
A
monthly scholarship of Rs. 30 and free accommodation were also
offered.
In order to do something about the large-scale
resulted
that
ment
which the
ousted communities survived,
two schemes.
person
12.
from the shrinking of the land
unemploybase
on
the government offered
One was to give a certificate to any
resettled
who asked for it to the effect that he or she had been
Stamp duty is a government fee on any land transaction.
61
The other involved training classes
affected by the Ukai Dam.
where the trainees were to be
in some crafts started at Ukai,
30 a
of Rs.
paid a stipend
month.
The stipend amount of Rs.30 was very little and hence
did
attract tribals to undergo
not
was of
concern
training.
it
major
Their
immediate survival at the time of displacement
looked for direct earning to stablilize
themselves.
Their traditional occupation was forest based and
cultivation
and
they
and it was difficult to switch to a totally different skill at
later
with
training
future uncertainty of
and
along
there was no placement service
Moreover,
age.
finding a
was
job
another discouraging factor.
Village leaders claim that
After
lagers could hardly meet their own labour requirements.
increase in
being displaced, however, there had been a massive
the
In the resettled village
the unemployed.
about 2,000 out of the total population
Narayanpur
stay
of
number
vil-
in their former location
away from the village for up to eight months.
of
6,000
of
(Mankodi
and Gangopodhyay, 1983).
of
some
In
Ksataskuwa,
the
Arkati,
Khupi,
Mohini/Chardipur,
other
resettled
Kuida,
villages,
including
Adgam, Kuchal, Panibara,
between one third and three-fourths of
the
huts were closed and sometimes sealed. These belonged to those
who
parts
had
of
been
forced to migrate
the state.
In the
in search of work
village of
62
Dhupi,
the
to
other
primary
teacher explained that out of twenty-five children
school
the
primary
village.
school,
All
migrated
in
only
ten were
about
present
the others accompanied their parents
search
of work.
(Mankodi
and
in
in
the
who
had
Grangopadhyay,
1983).
A study conducted by the Centre for Social Studies,
Surat,
1980)"
India,
Ukai
("Rural Migration in Command Area,
(CSS)
Dam,
states that:
villages,
resettled
stay in the obey area
"During
our
to
loaded
trucks
a
half to two dozen
and
about
one
Nizarthe
down
labourers passed daily
with
capacity
labourers
wayside camps of migrant
Road.
Large
Ucchal
There were
were also visible between Bardoli and Ucchal.
loaded
caravans of close to 100 balluck carts and trains
both inside and on top of the roof with migrant labourers
of
fleet
In Ucchal a
state of Maharashtra.
from the
waiting
to
private
busses was
chartered
twenty-eight
and
fields
to work in the sugarcane
workers
transport
trailers were
Tractor
in the command area.
factories
We were
also
used frequently for transporting workers.
told that at the beginning of the monsoon these labourers
the
few
of
remains
village with what
to
the
return
spending
of their wages and bonus after
rupees
hundred
the
of
alchohol to eke out the four months
on
heavily
monsoon in their inhospitable resettled villages."
11.
Resolution -
Those
December
13,
1968.
oustees who would prefer to arrange for their
resettlement were offered the following cash grants:
For every landless family
Rs.-
450
Landholding families not eligible
to get land in resettlement villages
Rs.-
550
63
own
Landholding families eligible to get
land in resettlement villages
These grants could be
to
wish
and such families were
benefits.
receive any other resettlement
were several families who for some
There
670
paid after the oustees relinquished
possession of their earlier dwellings,
not eligible
Rs.-
to accept the government's help and generosity
tling them.
not
reason did
in reset-
Such families who were uprooted from their tradi-
tional habitats, who had to leave behind the security of their
houses, social relationships, and customary occupations
land,
and
the uncertainties of life
face
among
land
in a strange
strangers, were offered a petty sum of Rs. 450 to Rs. 670.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF RESETTLEMENT
3:5:0
To understand the socio-economic impact of
resettlement,
we have to consider the nature of the terrain inhabited by the
affected population, and examine the character of the economic
practiced by them both before and after
activities
ment.
resettle-
The submerged villages were located on the Tapti Basin
on fertile land drained by tributaries of the Tapti River like
and Raigan and various smaller streams.
Nesu,
Rangwali
Tapti
flows westward through low undulations of
mountain
gence,
both
range
the
Satpura
which were thickly forested prior to
submer-
when nearly half the area
moist
The
(49 percent) was covered
and dry deciduous forests.
64
The entire area
by
had
alluvial soil which was gravelly in
black
around
received
Since
parts.
fifty-five inches of rain annually
it
was
and
well drained, the soil was fertile and took to double cropping
without extra irrigation.
After
1960,
part of the submerging region formed part of the
major
District of the State of Maharashtra.
not
in
bifurcation of the Bombay State
the
a
Dhule
Since Maharashtra
did
want to bear the burden of resettlement of the submerging
villages,
two new talukas of Ucchal
and Nizar were carved out
from the Dhule district and added to the Surat District of the
State of Gujarat.
Ucchal, which besides being the most back-
ward taluka of Surat,
The
gence.
were
two other talukas to be affected by
Songadh in the Surat District and Sagbara
District,
Taluka
Songadh
Ucchal
Nizar
Sagbara
submer-
submergence
in the Bharuch
as follows:
Table 3
SUBMERGING VILLAGES -
Total
was also the worst affected by
UKAI PROJECT
No. of totally
submerged villages
No. of partially
submerged villages
14
34
27
25
15
34
21
100
70
65
IN SUBMERGED VILLAGES
LAND UTILIZATION
3:5:1
by tribals 14,
inhabited
talukas
submerging
the
Since
13
predominantly
were
and the dependence of- the tribals on land was
economy
the
agriculture was the mainstay of
nearly
total.
In
Nizar
taluka 91 percent of the
the
construction of the dam,
to
prior
percent subsequently.
was
put
percent
Even
in
cultivated
was
land
Instead of 7 percent of the
to non-agricultural use
prior
to
land
41
subsequently.
Songadh which was relatively less affected
agricultural
land which
submergence,
was used for non-agricultural purposes
mergence,
51
to
which shrunk
declined from 61
by
sub-
percent to
31
percent after submergence and land put to non-agricultural use
rose
from a
mere 3 percent to 26 percent.
Ucchal taluka retained only 13 percent of cultivable
instead
land in Ucchal was put to non-agricultural
prior to submergence,
60
percent
purposes.
utilization
of
These
after the construction of
the land was
figures
pattern.
utilized
for
use
the Ukai dam,
non-agricultural
show a drastic change
in the
The primary means of production
Taluka is a subdistrict.
13.
one Taluka.
14.
Whereas only 7
of 75 percent prior to resettlement.
percent of the
land
land
in
an
Approximately 50 villages make
For the definition of Tribals, see Appendix
66
I.
agrarian economy, namely land, was nearly halved on an average
when about 44 percent of the agricultural
land was submerged.
1961
The figures of occupational classification from the
show that on an average 95 percent of the workforce of
census
the submerging talukas was dependent on land.
affected by the construction of the dam,
families
agriculturists
8,776 were
whereas the remaining 2,224 families were
but yet dependent on land.
land holders.,
10,000
Of the
not
(Census of Gujarat,
1971).
Table 4
OCCUPATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
Agricultural
labourers
Agriculturist
Taluka
Other
occupations
Sangadh
Ucchal
Nizar
Sagbara
73.0
58.3
45.0
78.0
22.6
35.0
52.0
19.2
4.4
6.7
3.0
2.8
Average
submerging
talukas
64.3
30.7
5.0
For Surat
District as
a whole
49.0
35.7
15.3
Source:
The
Census of Gujarat,
figures
40
resettlement,
five
acres
of
of
1971.
landholding pattern
show
that,
percent of the landholders held
land and more than 46 percent held
acres in the submerging talukas.
than
more
over
After resettlement,
67
before
ten
nobody
could hold more than four acres, and that too was of relatively
inferior land.
Table 5
LANDHOLDING PATTERN BY SIZE-CLASS IN PERCENTAGES
Taluka
Large
farmers
15 +
acres
Big
farmers
10 to
14.9 acres
Medium
farmers
5 to 9.9
acres
Small
farmers
0.5 to
5 acres
Songadh
Ucchal
Nizar
Sagbara
31.2
20.7
19.0
18.2
:31.2
27.6
32.5
34.2
17.2
38.0
15.5
18.7
20.4
13.7
33.0
28.2
Average in
4 talukas
22.5
31.4
22.5
23.6
Surat
District
54.7
21.3
10.0
14.0
Source:
Census of Gujarat, 1971.
The result of this reduction in the availability of
land
is reflected in the production of both
food
Whereas families in the submerged
vil-
for
agriculture
and
non-food crops.
lages could grow their entire requirement
of food earlier, and
also generate a surplus to trade for their other requirements,
this
of
availability
holdings,
land
their
after
was no longer possible
had
concentrated
land,
in
fairly
undoubtedly
became
stances.
village.
This
the hardest
uniformally
Only
large
land
earlier assured even those who did not own any
opportunities
of their own of sufficient employment
own
Plentiful
resettlement.
a
group of
hit.
landless
However,
all
marginalized due to the
very small handful had the
68
labourers
in
was
agriculturists
changed
circum-
enterprise
to
Table 6
CROPPING PATTERN
UCCHAL TALUKA
-
(Area in hectares)
Y
1966
1967
R
A
E
1969
1968
1971
Post-rehabilitation
Pre-rehabilitation
Items
1970
Food Crops
A.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Cereals
Rice
Wheat
Jowar
Bajri
Maize
Others
Total
B.
1.
2.
3.
Pulses
Gram
Tur
Others
Total
C.
1.
2.
3.
4.
6,913
176
9,344
5,993
101
8,781
2,057
4,047
3,796
1,639
28
2,(647
1,709
67
2,165
1,875
291
1,587
128
6,301
100
5,721
36
2,046
24
1,639
11
1,037
24
986
22,862
20,696
1,982
5,977
4,989
4,714
278
2, 488
2, 689
233
2, 547
2, 733
104
1, 089
1, 308
36
771
972
101
859
592
221
1,040
505
5,455
5,513
2,501
1,779
1,352
1,766
07
89
59
15
87
61
04
37
26
08
21
17
-
17
08
2
02
299
256
5
155
163
67
46
25
557
6,780
692
5,541
1,238
9,857
594
803
337
603
394
703
171
303
273
109
23
22
288
7,775
7,052
10,560
1,163
1,019
36,247
33,424
32,369
8
7,
Other Food Crops
Sugarcane
Fruits
Vegetables
Other Misc.
Total
-
Non-Food Crops
1. Cotton
2. Groundnut
3. Other oil
seeds
4. Tobacco
5. Fodder
6. Others
Total
Total Food &
Non-food Crop
Source:
Report of the Department of
of Gujarat,
1971.
69
_,5
Agriculture,
5
1,162
4
;
Government
the new circumstances.
to
adapt
shows
Table 6 clearly
the
cropping pattern changed drastically in Ucchal taluka from the
DEVELOPMENT EFFORTS IN RESETTLED VILLAGES
3:5:2
Block Level Planning study of Jain
The
that
period.
to the post-resettlement
pre-resettlement
the
construction
blow
heavy
structure.
The
basic survival
could
which
of the Ukai Dam has already
efforts directed at
to
(1980)
improvement
of
observes
dealt
a
capital
resettlement money was only sufficient to meet
needs and could not be invested in
yield
a continuing source of
enterprises
income,
even
by
landholders who were eligible for receiving compensation.
The
in
the
compensation
received
by
landholders was
invested
following manner:
Table 7
INVESTMENT CHARACTERISTICS Mode
of
UCCHAL TALUKA
Investment
House construction
Household goods and other needs
Agricultural work
Repayment of debt
Ornaments
Others (marriage, other customary
expenditures)
Can't say
Source:
Vol.-I,
Percent
46.7
12.2
11.5
3.5
1.0
22.3
2.8
S.C. Jain, Block Level Planning:
South Gujarat University, 1980.
70
Ucchal Taluka,
living
the families were found to be
percent
of
poverty
line.
Examining
95
whereas after resettlement
below the poverty line,
lived
64.9 percent families
to construction of the dam,
Prior
the
under
developmental
the role of various
inputs in resettlement and development of production capabilithe picture is
ties and social relations of the local people,
encouraging.
not
1975-1978
Total
Expenditure
Heads of
Development
Block headquarters
Development
Agricultural
Village and small industries
Village amenities
Other programs
26,270,000
2,800,000
Total
56,360,000
An
expenditure
of Rs.
However,
went for headquarter services,
for
46.6
4.9
48.5
100
Ucchal Taluka, Vol.
three
result
year
100 per capita, which
46.6 percent of this amount
and apart from less than
agriculture there was no expenditure on
industries or amenities.
notable
Percentage
5.6 million over a
period gives an expenditure of about Rs.
quite substantial.
UCCHAL TALUKA
27,290,000
S.C. Jain, Block Level Planning:
Source:
-I, South Gujarat University, 1980.
percent
years
1978 was as follows
Table 8
EXPENDITURE UNDER TRIBAL BLOCK SCHEME
is
Blocks
multi-purpose and Tribal
the break down of the total expenditure for the
Scheme
1975 -
Under the
five
village
Among the other programs,
the only
family
planning
achieved was in respect
71
to
operations.
A
posedly
adult
nominal
for
large part of the other expenditure was
literacy centres,
which
practically
In the agricultural sector four-
in existence today.
of the fifteen wells dug over the three year period were
teen
not
in use and twenty-three pumpsets supplied to tribal
munities were
Like
Blocks
Scheme,
impact.
com-
lying idle for years without being repaired.
the
Integrated
performance of
that
Rural
(Jain,
of
the
Development
Development
1980).
Scheme
Schemes
have
Tribal
and
multi-purpose
the
had
and
the
negligible
The only major expenditure
incurred
the
was towards setting up a chilling plant for milk at
here
taluka headquarters at the cost of Rs.
of
are
sup-
the
skepticism
potential
for
expressed by
dairy
development
0.95 million, in spite
earlier studies
about
in
The
the
area.
average milk yields continues to be very low:
buffaloes, 0.9 litres for cows, and 0.2
actual
employment
3.8
the
daily
litres for
litres for goats.
generated under the Block
Level
The
Planning
Scheme during 1979 to 1980 was nill.
3:5:3
RESETTLEMENT AND MIGRATION
According
to an estimate by the Ucchal taluka Panchayat,
about 45 percent to 50 percent of the entire population of the
taluka
migrate
survey
of
to the command area
landless,
carried out
for
by the Ukai Navnirman
(1980) in all the rehabilitated villages,
percent
to
75 percent of the
employment.
a
Sangh
it was found that 65
landless families
72
In
migrate
for
work.
It was found during the survey conducted by Centre for
Social
Studies,
families,
migration
the
area.
due
The extent
in the villages on the south bank
to easier accessibility
to
the
of
command
15
Table 9
MIGRATION
IN THE VILLAGES OF UKAI
The
79
33
17
57
40
Report of the Ukai Navnirman Sangh, 1980, Surat
impact
of resettlement can be
Whereas just over a decade earlier
labourers
# of Persons found
migrating for work
74
33
25
72
25
Tokarwa
Kamalpur
Amlapada
Mota Amlapada
Khouta Rampura
Source:
REGION
# of Households
in Sample
Village
had
varying
migrate for work for
(Mankodi and Gangopadhyay, 1983).
is greater
reservoir
that 42 percent of all the
in 1983,
or landless,
landed
periods of time.
of
Surat,
were
nothing
resettlement
seen
clearly
less than half the
here.
landless
willing to migrate for work even though
to fall back upon anymore,
a majority of families,
after
a
decade
they
of
even those who own some
land are forced to migrate for work.
the
may again be an underestimation because
This figure
15.
survey was conducted around the festival of Holi which is when
migrant workers like to return to their villages for the
most
festivities.
73
sponsored
According to the Block Level Planning Project,
by
the
percent
poverty
Government of Gujarat for Ucchal
the
of
Taluka,
households of the taluka subsist
(Jain, 1980).
95
below
the
of Rs. 60 per capita
line drawn at a consumption level
per month.
nearly
The breakdown of the households
is
as follows:
Table 10
HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION LEVEL -
UCCHAL TALUKA
Percentage of households in
Ucchal Taluka
Per Capita per month
income/expenditure
in Rs.
Less than Rs. 20
Rs. 21 - 40
Rs. 41 - 60
Rs. 61 - 80
Rs. 81 - 100
Rs. 101 and above
According to
consumption
levels (i.e.
expenditure
According to
income levels
51
36
8
3
1
1
55
30
8
4
2
1
S.C. Jain, Block Level Planning:
Source:
1, South Gujarat University, 1980.
Changes
the habitat and economy can be seen
typically consisted of the
in
the
Prior to resettlement
intake of the population.
nutritional
their diet
in
Ucchal Taluka Vol.
following:
Cereals:
juwar, banti, kodra, rice.
Pulses:
tuwer, val, bhindi, chola.
Animal foods:
milk, eggs, fish, meat including wildlife
(boar, deer, hares, and game birds.
Vegetables:
various sprouts and gourds.
Fruit:
melons, mangoes, and wild fruits.
(Source:
Mistry and Purohit, 1982.)
74
After resettlement the intake of vegetables and fruit
is
negligible and that of animal foods has declined considerably.
There
is no more wildlife to hunt
ment
of
Even
diet
home
which was a very important part of
milk,
operative dairy for marketing elsewhere.
Surat
has
outside.
is now collected exclusively for sale to the
their diet,
CSS,
fish
for
is
small quantities
caught by women in
fish
sale
this is almost exclusively for
but
consumption.
by
With the develop-
pisciculture in the reservoir the catch of
increased
Only
for food.
co-
The survey conducted
showed a noticeable decline
diversity worked out for each village
in the score
for
the
for
periods
before and after resettlement.
Earlier the consumption of alcohol -
of drinking mahuda liquor in the evening after
consisted
day's
though very common -
work was over.
the
It was noticed that many men and women
started drinking around 11 A.M.
and further that the alchohol
consumed was not always brewed from mahuda flowers, which have
some
nutritive
due
idleness
value.
It
that
is quite possible
to unavailability of productive work had led
an increase in the consumption of harmful brews.
Purohit,
to
(Nistry and
1982).
The tribals who depended on forest produce have
the most due to resettlement
group
enforced
which
extracting
traditionally
in a deforested area.
followed
the
The first
occupation
catchu from Khair trees have now become
in the resettled villages.
suffered
of
shepherds
The second group practiced basket
75
bamboo
weaving
and have suffered due to the disappearance of
forests
and the official policy of providing bamboos in
bulk
The rate of extended migration for wage labour
to pulp mills.
is especially high among these groups.
Changes
other spheres of their
in
settlement
the
provide
dwellings
scope
little
cramped and unhygenic
and their
homeand
pattern which was relatively scattered
permitted plenty of scope
ment
resulted
have
Earlier their dwellings followed a
from resettlement.
stead
lives
for expansion.
are clustered very
for expansion.
living conditions,
After the resettleclose
This
and
together
to
leads
more
people
for both the
domestic animals.
Resettlement has considerably weakened the strong ties to
the family and the community that existed earlier.
On the one
more
due to paucity of scope for expansion of dwellings
hand
tend to have to live together,
people
whereas on
other
the
it is observed that several families where disputes
hand
arisen
had
because of sharing of joint landholdings had shrunk to
a miniscule size.
(Mistry and Purohit,
1982).
Though marriage customs have not changed substantially as
such, certain differences are observable, especially among the
Vasara
While
tribe.
the
bride-price of a Vasara
nearby northern Akkalkuva taluka in Maharashtra
4000/'-,
that
of
a Vasara girl
is around
in the resettled area
75
girl
in
Rs.
ranges
between
Rs.
500 to Rs.
Since even this
900.
beyond the groom's parents ability
to
pay,
incurring a much smaller fine -
involve
feast16 -
price
is
often
elopements,
often
only a
which
drunken
decided by the tribal head, have become more common.
Polygamous
marriages
have also declined since
landholdings
very
few men can afford to pay
prices
even
support
or
several
with
smaller
multiple
wives.
bride
(Mankodi
and
Grangopadhyay, 1983).
Some of
the families had converted to Christianity
resettlement,
mainly
because
conversion seemed
to
after
improve
their employment opportunities by opening up a wider avenue of
outside
contacts.
Marriage and other festivities
involving
drinking
and dancing to the accompaniment of music have
declined
in
also
frequency due to the pressing need to eke out
a
living away from the villages wherever work is available.
In conclusion,
tion,
electricity,
employment
obey
areas.
as in the case of the benefits of
and
flood
control,
the
A decade after completion of the project
of
the
there
industrial or
enterpreneurs in the command areas were favoured
with an unorganized supply of cheap migrant
16,
generation
also favoured the command area at the cost of
was nothing for the displaced to do, whereas the
agricultural
irriga-
A village bacchanalia.
77
labourers.
3:6:0
ECOLOGICAL
IMPACTS OF UKAI
Environmental
considerations
DAM
were not paramount
selection and planning of the Ukai project.
environmental
phenomenon
and
impacts
in India,
intense
of
in
the
Concern for
the
irrigation projects
is
a
and is the result of widely
publicized
in
concern for environmental quality
recent
developed
countries.
environ-
No detailed pre-project studies of the probable
mental
impacts
studies
point
project
1.
affected
adverse environmental
higher
riverbed
the
These are briefly
flows
cultivation,
in
the
Several
effects
listed
river
1982).
recent
that
the
below:
have
communication across
water supply diversion work for Surat
and Purohit,
and
out
has in fact had.
Perennial
and
on the Ukai area were made.
adversely
the river,
City.
(Mistry
The Tapti River has changed its
course
the flow is now well away from the infiltration wells
of
water supply scheme for Surat City, affecting the infiltration
of
water
into the wells.
Moreover,
the riverbed around the
wells has silted up due to the tidal water effect,
flood
.pa control the silt cover is not
cally,
as was the
2.
According
the
cubic
and due to
washed away
periodi-
case earlier.
to a preliminary survey carried out in 1980
Gujarat Engineering Research
Institute,
Baroda,
hectare metres of silt have been deposited in the
78
by
493.41
Ukai
Reservoir
within the first
the
reservoir.
has
decreased
seven years after
the impounding
The grass storage capacity of the
by
5.8
percent or
0.85
of
reservoir
percent
per
year.
(Report of the Gujarat Engineering Research Institute on 'Ukai
Dam',
1980).
Against
metres
rate
per
the assumed sedimentation rate of
100 square kilometres,
the observed sedimentation
maps,
indicates
affected by erosion.
In
Bardoli,
to
at
that
India
There
has
been
(Op.cit. above).
least three talukas in the command
Kamrej,
topographi-
considerably more area
area,
namely
and Chalthan, crop yields have gone down due
waterlogging and salinity.
1981).
square
Comparison of erosion affected areas, as inferred
from remotely sensed data and the survey of
3.
hectare
in the reservoir is 10.90 hectare metres per 100
kilometers.
cal
1.47
(Census of Gujarat,
1971
is a possibility of the soil developing
and
alkali
problems
due to excess moistening and impeded drainage,
thus
creating
unhealthy
area
conditions for plant
growth.
further
downstream in the command areas are prone
logging
and
salinity due to inadequate
outfall
The
to
water-
conditions,
heavy soils, and impeded drainage.
4.
In
the areas under the Kakrapar and Ukai right
mands salt balances in the soils have already been
The
salinity
bank comdisturbed.
in these deep black alluvial soils has increased
79
and
the
problem of low yields has started.
Gujarat Engineering Research Institute on
(Report of
'Ukai Dam',
5.
Due to bad maintenance and improper management of
and
drainage systems,
has
increased
coastal areas,
the incidence of water-borne
in the command areas,
filaria,
other water-borne diseases.
canals
diseases
and
in
the
enterie fever, cholera, polio, and
(Sahai Baldev,
1983).
It is observed that fishing of Hilsa, which used to be of
commercial
suffered
the
1980).
are very commmon, with periodic out-
bursts of viral hepatitis,
6.
Malaria,
the
importance
a
There
however.
The
in all.
acres
cording
constructed,
has
has been an attempt to breed
fish
in
of
the
(Op.cit.)
Ukai project affected totally 89,445 acres of forest
Of these,
18,445
was
setback due to decreased discharge downstream
dam.
reservoir,
before the dam
about 71,000 acres were submerged,
were felled for resettlement
to various official estimates.
of
while
villages
The total number
acof
trees which were felled were approximately 2,700,000.
According
Surat
1964 to
to the forest department data,
District under various categories for the
1971
was as follows.
80
forest
area in
period
from
Table 11
FOREST AREA -
SURAT DISTRICT
(in square kilometers)
Year
Reserved
1964-65
1965-66
1966-67
1967-68
1968-69
1969-70
1970-71
1,815.34
1,739.24
1,728.93
346.74
527.29
388.97
691.65
Source:
Private
24.66
34.60
16.74
1,372.86
1,080.30
1,259.24
845.14
24.66
24.06
24.06
24.06
5.64
5.64
5.64
Total
1,867.43
1,801.27
1,774.62
1,748.55
1,618.12
1,658.74
1,547.33
1971.
changes are broadly noticeable about these
the
considerable
period of seven years;
were
Unclassed
3.37
3.37
4.89
4.89
4.89
4.89
4.90
Census of Gujarat,
Two
first,
Protected
felled
for
reduction
second,
resettlement
of total
area
around 1967-68,
presumably,
figures:
over
the
when forests
the
area
under
reserved forests has shrunk drastically.
The
is
extent
considerably
hectares.
earliest
of forest cover disturbed due to resettlement
more
than the
offical
estimate
of
The area of forests cleared which is visible in the
satellite
imageries is actually several times larger
than the offical estimate.
(Mankodi and Gangopadhya, 1983).
Even in the absence of exact remote sensing data,
obvious
that
this figure
is an underestimation of the
of deforestation caused by resettlement.
was the extensive illicit
tled
7,378
it
is
extent
The reason for this
felling of trees around those reset-
villages where some sort of a tree cover remained in the
vicinity.
Moreover,
immediately after resettlement the econo-
81
mic dislocation of the affected population was still fresh and
no other avenues of
of
oustees
obtained
income were yet available,
survived
firewood
or
which
they carried to
to
the
travelling
passenger
trains
cutting,
transportation,
and
since
early
in,
on this
substantially
or
route.
the
equally often,
the
Tapti
between
sale of
It was a
common
the
on top
the
illicit
declined
mainly
within walking
Today the
of
of
resettlement
railway line and the river Nesa
long ago,
headloads
firewood has
days of
Valley Railway line.
bereft of all trees.
not so
Valley
Today the extent of
because trees have become very scarce
of
illicitly
Tapti
observe a large number of people with
firewood
large number
of
the sale of headloads
Railway line for dispatch to urban centres.
site
a
distance
entire
is
area
practically
People nostalgically remember the time,
when wild beasts stalked the area.
(Various
newspaper reports, from 1975 to 1980).
Much of
due
to
the
intrusion.
by
in the deforested area has
wholesale destruction of
The richness of wildlife
habitat
by
human
in the area can be gauged
had killed ten tigers in five days.
This
not changed substantially until the construction
dam.
17.
its
perished
remembering a recorded event some hundred years ago that a
Shikari17
had
the wildlife
Hunter
82
habitat
of
the
3:7:0
SUMMARY
The
Ukai
Dam project has shown inadequacy
acquisition act
strategy
was
of
the
land
in dealing with resettlement. The compensation
irrational
and people
themselves with meagre cash amount.
could
not
reestablish
The compensation for land
was based on the official value of the government register and
hence
The
it was very low compared to the prevalent market price.
land
records were not up to date
could not make
The
the
families
legitimate claim for the compensation.
resettlement
were
work.
Moreover,
of
revenue
department were inadequate.
had
with
resettlement
not trained to handle this humane
surveys
never
several
government machinery was not effective to deal
massive
officers
and
task.
The
the affected villages and people conducted by
correct
information
As a result
about
the
the
government
socio-economic
activities and cultural profile of the displaced tribals.
People
lost their most fertile
of
inferior quality in return.
to
resettle
land and were given
Huge forest area was cleared
the communities and the
beyond repair.
land
ecological
impact
was
There was no serious effort by the government
to introduce economic activities in tribal communities to make
them
self-sufficient
frustration
and
productive.
in the community and several
The
result
families
abandoned
their dwellings to migrate to urban area in search of work.
8.3
was
At
no stage of the planning process people were
informed
or consulted regarding the decisions which affected their
life
and future.
fear
The
lack of public participation generated
and distrust towards government and resettlement plan.
While
the
base,
poor
tribals were uprooted from their traditional
the benefits of the development went to rich farmers
in
residing
the command area.
The
entire
resettlement
operation
missed
the
human
dimension and planning failed to live up to the philosophy
welfare state propounded in the
Indian constitution.
84
of
CHAPTER 4
In this chapter the case study of Koel-Karo Hydroelectric
is presented where government could not acquire
Project
implementation faced by the state government of Bihar.
the end pinpoints some of the key
suoMAry at
the
problems
of the project and resettlement efforts and
history
of
The chapter discusses
growing public pressure.
to
due
land
The
which need
issues
to be resolved for a successful resettlement policy.
THE KOEL-KARO DAM
4:1:0
idea of tapping the waters of the rivers draining the
The
Nagpur plateau to generate electricity originated with
Chhota
the
carrying
out
investigations between 1959 and 1973 the project
was
up by the Bihar State Electricity Board along with
the
initial
drawn
in
Government
Bihar
the
1950's.
The
its execution.
project -
estimated to cost Rs.
25
lakhs for each day of delay -
a
44
metre
from
Village
respon-
the former being
Central Water and Power Commission,
sible for
After
390 crores plus Rs.
envisaged the construction of
high dam across the South Koel
where
it was to be diverted
River
to
the
at
Basia
adjacent
tributary valley of the North Karo through an approximately 35
kilometre
long transbasin canal.
Another 55 metre high
across the North Karo was to be built near Lohajimis
which
would
divert
the regulated discharge from
85
dam
Village,
the
Basia
IN D I
FIGURE 3
LOCATION OF KOEL-KARO HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT
Reservoir and the Karo River through a headrace tunnel
house
at
Lunpungkhel.
underground
power
underground
power house was to have an
into an
Lunpungkhel
The
of
installed capacity
Along with a smaller powerhouse at the end of
690 megawatts.
the transbasin canal at Raitoli, with an installed capacity of
the total capacity of the project was to be 710
20 megawatts,
megawatts.
The
Koel-Karo
hydroelectric
Project was to be a purely
to
project and no irrigation or other benefits were envisaged
The proposal to locate an exclusively hydro-
accrue from it.
electric project
coal
deposits
power
stations
handout
led
has
in the eastern region of
and
India with its large
of
the consequent preponderance
thermal
According to an
official
on the project the preponderance of thermal
stations
needs some comment.
to
operational difficulties not
optimal
for
only
utilization of thermal stations but also by way of reliability
quality of power supply,
and
the needed peaking power and stabilize
provide
grid.
after
was
the formulation of the project in 1973
acquired for campus development and approach
and survey work was initiated.
made
regional
the
(Report of the Bihar State Electricity Board, 1970).
Soon
land
and the Koel-Karo Project would
However,
some
roads
no real headway was
for more than seven years in the project,
and in 1980-81
the project was given over to the National Hydroelectric Power
Corporation
(NHPC)
The NHPC
for execution.
87
is
a
Central
enterprise formed
Government
The
aspects.
Koel-Karo
Project
promote,
and
all
its
and
the
fifth
was the
India,
-
(Register of Large
project undertaken by the NHPC.
largest Dams in
plan,
development of hydroelectric power in
the
organize
in 1975 to
1985).
spite of the absence of serious financial constraints
In
the Bihar State Government had no firm timetable for the KoelKaro Project when the State Electricity Board was in charge of
After the NHPC took over, a plan was drawn up
its execution.
to
dams
to
agitate
against
the
of
implementation
the
until certain issues affecting them were satisfactori-
project
seven years after the
after
project,
the
NHPC's taking over
4
the expenditure of an estimated Rs.
more, the project
opinion of
led to a situation
Subsequent developments have
ly resolved.
and
'Jan
formed an informal popular organization called the
Sangathan'
where
proposed
tribals who were to be displaced by the
the
after,
there-
Shortly
complete the project within seven years.
crores
is not only nowhere near completion -
or
in the
the general manager of the NHPC it is not even at a
standstill
but
possibility
of
completing
it within several decades and therefore should
be
sliding
back -
there
is
no
abandoned.
4:2:0
THE
The
publicity
PROJECT IMPACT
Koel-Karo
and
Project
has received a
lot
of
adverse
become the topic of a controversy not only
88
in
of
the state
level.
NHPC
The
the
until the State Government acquires land for
that
feels
the national
Bihar but also at
project and arranges for the relocation of the people affected
by
the NHPC which is merely an
the dams,
proceed further.
cannot
NHPC
of
manager
October 31,
On
for the
abandonment of the project.
located at
last
the campus in
has now been thinned out.
Torpa with little or no work to do,
will
is estimated that the area of submergence
it
acres with the total
about
being
the
advocated
(Mankodi, 1984).
three years and the large NHPC staff,
40,000
the general
1984,
Project
Koel-Karo
agency,
four crores rupees have been spent during the
Over
While
executing
land requirement
be
project
for the
50,000 acres18 even this estimate is subject
to
confirmation after ground level data collection.
It
families
would
be
affected.
revised to 6,000 families.
villages
3,500
was initially estimated by the NHPC that about
been
now
has
This estimate
The NHPC claims that ten to twelve
will be completely submerged.
other
to
According
estimates, seventy-five villages will be affected by the Basia
and
Reservoir
state
This
the
Reservoir.
Lohajimi
of uncertainty about the extent of the
Koel-Karo
indepth
fifteen to twenty by the
that
Project is due to the fact
(The
survey has yet been made.
impact
no
Statesman,
of
detailed
October
1984).
7,000 or 8,000 acres
about
Including
18.
25,000 acres of private land.
89
of
forests
and
The Director of Land Acquisition and Rehabilitation estithat
mates
the
10,000 to 15,000 families will be affected by
though this is only an approximation in the absence of a
dam,
survey.
proper
to give and where to find so much land -
land
much
mated 25,000 acres.
esti-
an
just
not
According to the Directorate,
but
but generous compensation has now been offered,
adequate
land and since forest
want
people
how
The main questions according to him are
land
released
be
cannot
easily anymore this creates a problem.
PROVISION FOR RESETTLEMENT
4:3:0
absence of a
the
In
Government
has
'Resettlement
1894
resorted to Land Acquisition Act of
the site for the project.
clear
State
the
Policy',
With rising opposition
to
the
Government has made several decisions to help oustees.
The only landless persons in the area are skilled workers
like blacksmiths or carpenters.
substantially.
vary
largest
In
The size of landholdings does
that
one village it was found
landholding was seventy-two acres,
the
whereas the smal-
lest one was one and a half acre.
The
between
compensation
8,000
for acquired land would
work
out
and 22,000 rupees per acre for 1982 cases
to
and
more for those cases where acquisition notification was issued
solatium on this has been raised from 15
later.
The
percent
in September 1984 with effect from April
90
1984.
to
30
The
compensation
formula
is worked out by capitalizing net annual
by
income with 50 percent cost of cultivation and multiplying
landless is very low or practically nil,
tion
of
that
the
relocatees could earn more from
of
deposits
propor-
Since the
15 percent plus the addition of solatium.
it was felt
bank
on
interest
compensation than they could by cultivating
the
(Mankodi, 1984).
land proposed to be acquired.
Among other facilities offered are reservations for shops
in
rural electrification,
anticipation of a commercial boom,
to start small
proposals
training
and technical
apart from the routine facilities made
facilities,
under the
industries,
available
Integrated Rural Development Program.
RESETTLEMENT AND PROBLEMS IN IMPLEMENTATION
4:4:0
There are,
however, outstanding problems that defy solu-
tion.
One pertains to the Sarnas or sacred groves of
forest
used for worship.
The Directorate is willing to pro-
vide alternative land sites and the cost of religious
involved,
but the Pahans19
definition,
class
cannot be shifted.
Secondly, it
19.
has
Religious
been
started at Basia,
leaders.
91
by
is impossible to
100 percent reservation
IV jobs and 75 percent reservation in class
for the displaced has been proposed.
Institute
rituals
consider that virgin forests,
meet the demand for new jobs, though a
in
virgin
An
Industrial
but none of
III
jobs
Training
the
100
(The
is at a standstill,
project
the
ironically because
last batch received a job,
students in the
October,
Statesman,
1984).
Since Koel-Karo
excess land above the
any
generate
not
for
displaced,
ac-
Thus the two basic demands
cording to the Maharashtra model.
of
limit
ceiling
land which can be acquired for the
irrigated
it will
is a purely hydroelectric project
cannot
land for land and adequate employment opportunities
It should be noted here that offers of opportunities
be met.
for employment are viewed suspiciously by the people.
or
years ago a promise had been made to
twenty
Fifteen
five
employ
tribals in the Heavy Engineering Corporation when
hundred
it
This, however, has not been
was set up at Hatia near Ranchi.
implemented yet.
PRESENT STATUS OF THE PROJECT
4:5:0
things stand,
as
Today,
NHPC,
munication gap.
local
leaders,
have
proved
The
of
commitment
to
with
negotiations
Their
representation.
employment
fulfill
point
The people's main problem is the lack of
compensation,
guarantee
and the people have
totally fruitless and are yet at the same
political
adequate
State Government,
though stretched for eight and one-half years,
where they started.
proper
is a. three-cornered com-
resolve the differences.
to
failed
there
main
proper resettlement,
in
the
the promise.
project,
and
are
demands
land for
land,
assurance
of
(India Today, April 1983).
92
project cannot start unless the State Government can
The
go
ahead
proper
assure
prepared
to
implementation of any agreement pertaining
to
with land acquisition.
The NHPC
is
resettlement between the State Government and the people.
It
is even prepared to do a sample demonstration resettlement
of
Lohajimi,
village each in the two dam sites al-Basia and
one
but since
it is unsure of continuing peoples' support
it
resettlement,
considers
for such
involve the waste of money without any possibility of
The
returns.
NHPC cannot buy private
unlike the State Government.
available
resettlement
Directorate of
from
may
this idea a poor risk which
assured
resettlement
land for
There is no local blue-print for
the
the
and
people,
State's
Land Acquisition and Resettlement.
According to the Director, the Directorate is also merely
an
implementing agency and the State Government also,
own,
cannot decide to scrap the project.
Grid
hence
Though
This is because the
the
is designed to provide peaking power to
project
which Bihar's share
of
it
is only 25 to
Government's
it
scrap the
own to
State
Government
of
abandoned because it
there
project.
implements
However,
Bihar that the project
it
the
and
decide.
State
decide
is felt by the
should
is a test case and if this project
will be national repurcussions and
will seek to stop projects everywhere in the country.
93
Eastern
percent,
policies and the State Government cannot
on its
implemented
30
is the Union Government which will have to
NHPC funds the Directorate,
on its
not
be
is not
people
4:6:0
SUMMARY
The Koel-Karo Project represents the state of affairs
in
policy.
A
resettlement
the absence of effective
India
in
stage
has come
where
unless
projects
development
large-scale
to implement
difficult
is
it
proper measures
to
taken
are
resettle affected community.
There
is no correct figure of the affected villages
and
The three departments of
the
with the government.
families
namely land acquisition,
government
different
three
in
incoherence
numbers
the
of
revenue and power,
affected
There
people.
government machinery which
have
reflects
is
in
dealing with the people.
Majority of the affected people are land holders and they
demand
land
for land.
not
The state government does
have
enough land to offer and compensation in cash is not acceptable
to
people because the compensation paid
the
Acquisition Act
market value.
of
Bihar
under
is based on the official price and not on
There
Land
the
is sizeable undeveloped land in the state
but government does not have any plans
to
develop
this land.
Public participation is not possible because
definite
resettlement plan with the government.
there is
There is no
concrete formula around which negotiation can begin.
94
no
There
not be
cratic
are several such projects in India today which can
implemented due to growing public pressure.
In
demo-
society development should take people into confidence
and planning should not make some people better off by
others worse off.
95
making
CHAPTER 5
THE SARDAD SAROVAR NARMADA PROJECT
Project
is
discussed along with its impact on people and environment.
It
this
In
the
describes
in
formulated
chapter the Sardar Sarovar Narmada
process by which resettlement policy is
the state of Gujarat.
The
being
water
interstate
(NWDT)
dispute and the role of Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal
award are presented to understand the recommended resettlement
The
measures.
World Bank has played a vital role by issuing
the guidelines for the Narmada oustees.
been
An attempt has
to compare the Ukai Project with the Narmada Project
made
examine the differences
The
implementation.
issues of
summary
at
procedure and
the end presents
the
key
resettlement planning in Gujarat.
THE NARMADA
5: 1:0
in resettlement policy,
to
DAM
The river Narmada rises from a holy tank in the midsts of
a
cluster of temples on the Amarkantak Plateau in the Shahdol
District of
the State of Madhya Pradesh.
fifth
longest river of
among
the
traverses
drains
states
is
It
India.
west flowing rivers of
up
to the sea,
The Narmada is
is,
however,
the
country.
a distance about
1,312
the
the longest
The
Km.,
river
and
an area of about 95,726 square kilometres in the three
of Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat,
largely untapped because of
and Maharashtra.
The river
interstate water disputes
96
and
NDIA
FIGURE 4
LOCATION OF SARDAR SAROVAR NARMADA PROJECT
about 32 MAF of water on an average flows
annually
into
the
sea from the river.
is one of the sacred rivers of
Narmada
of
number
Omkareshwar,
being
Mandleshwar,
Maheshwar
The river valley has developed
legend and history.
stimulus.
a rich cultural heritage with significant religious
With a sizeable tribal population of Bhils,
traditions and diversity,
rich
Gonds,
Bhilalas,
Rathwa, Vasava, and Nayka endowed with
Tadvi,
Kirs,
Korkus,
and
It is a mighty river with a special place in the
Garudeshwar.
country's
the impor-
religious shrines all along its course;
ones
tant
India, dotted by a
the valley reverberates
with
notes of fascinating folklore and folkmusic.
The
Sardar
Sarovar Narmada Project
It's magnitude in terms of
India.
is unique in
coverage, and
inputs of resources,
implication is enormous.
The
proposed
submergence
involving
of the dam,
upstream
distribution
The
155
meters
(511.5
high
feet)
of 370 square kilometres of
land
with a gross storage capacity of
system it would be nearly forty
in length.
eventually
taries,
is
area
about
Its main canal would be 4,538.6 km. long and at the
7.7 MAF.
metres
dam
450
command
will
kilo-
The Narmada River Basin Development Program
have
329 large dams on its
medium sized dams,
area
thousand
various
and 3,000 minor
of the project would
98
cover
tribu-
structures.
2.12
million
land with an annual
of cultivable
hectares
million
hectares.
Baroda,
1983).
The project
(Department of Botony,
proposed
M.S.
1.79
University
of
is also proposed to have two power houses
1)
and 2) a Canal Head Power House.
It
a River Bed Power House;
is
of
irrigation
Bed
to install six units of 200 MW in the River
and five units of 50 MW
in the Canal Head Power House.
Thus,
they have 1,200 MW and 250 MW installed capacity respectively.
A project of such magnitude would have profound impact on
the
both
human
and natural environment.
It
is
disturb the existing human and natural conditions,
it
would
to
bound
In
fact,
create a new eco-system which not only needs to
be
identified and understood but also managed.
THE PROJECT IMPACT
5:2:0
In
lies
outside Gajarat State.
in Gujarat
submerged
Maharashtra
Pradesh
area
the Sardar Sarovar Project most of the affected
will
State
be
itself,
Only nineteen villages will
be
whereas thirty-six villages
in
and 182 villages
submerged.
in the
State
All villages are
of
Madhya
situated
in
tribal areas.
The
of
nineteen villages in Gujarat
fall in Raipipla Taluka
Bharuch district and Naswadi and Chhota Udipur Talukas
Vadodara districts.
of
The total number of families affected in
99
90
According
is 3,222 covering a population of 16,000."
Gujarat
to the information collected,
2,780 families have cultivation
as their occupation while 542 families are engaged as agriculThus,
tural labourers.
the main economic activities in
the
labour.
The
submergence area are cultivation and agricultural
area under submergence is 7,469 hectares of which 1,877
total
hectares is private
land
the
and
land,
rest,
i.e.
1,869 hectares is government waste8,675 hectares
Talukawise details regarding the number of
land.
forest
is
villages,
popula-
tion, its occupational and ethnic distribution and submergence
area are given in the Tables 12,
13,
14,
and 15.
The total number of private houses affected is
to be 1,526.
About 61 Km. length of Cart-track is expected to
go under submergence.
submergence
estimated
Major public amenities affected due to
thir-
are school buildings and temples numbering
teen and six respectively.
Among the six temples, the temple
of Surpaneshwar is famous for pilgrimage.
5:3:0
INTERSTATE WATER DISPUTE AND TRIBUNAL AWARD
The
riparian
Central
dispute
states
over the right
to submerge an area
was referred to a tribunal21
Government
on October 6,
set up
1969 under the
in
the
by
the
Interstate
20.
Totally 13,000 families, 66,000 people from the states of
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh will be affected.
21.
Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal
(NWDT)
100
Table 12
ETHNIC GROUPS AFFECTED
T
Raj pipla
Tribal Groups
Tadvi
Rathwa
Dungri Ehil
Vasava
Nayka
Total.Schedule
Tribe
Source:
Gujarat,
560
647
55
35
6,590
835
1,823
873
166
8,033
1,012
1,242
10, 287
204
13
89
306
8,237
1,025
1,331
10,593
494
873
76
Table 13
LAND UNDER SUBMERGENCE
Department,
Government
of
(figures in Hectares)
T
Raj pipla
a
1 u
Naswadi
k
a
Chhota-Udipur
Total
1,616.92
167.78
92.85
1,877.55
1,616.92
167.78
92.85
1,877.55
49.60
1,069.38
1, 248. 86
7, 469. 69
Government land
Waste land
Forest land
at FLR
2,492.75
923.52
Total land under
submergence
5, 129. 45
1, 091. 30
Source:
Gujarat,
Total
275
682
Narmada
Development
October 1986.
Private land
Cultivable
Other
Total
k
a
Chhota-Udipur
6,590
Others
Total population
affected
a
1
u
Naswadi
1,019.78
Development
Narmada
October 1986.
Department,
101
Government
of
Table 14
VILLAGES COMING UNDER SUBMERGENCE IN GUJARAT
T
Raj pipla
k
a
u
a
1
Chhota-Udipur
Naswadi
Total
# of villages under
submergence
Partial
9
5
2
16
Full
2
-
1
3
Total
11
5
3
19
Source:
Gujarat,
Department,
Development
Narmada
October 1986.
Government
of
Table 15
POPULATION AFFECTED IN GUJARAT
T
Raipipla
u
a
1
Naswadi
k a
Chhota-Udipur
Total
# person affected
8,305
1,018
1,270
10,593
# families affected
2,410
308
604
3,322
Agriculturists
2,191
191
398
2,780
219
117
206
542
Landless
Development
Narmada
Source:
Gujarat, October 1986
Department,
102
Government
of
Water Disputes Act of 1956.
it
The Tribunal decided in 1972 that
the jurisdiction to give directions
had
to
Gujarat
for
resettlement of displaced persons.
Accordingly,
in
detailed directions regarding land acquistion, pay-
declared,
ment of compensation,
It
and resettlement were given to Gujarat.
was for the first time that mandatory guidelines for resetwere set up for a project
tlement
ment of Gujarat.
of
1978 when the Award of the Tribunal was
special
Several
interest.
govern-
features of the Tribunal's Award are
It defines an oustee not just
whose property would be submerged,
at
implemented by the
as
one
but as a person who, since
least one year prior to the publication of the notification
Section 4 of the Land Acquisition Act,
under
"has been orditrade,
narily residing or cultivating land or carrying on any
or calling or working for gain in the area likely
occupation,
to
be submerged permanently or temporarily."
of
oustee
includes landless labourers and others who would be
affected by submergence even
defining
This definition
the
if they do not own any land.
family of an oustee the Award
stipulates
every major son will be treated as a separate family.
In
that
(Joshi,
1983).
The
Tribunal
directed that Gujarat will
costs, charges, and expenses -
bear
all
the
including establishment charges
for the resettlement of oustees and oustee families from all
three affected states.
Gujarat was also directed to establish
villages in the command area of the Sardar Sarovar Project for
103
of
was to acquire necessary lands within two years
it
which
the decision of the Tribunal.
make available one year
Gujarat was also to acquire and
in advance of
irrigable
submergence,
lands and house sites for resettlement of oustee families from
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra who were willing to resettle
in
It was also directed to pay resettlement grants and
Gujarat.
grant-in-aid as per prescribed scales.
Every oustee family was to receive a house site measuring
free of cost.
60 feet by 90 feet,
Every resettlement site was
to
be linked to a main road and certain civic amenities
to
be provided for every group of oustee families
were
resettling
there.
One
the
of
most
important directives of
pertained to the allotment of agricultural
placed
holding
family
from
irrigable land to the extent
to
the
minimum
prescribed
of
price of the
free
of
was
Every
dis-
its
land
of
and was to be allotted,
of land acquired from it,
ceiling in the concerned
two hectares per family.
state22
Fifty percent
land was to be adjusted against the
payable to the oustee family as an
balance
land.
whom more than 25 percent
was acquired was entitle to,
Tribunal
the
subject
and
of
a
the
compensation
initial installment and the
to be recovered in twenty
yearly
installments,
interest.
22.
According to the Gujarat Agricultural Land Ceiling Act, a
acres
of
own 22 acres of irrigated land and 44
can
farmer
land.
unirrigated
104
Although
the
pertaining
directives of the Tribunals
to
rehabilitation stipulated what oustees from the Sardar Sarovar
were
Project
Gujarat,
the
Government
of
latter initially interpreted the directives
as
to
entitled
receive from
the
applying only to oustees from Madhya Pradesh and
the Tribunal was set up to adjudicate a dispute between
since
the
Accordingly,
states.
the
Maharashtra,
standards
for amenities to be provided
at
resettlement
projects
sites for the oustees of large and medium irrigation
in
the State,
who had not already availed themselves of
of the Government
June
of Gujarat,
re-
(Reso-
habilition facilities under project-specific policies.
lution
down
decisions were taken to lay
1979).
Though this resolution closely followed the directives of
Narmada
the
Disputes Tribunal Award
Water
definitions of "oustee"
in
resettlement
the
as
far
as
the
and the civic amenities to be provided
concerned,
were
villages
there
were
crucial differences between the Tribunal Award and the governresolution.
ment
adult
married
the
Firstly,
resolution considered
only
were
dif-
There
sons as separate families.
ferences in the conditions under which land was to be allotted
to oustee
to
families.
Accordingly,
joint
be considered as separate families for the purpose of
allotment
separate
of
agricultural
families
land,
according
even if
or
they
to the definition
Award.
which was adopted from the Tribunal
was
landholders were not
the
constituted
of
"family"
Secondly,
there
no commitment in the resolution to provide irrigable land
land
in the area benefitted by a
105
project.
The
housing
to be provided to oustees according to
sites
resolution
the
were also smaller than those prescribed in the Tribunal Award.
provided for housing plots of 3,267 sq. ft. to
oustee family,
agriculturist families and 2,178 sq.
families
in
per
latter prescribed plots of 5,400 square feet
the
Whereas
the resettlement
ft.
to nonagriculturist
sites.
There were other minor differences between the provisions
of
Award and the government
the
there
was
tanks
or
feasible
a
provision for the construction
village
and
not
ponds in
For
resolution.
resettlement
of
sites
for every five hundred oustee
example,
percolation
only
where
families
as
directed by the tribunal.
The resolution specified that revenue wasteland was to be
made available
in the first instance for resettlement.
Alter-
natively forest department wastelands and degraded forests
cultivable
land
within forests was to be made available
or
for
resettlement of oustees from irrigation projects.
5:4:0
LAND ACQUISITION AND PUBLIC RESPONSE
The
land,
government's
policy
regarding the
acquisition
of
payment of compensation and rehabilitation of displaced
persons, and its
implementation as of
1983, caused considerab-
le concern, which was reflected in the activities of organizations
among the oustees and other voluntary agencies,
106
probes
public demonstrations
around
the project site, and subsequent changes in the policy
itself.
by the judiciary and the press,
voluntary organizations became interested in the issue
Several
of
the government to change
surize
that
out
its policy.
joint
ones due to various reasons,
holdings
did
families
on
land.
Typically several families
of
size
the average
not reflect the extent of dependence of
five acres of alternative
oustee
depended
on
Making
at
land available only to
land-
registered in the records of rights would thus deprive
owners
a
the
landholdings tended to
every holding registered in the record of rights.
least
pointed
It was
the oustee population was totally dependent on
land for their survival, and that since
be
pres-
to
displacement of tribual oustees and sought
the
large number of oustee agricultural families of their
livelihood.
of
source
large number of
As a result of
the dependence
families on a limited base of privately
land among the oustees,
only
of
a
owned
there was a large-scale prevalence of
"unauthorized" cultivation of revenue department wasteland and
department land.
forest
Unless oustee
families dependent on
such "authorized" cultivation were sufficiently compensated to
enable
them to acquire alternative means of
they
livelihood,
would be pauperized.
The
the
oustees
acquired
was
in
practice of encouraging private purchase of land
from cash compensation given to them
land and houses also came in for
a considerable shrinking of
for
criticism.
by
their
There
landholdings due to increases
the price of available private land and rampant
107
exploita-
illiterate and unsophisticated oustees by sellers.
tion of
It
was therefore suggested by voluntary organizations that alter-
agriculturist
oustee
be maintained or
be
given
to
all
families as per the provisions
of
the
by the government and
if the standard of
Award,
Tribunal
to
purchased
or
acquired
should
oustees
which was acceptable to the
land
native
improved -
living of the oustees was
the
a principle to which
re-
habilitation program should be committed.
During 1984-85,
after a series of meetings, discussions,
requests and applications by the voluntary organizations artioustees cause had seemingly failed to bring about
culating the
any
changes in the governments rehabilitation policy and
by concerned officials,
implementation
sure
the government
1984 and January 15,
(on March 8,
(Times of
project office.
1985)
demonstations
public
in the first of which
India, 25 February,
the
1984).
RESETTLEMENT AND PROBLEMS OF IMPLEMENTATION
5:5:0
1985
During
oustees
a Special Leave Petition on behalf of
was admitted by the
this matter
in
been
Supreme Court
of
India.
some
While
is still sub judice, the Court appointed a commis-
May
1985 which was to
given
rehabilitation
whether
ascertain,
the land in their possession
of
dispossessed
have
by
the campaign to pres-
thousand protestors marched from the dam site to
several
sion
was intensified
its
any alternative
land
or
has been provided for them.
108
occupation
or
whether
The
tribals
suitable
Commission,
submitted its report
which
in July 1985,
alterna-
had been dispossessed of their land before receiving
Even
Vadgam,
the
alternative
purchase.
as the sellers of
has been made very difficult
land
better bargaining position than the buyers.
also
has
government
plight
some resettlement villages and found that
visited
"the
in
shown indifference and inefficiency"
allotment of alternative lands.
of
Commission
The
dispossessed.
the tribals who are being
are
Rates
land soar as sellers take advantage of the urgency and
of
had
cultivators
for
were trying to find suitable lands
themselves
a
of
them
land that some of
had been done on the initiative of the
purchased
This
real
no
that
It also found
compensation.
at resettlement had been done for the inhabitants
attempt
in
or
lands
tive
tribals
found that
Landless tribal oustees were
neither land for cultivation nor any other means
provided
livelihood;
lands and public amenities
grazing
were
of
either
and families and villages
or not provided at all,
inadequate
the
had been split due to partial acquisition of
land.
The Commission recommended, among other things, a uniform
application
oustees
of the Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal
of Gujarat as well;
wastelands and forest
oustees;
of social
effort,
villages;
Award
to
the regularization of government
lands which are
in the possession of the
special schemes for landless tribals;
the involvement
organizations in the resettlement and rehabilitation
the provision
and
the
of full
facilities
in
the
resettlement
formation of a special committee of volun-
tary field workers to monitor rehabilitation and
109
resettlement
of oustees for ten years.
of Gujarat).
Government
ROLE OF WORLD BANK
5:6:0
In
the commitment
laid
which
signed
IN RESETTLEMENT EFFORTS
March 1985 the World Bank approved the Sardor Sarovar
for
Project
agreement
and an
of funds,
down certain conditions
regard
with
was
to
lement.
resett
The
agreement
specified
the
that
provisions
Narmada
Water Dispute Tribunal Award would be
oustees
from
all the States,
that
stipulated
and
March 1986,
(Progress Report No.21,
including
applicable
ensure
after their displacement the oustees would
the standard of
to their displacement;
the
to
also
resettlement
the remaining objective of the
or at least regain,
units,
It
Gujarat.
rehabilitation plan for the oustees were to
promptly
of
that
improve,
living they enjoyed prior
that they would be relocated as village
village sections, or families in accordance with their
preferences;
community;
compensation
that they would be fully integrated with the host
and
that they would be provided with
and adequate social and physical
appropriate
rehabilitation
infrastructure.
The agreement stipulated that the resettlement plan would
ensure
adequate
reiterated
participation
by
the
oustees.
that each landed oustee was entitled to a
110
It
also
minimum
of
two hectares of
irrigable land and,
will be rehabilitated in the agricultural or
non-agricultural
sectors and shall be entitled to a stable means of
The
oustee
each landless
livelihood.
level of compensation payable to oustees was to be
on the current market value of
based
land of equivalent size,
loca-
tion,
and comparable quality in areas provided for and accep-
table
to each oustee.
landed
cash
Irrigable land was to be allocated to
oustees as per the Tribunal Award and in no case
were
payments to be made in substitution for actual resettle-
ment.
(Progress
Report
No.21,
March
1986
Government
of
Gujarat).
According to the conditions of the agreement Gujarat
to
make
institutional arrangements acceptable to
Bank for planning,
tlement
of
the
coordinating,
oustees.
the
was
World
and implementing the reset-
It was also
to
employ
suitable
research institutions for monitoring and evaluating the implementation
of
the plan for resettlement for a period
years commencing from 1985.
of
ten
Such institutions were to prepare
semi-annual and annual reports of their findings and recommendations.
the
Gujarat
was also to form an advisory committee for
implementation of the plan according to
guidelines
laid
down by the agreement.
As
a result of all these developments government
resolutions
policy
which
substantially changed
of Gujarat at
the
rehabilitation
least as far as the oustees from
Sarovar were concerned.
passed
Sardar
The first resolution pertained to the
ill
to those oustees of
Sardar
Project who were in possession of government
waste-
payment
ex-gratia
Saraovar
land.
land or forest
of
cultivators
of compensation
This government resolution granted that
privately
paid compensation at the same rate as that paid for
Furthermore, every adult cultivator of such land
owned land.
be allocated alternatively agricultural
to
was
as
area
same
had
constructed
compensation
five
paid
be
to
for the houses at the same rate at which it
was
land,
and
for dwellings constructed on privately owned
paid
a
to
Oustees
acres.
houses on such lands were
the
of
land
subject
that cultivated by the oustee,
minimum of three acres and a maximum of
who
be
land would
government wasteland or forest
they would be allowed to take the construction material of the
(Resolution of the Government of Gujarat, May 1985).
houses.
will be applicable to oustees of Sardar
Award
bunal
Tri-
government accepted that the provisions of the
The
Sarovar
from Gujarat as well, and reproduced the principles and objectives
of the resettlement and rehabilitation plan
lated
in the agreement with the World Bank.
the Government
of Gujarat,
November
Each oustee agricultural
was
entitled
to
the
government
government
stipu-
(Resolution
of
1985).
family was to be offered land it
at three different places
vested in the Revenue Department and the
of
as
of Gujarat,
from
Irrigation Department
and lands available
as a result of acquisition
112
lands
the
to
in the command area
the
of
Sarovar Project,
the S:ardar
Land Ceiling Act.
or under the Gujarat Agricultural
The offered
lands were to be transferred to
them to the extent acquired from them, subject to a minimum of
for
limit
hectares and the maximum prescribed in the ceiling
two
land in
agricultural
Gujarat.
lands offered to the oustee agricultural
families
were not acceptable to them or if they were unable to
suggest
the
If
alternative
any
purchase
help the oustee
would
government
to
lands that could be allotted
agricultural
the
them,
to
families
private land from the amount of compensation payable
There
to them through a committee appointed for the purpose.
was, however, no commitment to make available any minimum area
of
land to oustee agriculturists
if the purchase
of
private
lands was involved.
A
in
list of
seeking
schemes
employment
with
employment
All
mergence
was to be
prepared,
local officers implementing central
and rural
and tribal
co-
in
schemes
development.
the affected persons from the area going under
in the Sardar Sarovar Project
sub-
in Gujarat were to
entitled to these facilities for resettlement and
be
rehabilita-
government has also taken decisions that agricul-
tion.
The
turist
oustee families would be provided 75 percent
and
help
employment
and
for such oustee families were to be prepared
ordination
for
landless families who required government
landless oustee families would be provided 90
113
subsidy,
percent
-
and in some cases, 100 percent other occupations.
(Resolution of the Government
of Gujarat,
1986).
February,
RESETTLEMENT POLICY
5:7:0
families
The
Sarovar
of
subsidies for agriculture and
affected
to
Sardar
Narmada Project are to be resettled as per the
terms
The
major
Narmada Water Dispute Tribunal's
the
due
submergence
by
government
decisions
regarding
Award.
resettlement
of
displaced
people can be summarized as follows:
The affected families shall be persuaded
1.
to
settle
in Gujarat in large numbers because the NWDT award gives
down
them a
right to have agricultural
of
land in the command area
the Sardar Sarovar Project.
Totally 13,000 families, 66,000 people from the states of
Gujarat,
Gujarat.
Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh will be resettled in
It is a gigantic task and the success depends
upon
effectiveness of the implementation.
2.
who
own
In the command area, parts of the holdings of persons
land beyond a particular limit could be acquired
to
the extent possible and made available to the oustee families.
The affected
families
will
also
be
encouraged
directly.
114
to purchase
land
According to the Gujarat Agricultural
farmer
can
irrigated
Land Ceiling Act, a
own 44 acres of unirrigated land and 22 acres
There will be excess
land.
of
of
land after creation
the irrigation facilities which will be utilized for resettlement purposes.
3.
Displaced persons who are tenure
government
have
lessees
holders,
or owners of other property
whose
been acquired for the project will be given
A.
These grants
increased, considering the price rise.
Rehabilitation Grant -
i.
lands
rehabilita-
tion grant and grant-in-aid as indicated below.
will be
tenants,
Rs. 150 per month per family for:
Eighteen months where no land or uncultivated land is
made available.
ii.
Six months if cultivated land is made available.
This grant will be paid
for
in three
installments.
The date
the purpose of giving a rehabilitation grant would be the
date of dispossession of land of the displaced persons.
B.
Grant-in-aid.
i,
The grant-in-aid will cover the following:
Difference
placed
price
between the compensation which
family gets for the agriculture
it
land and
has to pay for the agriculture
will be allotted to the family.
115
the
land
disthe
that
Cost of transportation -
ii.
by the
reasonable
considered
minimum Rs. 200 or as may be
project
Resettlement
Officer.
adequate
Rehabilitation grant of Rs.150 per month is not
to
the
support
family,
resettlement when there
is no other source of
period
years before submergence.
three
By doing so they will get a period
three years for resettlement.
will
ceedings
be
depressed
Act
according to the Land Acquisition
for the last several years.
compensation
in
land
for
For
similar
land under submergence the price of
mined
not
the command area will be taken as the basis and
area.
deter-
The compensation of the residential buildings shall be
according to the provisions of the Land Acquisiton Act.
compensation amount will be credited to the bank
account
the oustees and they will be permitted to operate upon
for payment for the land and other incidental
only
sequential purposes.
to
of
the
calculating
price based on the transactions in the submergence
the
of
pro-
The land acquisition
The price of the land in the submergence area has been
1894.
The
of
income.
The compensation shall be given to the oustees
4.
of
especially in the early
dismantle
and
it
con-
The owner of the house will be permitted
it and take its material to the place where
he
wants to settle himself.
This is a good provision and people will have enough cash
amount
and time to arrange
for
their
resettlement.
116
who
There are many families in the affected villages
5.
have no assets and work as labourers.
These families will not
get any compensation under the provisions of the Land Acquisition
but keeping in view their contribution to
Act,
economy, they are also to be compensated.
nature
of
ex-gratia
an amount
granted
payment.
(Rs.
village
This will be in the
Every such
family
will
be
3,600 calculated on the basis of
1979
price structure) to keep the family above the poverty line and
help it
resettle
The
at
some other place.
ex-gratia payment of Rs.3600 to landless
not adequate to settle in a new place.
a
displaced
family
The first priority of
the
would be to build a house and
family
is
pre-
is not enough even to build a small shelter
scribed amount
of
mud and thatch.
6.
is
If 75 percent of the land of the holdings of a family
acquired
then family can offer the remaining
25
percent
also for acquisition.
In
the past,
acquisition of
not
many families have suffered due to partial
In Ukai Project several families
could
continue with agriculture as government acquired a
major
portion
land.
of their
calculated
This provision will definitely
help
families.
the affected
7.
land.
The
compensation
under the Land Acquistion Act
is
on the basis of the price prevalent on the day
of
117
of notification under Section 4 of the Act.
issue
The
land
acquisition
proceedings continue for years after issuance
notification
under Section 4 of the Act and there
an inter-
is
val of many years between the date of notification and
payment of compensation.
will
actual
Prices are rising every year and it
not be justified to pay compensation based on the
prevalent
on the date of issue of notification.
view
price
the
rise,
of
price
Keeping
the quantum of compensation
will
in
be
suitably increased.
In the absence of a set
formula,
there
is a
of subjectivity in determining compensation.
specific
possibility
There should be
guidelines on which compensation can be worked
out.
Moreover, there is no clarity as to how the difference between
official
value
8.
banks.
and market
Some
It
families
value will
be adjusted.
are indebted
to
co-operatives
is to be decided whether compensation
paid
after
loan
amount is deducted from the compensation,
deducting this debt.
families will be left with very
tlement.
Full
Both actions are,
amount
of
It
is evident that if
advanced
loans
will
the
oustee
little money for their
reset-
shall
to be kept separate.
be paid
to
families and no deduction shall be made for it.
have
be
these
therefore,
compensation
should
and
take
separate
recovery.
118
the
oustee
The banks who
action
for
its
9.
The
five stages looking to the size of the work.
will
The first stage
The
cover those villages which will first be submerged.
fifth stage will
to
into
land acquisition program would be divided
include those villages which will be the
last
be submerged.
10.
150
The oustee agriculturist families will be alloted
square
families
residential
metre
will get
plot
and
the
100 square metres plot free of
a
oustee
other
cost.
The
following civil amenities will be provided in the resettlement
site.
-
One primary school
families.
-
panchayat ghar-cum-community hall for every
One
hundred families.
-
One dispensary for every five hundred families.
-
One children's park
-
One seed store for every five hundred families.
-
drinking
One
hundred families.
-
One tree-platform for every five hundred families.
-
One tank for every five hundred families.
-
One
religious place
families.
-
Roads to connect main road.
-
Playground.
-
Cremation and burial ground.
-
Thrashing ground.
-
Open gutters.
-
Electricity,
(three rooms) for every one hundred
five
for every five hundred families.
water well with trough for
every
of worship for every one
119
five
hundred
-
Social
amenities for each municipal town viz..,
supply, sanitary arrangements, etc.
-
Cattle stand.
-
other facility (such as middle school) which
Any
existing
in the affected
village.
11.
The
oustee
families will carry
them
was
their
The new site will be selected
livestock to the new site.
such a way as to have sufficient pasture
for the
with
water
in
land and water supply
livestock.
The
government
will have to explore other
alternatives
such as developing barren and degraded or cultivable wasteland
because
there
is already a scarcity of pasture
land
in
the
region.
12.
The affected families of the submerged area will
given priority in employment in the project.
will
be made
necessary
Special efforts
to give employment to the educated
they
will be given training
also.
youths.
The
industries will also spring up as a result of
tion work.
allotment
Ancil-
construc-
The affected families will be given preference in
of shops and land.
of self-employment
getting
If
affected
families will be engaged in the new trade of business.
lary
be
loans
amongst
In
oustees,
order to promote the spirit
they will be assisted
from the commercial banks to purchase
in
trucks,
tractors, trollies, etc. and as far as possible these machines
will
be utilized on the project work.
120
well
The
not
clear where and when the training will be given and
what
There
or stipend will be offered to the trainee.
facilities
is
It
intended provision raises some doubts.
is no mention of placement service and the Ukai experience has
shown that tribals are reluctant to undergo training without a
definite employment plan.
13.
The project has the responsibility to transport
personal effects of the affected families,
arrange for trucks.
the
The project has to
The transport expenses shall be borne by
the project.
A
14.
lake will
huge
construction of the dam.
be taken up on a
of
result
the
Fisheries development programs will
large scale.
Many families will get employ-
Pisciculture will give
in this scheme,
ment
be formed as a
impetus to many
trades and industries.
The proposed scheme can be successful provided
and other infrastructure
along 150 Km.
make a
the
are created.
There are 750 families
river stretch downstream of Narmada River,
living out of catching hilsa fish.
Narmada
Dam will
interfere with hilsa migration and
ap-
These people
given priority in the reservoir pisciculture.
15.
equal
who
The construction of
proximately 2,000 people will become unemployed.
should be
marketing
area
For
all
will
forest areas submerged in the
be taken up
under
121
compensatory
project
an
forestry.
Wildlife
in
-submerged
forests will be
guided
to
adjacent
Protection of wildlife will be the responsibility
localities.
The project will bear the affores-
of the forest authorities.
tation costs.
The Forest Department will cut the forest in a
planned
Timber
way.
and
other wood will be
sufficient quantities in the submerged area.
of
ting
trees
stopped.
New
forest wood.
factories
have to be established
cut-
to
be
utilize
Oustee families of the submergence area will be
The forest cutting will result
a huge supply of timber and other wood.
at concessional rates.
in
The affected families
be given timber for house building at
places
Therefore
in
in the adjoining forest areas will have to
employed in new factories.
will
available
their
relocation
The affected families will be
given preference in supply of steel and cement.
16.
will
Trees standing within four metres depth of the
not be felled.
which cannot survive
lake
Only such species of trees shall be cut
in standing water and,
in this strip
of
four metres, cultivation will not be done even though it might
have been going on at present.
strip.
of the
This
arrangement is essential for preventing silting
lake.
17.
Some
portion
submergence and new rail
able
Trees will be planted in this
from
the
of the rail track
line is to be
present railway
laid.
line shall
122
is
coming
under
The land availbe
utilized
for
resettlement
of
If
the oustees.
this
land
is
not
fit
for
resettlement or cultivation, it may be used for afforestation.
18.
All religious places coming under submergence are to
be reconstructed.
to be kept
to
importance
the significance of a religious place
is not
a monument or building but to the place and
which
has
could
help identify other locations having similar
for
historic importance.
The
only
location
archaeological
survey
potential
development.
19.
in
are
in museums.
Often
due
Articles of archaeological
In order to ensure consistent
the resettlement program,
constituted
at
involvement of oustees
an Advisory Committee shall
the village and district levels.
The
be
state
government may constitute one Advisory Board at the government
level
to
assist
in
resettlement.
This provision has potential
pation.
at
to encourage public partici-
The religious leaders and voluntary agencies working
grassroot
level could plan an
people's coorperation.
important role
They should be given due
in mobilizing
representa-
tion in the village and district advisory committees.
20.
shall
be
Full exemption of registration fees and stamp
given
to oustee
families purchasing
command area.
123
land
in
duty
the
SARDAR SAROVAR NARMADA PROJECT V IS A
RESETTLEMENT:
5: 8: 0
VIS UKAI PROJECT
are
negligible,
some of
of detail,
There are many minor differences
which
but reveal progressive or regressive tenden-
cies in the evolving policy governing resettlement.
Transportation
case
of Ukai
Project,
Project.
Narmada
Though oustees of Narmada Project are
are adjusted,
grant
in the case of the former,
the
transporta-
Oustees of the Ukai Project could hire back unutilized
land
which
was acquired from them by paying
have
two
times
had to pay twelve times the revenue normally levied
On the other hand,
land.
the
levied, whereas at Narmada Project some of them
normal revenue
the
en-
transportation
is often insufficient to cover the cost of
tion.
the
unlike
the
is charged for in the case of
while it
titled to a rehabilitation grant against which
charges
in
to the relocation sites was free
for
oustees of Ukai had to pay for
housing plots received in the resettlement sites from the
compensation
Sarovar
received
by
them
whereas
oustees
are entitled to free housing plots,
which
of
Sardar
are
also
larger in area.
On
the other hand several major differences between
two resettlement programs stand out.
Resettlement at Ukai was
completely project specific and ad hoc, whereas it
better
planned,
more general,
the
is somewhat
and governed by more specific
directives in the case of Sardar Sarovar.
124
The former had
no
other
training, or guidance.
objectives
Award,
laid
mandated
The latter
by
is guided by clearly stated
the Narmada Water
the agreement with the World Bank,
down by the Government of
Dispute
Tribunal
and the guidelines
India for the rehabiliation of
tribals displaced by developmental projects.
tion
was
aptitude,
by project bureaucracy with no special
implemented
and
besides the relocation of oustees
objectives
Also implementa-
is to be carried out by an administrative machinary which
is specifically set up for the purpose and better prepared
to
perform the task.
While
over
16,000
families
were
displaced
by
Ukai
Project,
it received no publicity or the benefit of any social
science
expertise during the implementation of the
ment program.
resettle-
The non-governmental or voluntary organizations
involved in working with the oustees of Ukai Project adopted a
basically
collaborationist
government's task.
two
facilitated
affected,
of displacement and resettlement have received
publicity and have been the subject of extensive
working
tationist
the
In the case of Narmada Project though only
science survey research.
in
and
or three thousand families in Gujarat are
problems
wide
attitude
The voluntary organizations
with the oustees have often
adopted
a
very
social
involved
confron-
stance and have scrutinized the resettlement policy
of the government and its implementation more effectively.
mentioned
the
earlier,
the interstate problems arising from
As
the
construction of Ukai Dam were also solved easily and amicably,
whereas those arising from the construction of Narmada Dam had
125
to
Dispute Water
Interstates
Tribunal
by the setting up of a
resolved
be
Act,
1956.
land,
Resettlement of oustees from Ukai Dam was on forest
It was therefore possible to achieve genuine communal
of
tion
affected
of the Forest
because
Narmada
in the case of
(Conservation) Act
and marginally on government wasteland.
lands
of
Project
passed in 1980,
the
on
private
As a
result,
of oustees to date has been largely
resettlement
reloca-
unavailability
Due to the
villages.
land for resettlement
forest
the
time.
could be easily released for the purpose at that
which
the
under
resettlement has tended to scatter the oustee
population
over a fairly large area so far.
SUMMARY
5:9:0
The
of water resource development in
history
project
tious
same
Sardar Sarovar Narmada Project
landmark in
ambi-
This
India.
has raised nationwide controversy but
the
at
the
time has done pioneering work in formulating resettlement
several
The
policy.
government,
reveal
resettlement
less,
tlement
the
sions.
grant
decisions,
resolutions of
The allotment of
state
land to the
land-
in the command area of the project, reset-
ot the affected families,
market value are some of the
It
the
a positive attitude of the administration
towards affected people.
per
is a
cash compensation as
laudable
policy
is too early to say how the policy will be
126
deciimple-
mented
to
it
as
is
of
the responsibility
settle 68,000 people from two other
Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra,
states
There
resettlement
opportunities
has
policy
is
silent
It
for the displaced people.
the
So far,
economic
government
employment
genera-
work but over and above that there should be
development
Government
suit
land
is assumed that many people will be absorbed in the
construction
economic
namely
is enormous.
about
not come up with a definite plan for
tion.
also,
is a scarcity of
and the task to find land for the resettlement
The
government
the Gujarat
the
fishery,,
needs
strategy to sustain the
to explore other developmental
lifestyle of the people,
integrated
industries.
village
rural development,
cottage
India, so far,
government
assumed that their task was over once
and
amenities were provided in the resettled
other
to
forestry,
crafts and
In all the resettlement schemes in
life.
options
such as social
an
house
site
village.
But resettlement begins only after this stage when people find
meaningful
become
work,
employment to regain their
good
policies fail if not
The commission appointed
implemented
stated
out the
Project,
India
cate-
that the government had shown
indifference
in
plan.
This
limitations of government machinery to
handle
inefficiency
brings
properly.
in 1985 by the Supreme Court of
evaluate the resettlement work of Narmada
gorically
and
and
self-sufficient.
Often
to
confidence
implementing
resettlement
this complex task.
127
It
can
is obvious that
be achieved without
not
in
tunately,
enough
the
people's
Narmada Project,
As a result,
there
Unfor-
government has not
made
planning
is fear and a feeling of uncer-
the minds of people about the
in
magnitude
cooperation.
effort to bring people to participate in the
process.
tainty
resettlement work of such a
intentions
of
the
government,
The
lessons learned from other projects in
India,
e.g.
Koel-Karo, suggest that development can not take place without
people's cooperation and people will not cooperate unless they
find their new settlement promising for their future.
128
CHAPTER 6
FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In
this
practice in
from
the
being
for
chapter the major findings of the
India are discussed at
three case studies,
implemented in
a
India,
recommendations
The lessons drawn
and other projects
which
are used to formulate the
resettlement policy.
represents
length.
resettlement
The second part of the
for a resettlement
are
basis
chapter
policy
under
four aspects, viz, the major policy choices, the major options
for
resettlement plan,
ministrative
the development options and
mechanism to implement
chapter
ends
with
conclusion
resettlement
and
the
policy.
suggestions
for
adThe
future
research.
6:1:0
1.
MAJOR FINDINGS
Antiquated Land Acquisition Act -
The
Land
Acquisition Act,
British
Government
today.
The Act
and
1894 was passed by the
the same
is
made
enforceable
then
even
is not specially meant for acquiring land for
large-scale development works such as
is applicable also for all types of
the country.
1894
irrigation and dams,
'public purpose' all
it
over
The act does not go beyond prescribing compensa-
tion to legally entitled private property owners.
129
There are problems in the Act of determining compensation
based
on the official value which is always undervalued.
In
it was found that people resisted
the
three case studies
all
social and economic issues.
in
length
Chapter
Acquisition Act -
2.
land has
too
often
Land
of
'Problems
1894',
land is given in lieu of acquired land, the area
In the Ukai Project
small to be economical.
maximum land offered to the people was only four
old village,
the
acres
of
land
for
offer
to
land.
because
effort
people are
In Koel-Karo Project,
excess
is finding it difficult to resettle 68,000
land
in command area
is limited,
and
the
ten
demanding
In the Narmada
all the affected people.
is
But
acres.
many families cultivated more than
land but government does not have
government
3.
at
Inadequate Land
Where
in
several
raised
These problems are discussed
under the heading
II
acquisition
land
delay in the
partial acquisition of
and
process
The
strategy.
compensation
there
land
to
Project,
people
is
no
so far to look for other alternatives.
Underestimation of the Number of Displaced Persons
It
is commonly observed that the administration does not
have a correct number of affected people,
proper
three
survey
and data collection.
In
due to the lack
Koel-Karo
project,
concerned departments state three different figures
130
of
of
In the proposed Tehri
affected families.
between 20,000 and 30,000 people will be dis-
Pradesh,
Uttar
Dam in the state of
placed,
according to the project authorities.
sources
assert
placed
(Dogra, 1982).
the Bedti Project
in
the
5,193
people
had to be evacuated
incoherence
is
organization at state
departments
government
does
different
coor-
not
be affected
have an exact
figure
even today the
as
to
how
many
by the dam.
Lack Of Public Participation
The
ment
1981).
resettlement
At present there are
the case of Koel-Karo Project,
In
will
level.
a
of
actually
Sharma
(Sharma and
due to the absence
Karna-
taking decisions on their own without much
dination.
families
in the state of
estimated number of oustee was 1,500 but
taka,
4.
dis-
be
that as many as 70,000 persons will
Similarly,
This
However, local
study of various development projects and
resettle-
procedures indicate that people were hardly consulted in
making vital decisions affecting their life and
government
officers,
while
selecting
the site
The
future.
for
a
new
village, never consulted the people or a village head and as a
result the people often refused to move to the new place.
Amenities provided in the resettlement villages are often
not
The priest and religious
as per the wish of the people.
131
the village have great influence over the people
heads of
their
often
accept
not
did
made
provision
the
is proof enough where
the government offer because
for
people
was
there
forests
the availability of virgin
worship and other rituals
In
resettlement
neglect has resulted in failure of
The Koel-Karo Project
schemes.
and
no
for
in the resettlement sites.
Ukai Project as well as in the
Project,
Narmada
government has not made any effort to bring people to particiin the planning process.
pate
of
uncertainty
and
This has resulted in feelings
fear in the minds
of
regarding
people
government's intentions.
5.
Anomaly In Distribution Of Project Benefits
Dams are generally constructed in tribal areas.
It
has
been noticed that while the head works of development projects
are situated in tribal region, poor people
irrigation
the
the
and power benefits are usually availed of
low country where tribal population
In
Narmada
government
area.
lose their land but
Project,
to give
in
is in a minority.
the Tribunal Award
compelled
has
land to the affected families
in
command
Whereas in Ukai Project there was no such provision at
the time of displacement to provide people with an alternative
piece of
land in the benefitted area.
132
6.
Approach To Resettlement
Piecemeal
is evident
It
from the Ukai Dam that the government never
had a comprehensive resettlement policy, and numerous isolated
resolutions passed by the different departments of the governa
over
ment
period
of
five
years
reveal
piecemeal
the
character of resettlement procedure.
the
in
Even
Sardad Sarovar
Narmeda
Gujarat
Project,
provi-
government was reluctant to offer several resettlement
to the oustees of their own state but succumbed to
sions
people's pressure as the protest was building up.
of
the
In the case
the same disjointed approach is seen and it
Koel-Karo,
obvious that people can get more concession,
is
if they unite and
stand adamant.
7.
Resettlement Planning Without Developmental
resettlement planning in
The
social
India does not
Government
alternative
new
assumes
that their task
is
resettled
over
once
house sites and certain amenities are provided in
village.
construction
Usually many people get employed
work of the project,
but that
sustain the development of the community.
tlement
incorporate
and economical development strategy for the
people.
the
Inputs
is not enough
The aim of
should be to make people economically
self-sufficient
133
the
to
reset-
productive
so that they develop confidence and
the brunt of evacuation.
in
and
overcome
the case of Ukai Project there were no
In
enhance the standards of living.
to
inputs
developmental
Instead
people
became poor and were forced to abandon their village in search
except
jobs
offering
on
plan
there was no other
In Koel-Karo Project too,
of work.
site
the project
and
government
The Narmada resettlement plan is equally silent
organization.
about the development aspects for the displaced community.
8.
Interstate Dispute
entirely different set of problems arise as a
An
of
disputes
regard
the
to
projects.
affected
between
governments of
Such problems are frequent
by
such
projects quite
in
often
with
states
different
benefits
distribution of the
result
and
costs
of
India since the areas
different
straddle
states,
The
the
thirteen year delay and the resulting escalation
costs of
the Narmada Project due to a dispute
states of Gujarat,
is a case
in point.
was
between the
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan
The resettlement of oustees from the Pong
Dam in the state of Himachal Pradesh,
area
in
in the Rajasthan
also marred by a dispute between the two
states about the number of families to be resettled.
1:34
Canal
concerned
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESETTLEMENT POLICY
6:2:0
The three case studies,
taken so far in
measures
In spite of the fact that
Indian constitution,
the
in
place
have been given a special
people
tribal
resettlement
the
India are not comprehensive and face
implementation.
problems of
several
Koel-Karo, and
Ukai Dam,
Sarovar Narmada Project reveal that
Sardad
the
viz.,
the national government has not yet seen
to their needs.
the Indian National Congress,
When
of tribal development,
cause
the
the champion of
party
became the ruling
after
independence, special provisions were made in the constitution
for
development.
their
today,
The Tribal Policy,
as it
apart from the constitutional provisions,
tribution
of
advocated
five
the
late
prime
Jawaharlal
minister
known as the
principles
is
known
is the conNehru.
He
panchshil"
"tribal
which are as follows:
1)
genius
People should develop along the lines of
their
own
on
them.
We
we should avoid imposing anything
and
should try to encourage their own traditional arts and culture
in every way.
2)
Tribal
rights
in
land
and
preserved.
135
forests
should
be
their
We should try to train and build up a team of
3)
own people to do the work of administration and development.
whelm them with a
work
of schemes.
multiplicity
and not
through
We should
their own social
in rivalry with,
We should judge results,
5)
of money spent,
but
not by statistics
the
or
by the quality of human character
Though questions regarding the so called
progressiveness
time,
these principles have been raised from time to
land
and forests should be
of the
resettlement
national
the
the
principle very clearly says that the rights of tribals
second
in
and
is evolved. (Singh, 1980).
that
of
rather
institutions.
cultural
amount
over-
should not over administer these areas or
We
4)
policy.
objective
development,
vironment
of
tribals
has to
be
in
with this
line
Such a policy of resettlement
giving them an appropriate
reenacting
and giving some
policy
Any
preserved.
for
larger
at
must aim
in
share
the
new settlements within their own enland to all oustees,
even
to
the
landless, with assurance of employment.
The
The
gests
first
proposed
resettlement policy has
four
three deal with the major policy choices and
different possibilities for resettlement.
component
components.
recommends major options for making land
for resettlement,
the third proposes
136
The
sugsecond
available
alternative development
for resettled community.
plans
an
creating
administrative
for
recommendations
The fourth
organizational
mechanism
at
aims
and
policy
implement
to
structure
gives
component
effectively.
6:2:1 MAJOR POLICY CHOICES
is given equal opportunity and
community
of
range
displaced
to ensure that every section of the
order
In
should be offered
choices
to
fair
treatment,
major
Some
them.
a
choices are given below:
1.
Resettlement Plus Full Cash Compensation
equivalent
placed
includes payment of full cash
policy
This
compensation
the market price of the property to
to
plus a government financed resettlement
plan
the
dis-
without
any additional cost to the displaced.
In
offered
the case of Narmada project this choice has now
to
the
people.
compensated for their land,
be given a house plot,
resettlement
Project
was
this
grant
in
Under this policy people
will
been
be
house, or other property and will
a miminim of four acres of land, and a
the new site.
In the
case
of
Ukai
scheme was implemented but the compensation paid
not according to the market price and
agricultural
offered in the new location was of inferior quality.
137
land
Hence it
became
difficult
for people to support their joint
which had cultivated large tracts of
2.
Resettlement Only
This
families
land in the old village.
(Land for Land)
land in
choice offers specified amounts of
govern-
ment planned resettlement areas without any cash payment.
it has poten-
This scheme has not been tried in India but
to succeed if the land offered
tial
irrigation potential,
is very fertile
has
and
e.g. giving land in the command area of
the project,
3.
Cash Compensation With Partial Assistance
choice
This
the
price
market
includes full payment of cash equivalent
to
assistance
in
of the property plus
resettling the displaced.
housing grants,
from
training programs,
some
The nature of assistance can range
simple transportation
interest free
loans,
facilities,
job
and other incentives
to the displaced.
This
people
policy
implemented
in
Ukai
Project
refused to resettle in the new
who
assistance
was
to
job training.
site
where
many
were
given
resettle themselves by giving loan/grants
and
But the scheme did not work since there was no
placement service along with the training.
Eventually people
preferred to migrate to urban areas to find a job.
138
Moreover,
the compensation
hence
price
enough
to
themselves elsewhere.
Cash Compensation Only
This
to
to the market
whatever cash money people received was not
reestablish
4.
offered was not according
the
policy involves paying cash compensation equivalent
market price without any extra responsibility
on
the
government.
In the Ukai Project,
some
reason
generosity
did
there were several families who for
not wish to accept
in resettling them.
government's
Out of
help
16,080 families
and
dis-
placed by the project, approximately 2,000 families moved away
on
their
own after accepting compensation.
compensation
The
amount
of
was not adequate as it ranged between Rs.450
to
Rs.670 only.
In
the
willingness
case of Narmada Project,
to
government
has
shown
help such families by increasing the rate
of
compensation.
6:2:2
MAJOR OPTIONS FOR RESETTLEMENT PLAN
The above mentioned policy choices have two major facets,
viz.,
resettlement and compensation
in cash.
If resettlement
is accepted by the people then it raises other policy
139
options
as
to
how to resettle community.
There are
basically
two
models:
In
is in a new place
1)
Resettle the entire community as it
and
2)
break the community into smaller groups and
them with existing villages,
resettle
both cases new settlement must be designed with great care
to reflect the people's life style,
community
Both
needs.
In
availability.
the
cultural
tradition,
the models have constraints of
government
Ukai Project the
and
land
cleared
forests to resettle people but this option is now closed after
the new forest act of
for
resettlement
1982 which prohibits clearing of forests
purposes.
possible to find land in the
1.
resettlement
it
is
following ways.
land
can
be
use
for
irrigation facilities
and
reclaimed and upgraded
to
purposes.
Cultivable Wasteland
Generally such land is without
has
fact,
Barren and Degraded Land Classified as Forest
Such
2.
In light of this
high
provided,
potential for agriculture if the
such as ordinary wells
or tube
140
infrastructure
wells.
is
Cultivable
3.
Irrigated Land
In
the
Land Rendered Excess Under Ceiling Rules
state
Ceiling Act, a
of Gujarat under
irrigated land.
state
it
facilities,
acquire
4.
land and
This ceiling varies from state to
is certain that after creation
there
Land
of
irrigation
will be surplus land which government
can
for the purpose of resettlement.
Periodically Exposed Banks of Reservoir
Such
land
is fertile and mostly alluvial because of
vicinity to the waterbody,
and it
gourds etc.
a
its
is very productive for cash
crops such as vegetables, certain fruits
such
Agricultural
farmer can own 44 acres of unirrigated
22 acres of
but
the
for
like melons, pumpkin,
which are popular with tribal communities.
land can be put to agricultural use before
and
Hence
after
the monsoon season.
5.
Land
in
the Vicinity of Rivers or Rivulates
Suffered Gully Erosion
This
in
This
land can be put to use for cash crops as
the earlier case after reclamation.
sentially
Which
consist
of embankments to
has been tried successfully
discussed
Reclamation will esstop
further
in the state of
and has potential for success elsewhere.
141
has
erosion.
Maharashtra
6.
Saline Land Along the Seashore
are
There
India.
of
states
salinate the
land near the sea.
making, etc. can be
7.
littoral
the
Considerable efforts are going on to
as
de-
poten-
This proposition has
other developmental schemes such
as
tial
large tracts of saline land in
salt
fishery,
implemented along with a settlement.
Land Near Man-made Reservoirs
Government
always
acquires
large tracts of
for safety purposes and normally such land is
reservoirs
Displaced people should be
put to agricultural use.
not
granted
which will easily
and priority to cultivate this land,
right
near
land
yield two crops in a year.
THE DEVELOPMENTAL OPTIONS
6:2:3
most
The
important aspect of resettlement
in
become
self-sufficient
and productive.
given above for resettlement are accepted,
the
engage
they
guidelines
it should be
posstan-
living and social services as well as positive action
reverse
option
If
to develop options which lead to improvements in
dards of
to
to
economic activities after relocation so that
people
sible
is
the process of environmental
degradation.
would need careful planning and trial
Such
implementation.
The options given below are recommended as preliminary suggestions on the basis of which it should be possible for a compe-
142
tent
agency to
work out pilot
projects.
they
If successful,
can eventually serve as demonstration centers.
The
develop-
ment options which satisfy the conditions may include:
-
Social
-
Land reclamation
-
Integrated agricultural
-
Crafts and cottage
-
Job training and creating employment opportunities
-
Reservoir
1.
foresty
development
industries
development.
Social Forestry
Social
forestry
programs have mainly three
components:
farm forestry encouraging farmers to plant trees on their
farms
by distributing free or subsidized seedlings;
planted
by
the Forest Department for the needs of
munity especially along roadsides,
public
ties
lands,
canal
on community
woodlots
the
com-
banks and other such
and community woodlots planted by the
themselves
own
lands to be shared
communi-
equally
by
them.
In
million
are
Gujarat,
it is estimated that out of the total
hectares of forest
lands,
in a degraded condition.
hectares are
forests are
nearly
1 million
Of these at least
in urgent need of reforestation.
hectares
0.64 million
These one time
in the vicinity of settlements and if these
143
1.95
lands
available to people's organizations for
made
are
reforesta-
tion,
a tremendous employment potential can be created.
would
require
enjoy
heritable
backup
rights,
extension
enrichment
of
ment
would go a
forestry
necessary
the
long way towards
forest land was cleared for resettle-
loss of forest cover the
the
government
until
program
economic activities.
1982
This resulted
lost
its
initiate
any
land
did not
engage
to
people
in
in poverty and eventually
in forests were forced
who once preferred to dwell
people
to
the environment.
Besides,
fertility.
social
it
services
due to the
but
and with the provision of
Project the
In Ukai
them
policy changes to enable
appropriate
This
to
migrate to urban areas as labourers.
2.
Land reclamation
Over 100
million hectares of
the total area of
is
land or nearly 25 percent of
India is barren and uncultivable.
either heavily eroded,
Such land
with scarcely any soil cover left,
or saline and incapable of supporting much vegetation.
such
land
is unfit for
immediate resettlement
of
While
displaced
people and can not easily support economically viable forestry
operations,
gineering.
funds
Given
brigade
it
offers
a
challenge
sufficiently
of
environmental
en-
This challenge can be met by diverting sufficient
support reclamation efforts
to
to
planters
by
displaced
people.
a
small
mobile
can be set up whose task
would
be
attractive
incentives
144
to
unusable land and
otherwise
reclaim
a
maintain
vegetation
cover on it.
In the state of Gujarat,
for instance,
there is a
large
between firm land and the sea which is now total waste.
tract
This vast
tract of land can,
in the future,
be converted into
sweet
land by planting mangroves and shrubs which will grow in
salt
mud
so
that the general level of
land
can
be
raised
gradually with accumulation of silt and vegetation waste.
denuded hill slopes can be converted with hard
Similarly
can
which
species
thrive on
ground.
rocky
Land
in
the
vicinity of rivers and rivulates which has suffered from gully
can be terraced and levelled,
erosion
nomically useful species of trees.
and covered with
eco-
In arid and saline areas,
drought resistent and salinity tolerant species can be planted
in blocks.
3.
Integrated Agricultural Development
This
grains,
would
include,
besides
vegetables and cash crops,
the cultivation
of
food
horticulture, apiculture,
sericulture,
animal husbandry, and dairy and poultry farming.
Three
of
tions.
types
land may be found suitable for
Of these, one -
of rivers -
these
opera-
namely the periodically exposed banks
is already used frequently for the cultivation
melons, vegetables and other seasonal crops.
145
of
Another
profitable
should
command
implemented.
land
area
after irrigation and these should
should
in
be
of
every
of
holdings
the
strictly
The excess land acquired in the command area can
be redistributed among the displaced people.
the
excess
Appropriate legislative measures
prevent the dilution of
area
a certain
available in the command area
become
to
taken
is land rendered
on unirrigated land,
irrigation project.
be
development
and
Given much lower ceiling on irrigated land
compared to that
land
land that can be used for intensive
agricultural
irrigation.
due to
as
type of
Thirdly, land on
banks of rivers and rivulates which needs special protec-
tion from erosion should be used for orchards.and other
types
of permanent and productive vegetation cover.
Among
would
be
extra
inputs that may be provided for this
lift irrigation,
facilities for cold
model
and
storage
packing, transportation, credit, and training.
4.
Crafts and Cottage
Tribal
dams
and
should
engaged
art
Industries
in India is unique but with
irrigation it
be
in
is losing its
construction
potential,
given to the resettlement of artisans
cottage
industries so that
activities in the relocated site.
special
grants
promote
sales.
and
they
Attention
and
people
continue
their
They should be also offered
other marketing facilities
Usually
of
in
middlemen exploit tribals
146
order
by
to
pur-
Government should form cooperatives
profit.
great
with
the Ukai Project there was no special effort made
In
the government to conserve tribal art and crafts.
artisans,
several
was
infrastructure
marketing
no
generous
migrated
in the new settlement,
to
and
facility
loan
made
which
Job Training and Creating Employment Opportunities
Construction of any large-scale project
changes in the ecology of the region.
lose considerable
Construction activities will generate employment poten-
land.
tial
is bound to bring
Occurance of submersib-
le area will affect the landholders who will
in government and non-government
fected
tribals
lished
masses may find opportunities for
employment.
require training for different kinds of
near
provide
equiping
training
them
carpenters,
The
to
the
to take up
bulldozer
Often
skilled,
the site so that people can attend the
program without much difficulty.
af-
sectors where such
semi-skilled works and training institutions should be
etc.
their
lose their traditional avocation.
people
5.
There
areas.
labourers or
by
As a result
either changed
after resettlement,
and became agricultural
activities
to
interest of tribal artisans,
safeguard the
urban
them
reselling
their goods at very cheap prices and
chasing
estabtraining
Attempts should be made
rural
youth with
jobs
like
a
welders,
and tractor operators,
view
to
towards
blacksmiths,
truck drivers,
government should also assist them in setting
147
or
up
small-scale
commercial
and industrial
enterprises.
Employment
should
be
family
to insulate the family from forces tending
it.
In
first
sent
provided to at
order to
be
least
ensure this,
one member
the members of the
put on the rolls of the project and
for required training.
jobs
in
other
the
displaced
to
uproot
family should
if
necessary,
If all displaced families cannot
be accommodated within the project,
find
of
projects
efforts should be
as
well
as
in
made to
the
state
governments.
In the Ukai Project, government arranged for the training
facilities
because
the
but
of
the program was not
successful
mainly
the meagre stipend of Rs.30 per month offered
particpants.
after
very
Besides,
the training.
the people.
The
there was no
placement
to
service
government failed to offer jobs to
The result was frustration among the tribals and
eventually they preferred to become agricultural
labourers.
The proposed Narmada Project would generate employment of
sizeable
workers
dimensions.
with
fifteen years,
It
is estimated
that
around
28,000
all kinds of skills will be needed in the
but government has not
initiated any
program so far to help the displaced tribal community.
148
next
training
Reservoir Development
6.
the
tremendous potential of man-made reservoirs for
The
development of pisciculture is already known, and to a greater
or lesser extent,
improving storage,
by
facilities
packing and transportation
opening up more opportunities for the affected population
and
in
This should be reinforced
already tapped.
every aspect
trans-
potential for the development of water borne
The
port
of marketing.
and communication network
impact of
the
and
is equally promising
prac-
communication development on the entire area,
tically on every sector of economic activities can be substanin tourism,
growing interest
With
tial.
reservoir and
the
area around can be also developed for recreational activities.
This
could
open various economic opportunities for the
dis-
placed people.
the
In
explored
at
possibilities
Ukai
Project,
reservoir
all but government of Gujarat
of
pisciculture
and
was
not
exploring
the
development
is
navigation
Narmada
for
Project.
COMPARING ALTERNATIVES
6:2:4
The
main
aim of the alternatives proposed above
is
to
point to the possibility of combining a humane solution to the
problem
of forced relocation with a new strategy of
149
land
use
on
economic
long run.
development which will be more fruitful
in
the
Though a detailed comparison of cost effectiveness
must await operationalization of these alternatives, it may be
safely asserted that such alternatives will not only cost less
but
yield
many more
In
tangible
benefits.
order to operationalize alternative plans,
the
fol-
lowing aspects should be carefully considered.
1) Detailed sectoral plans for designing activity packets
for groups of
generally
different sizes.
While
away from sectoral planning to spatially and
tionally integrated area planning, it
of
the trend in planning is
is necessary
forced relocation to devise sectoral plans
in the case
for
groups, without losing an integral perspective.
func-
different
The packet of
activities must be capable of enriching the environment, being
self-sustaining
as
far
as possible,
and suited
exhaustive
and detailed
list
for
given
geographical zones.
2)
An
is
required
of
available
locations in each geographic zone which need urgent
attention
and
described
earlier.
efforts
can stand to benefit from schemes
This
would
also
include
can be made to counteract the impact
conversion
of
land to nonagricultural
reservoirs and their catchment areas.
150
uses,
of
like
those
areas
where
large-scale
e.g.,
man-made
3)
Performance characteristics and cost-benefit analysis
This would include employment poten-
the sectoral plans.
of
capital required, gestation period, social service com-
tial,
Ideally the plans should have
ponent and production targets.
a
high employment
potential,
rela-
low capital requirements,
relatively
tively short gestation period,
service
low social
needs, and high productivity.
The cornerstone of the resettlement policy should be that
not
towards environmental
use must be geared
land
degradation.
L4
Further,
but
di!Eruption
4ai;
growth with justice.
should not cause
lead to an
Hence
arrests set
strategy
it
use of
enrichment
social
use
optimum
and
or
promoting
it follows that the new land
use
land and promotes a more flexible
use.
6:2:5
POLICY
ADMINISTRATIVE
MECHANISM
The Land Acquisition Act
TO
of 1894
to deal with the problems of resettlement.
sive
IMPLEMENT
RESETTLEMENT
is itself not sufficient
Hence a comprehen-
resettlement policy should be formed at
national
level
which must be uniformally applied all over the nation.
There
level
states.
to
should
be a central organization at the
supervise and guide resettlement works
national
of
The organization should evaluate resettlement
151
various
works
from
time to
time and bring necessary modification
in
policy
implementation.
At
present,
department
such
the
resettlement
of the concerned state.
as the "Directorate
affected by
A separate
of Resettlement"
district
council where,
level there should
besides government
from the affected villages,
agencies
involved
settlement,
tion,
revenue
organization
must be created
at
of
resettlement
a
resettlement
This
in development
be
officials,
selected
participate
the
large-scale development works.
the
leaders.
by
to deal with the problems
level
state
At
handled
is
members must be
communities,
works,
and
voluntary
other
social
would be an advisory council and members will
in decision-making related to the choice
land acquisition,
allotment
design of the new village, etc.
of new land,
of
new
compensa-
The prime task of this
council will be to initiate negotiation among concerned groups
to sort out the differences.
Often
people have grievances against compensation,
acquisition and land allotment.
It will take a
they resort to the standard Judiciary.
long time
plaintiff
up
This will
the process and save time and money on the part
and government.
152
if
Instead, there should
be a separate tribunal to look after such problems.
speed
land
of
The District Resettlement Council should follow the
fol-
lowing process to implement resettlement policy effectively.
1.
Planning
Resettlement
officer should carry out a detailed
survey
of the affected people and villages in the project area.
The
people,
Koel-Karo project is a case of gross injustice to the
as there
is no correct number of affected people.
survey should be conducted by the Directorate of
and advance planning must be
communities
view
should
not as individuals,
Project report for resettlement of
be prepared well in advance,
their present socio-economic status,
anthropology
Resettlement
initiated such that the displaced
people are resettled as much as possible,
but as a community.
The
of perspective development,
keeping
cultural
and
local
in
profile,
their
present
skills.
Based
on this study the options/alternatives
planned
for
benefit
study
compensating
decisionmaking.
affected
should
The
the community.
be made at
this
A
stage
should
detailed
to
be
costfacilitate
entire planning process should
involve
people from the very beginning so that they
develop
faith in resettlement process.
153
2.
Communication
People
should
be communicated with
own rights.
with
sions
of their
Hence there should be open meetings and
discus-
the
of
legalities
affected people to educate
the Land Acquisition Act and resettlement plan.
them to get their feedback.
These
religious
presented
Traditional ethnic and
mobilization of group resources and cooperation.
tion,
of communication will take considerable time and
process
to
it should be implemented
but
fort
involvecommunica-
in planning relocation in order to facilitate
ment
Plan-
leaders are usually respected by the people.
and administrators whenver possible seek their
ners
to
inputs should be taken into
while preparing final plans.
account
the
about
them
options prepared by the planners should be
The
resettlement
Often people are ignorant
from time to time,
plans
about
achieve
This
ef-
satisfactory
results.
3.
Implementation
The
District Resettlement Council should be
implementing the resettlement plan.
in charge of
The Council should
draw
expertise from anthropologists, administrators, architects and
planners,
menting
the
and voluntary agencies and social workers in implethe program.
The people should be kept
implementation procedure
entire
and the
informed of
options
open
to
dispute at this stage should be resolved with the
them.
Any
help of
the Resettlement Council.
154
4.
Evaluation and Monitoring
should be continuous evaluation of
There
the
resettled
community and corrections should be made if people do not feel
comfortable
with
monitoring
are
for
useful
other
6:3:0
new
set
should continue for a
resettled.
very
their
up.
The
evaluation
long time even after
people
The study and experience gained here will be
in the future while designing resettlement
plans
projects.
CONCLUSION
India
tries of
has the dubious distinction,
the world,
among all the
coun-
of having displaced the highest number of
people due to the construction of man-made reservoirs.
absence of a compendium of exact figures,
say exactly how many.
from
and
However,
it
In the
is difficult
it has been established that
only ten selected river valley development projects,
estimated
910,000
persons have been displaced
The magnitude of
independence era.
population
can be
Several
tion,
glaring
the
an
post
forced relocations of the
major
in the country.
features involving the relocation of the popula-
besides its scale, call for attention.
of these
administrative
in
imagined considering that over 1,500
dams are being built
to
is the
machinery
forced resettlement.
One of the most
inadequacy of the State's
to
handle the
problems
legal
posed
and
by
Though man-made reservoirs are only one
155
one
it
of forced relocation,
cause
is one of the
industries, docks,
others like the planned location of mines,
airports,
testing zones,
or
firing ranges
power plants,
thermal
or
weapons
urban
and
new roads and railways,
have meant the uprooting
and commercial development,
housing
Many
environmental activitists, and journalists.
scientists,
atomic
social
from
it has received increasing attention
since
discussed
most
of settled populations.
resettlement
Generally
governments,
most
satisfaction
of
resettlement,
or
solutions
policies are created by the state
policy
disDam
Ukai
In the case of the
populations.
consisted of about twenty different re-
decisions made by various
state government over a period of
five to six years.
the
of
departments
Similar-
this process
ly in the Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada,
is
the
often as knee-jerk reactions to
being repeated.
In the absence
tlement,
too
little
this pattern of state governments offering too
late until they are forced to make further concessions
by which time it
is too late again -
is no public pressure,
there
is
population
too
for example,
to
little.
-
when the affected
are
backward or where there
and has been able to -
-
Where
is bound to go on.
with sufficient concern and clout,
groups
able
of a comprehensive policy governing reset-
no
outside
government may
get away by
offering
be
very
Consequently our efforts should not be exclusively to
156
we
build up local pressures for contingent concessions,
at
the
same
time
strive
to evolve
a
policy
must
which
will
eliminate the need for repeatedly building up local pressures.
Another feature which is common to resetttlement programs
throughout
the country is the insufficient emphasis
on
pro-
viding alternative economic opportunities to the oustees.
It
is assumed that once acquired assets have been compensated for
and
alternative
housing sites and social services have
been
provided, the state's duty toward the displaced is done.
Though civic amenities and social services are
the
tendency
economic
question
to favour them to the
opportunities
of
can
of
not be allowed to
what the oustees will
fundamental
neglect
do after
important,
alternative
go
on.
displacement
The
is
of
importance, and it should be tackled systematical-
ly.
There
problems
been
is
done so far
executed
Project
need to
people
by the social
in
study
India.
scientists,
and
document
Very little
now being
settlement
implemented,
the
work has
planners and
to evaluate the resettlement schemes
after the independence.
is
the
urgent
of resettled
ministrators
of
an
which
adare
The Sardar Sarovar Narmada
and the
lessons,
planning will be of great
future.
157
experiences
value
in
the
nation has reached a stage where development can not
The
The
Koel-Karo
not the only project where people have
struggled
take place without the cooperation of people.
is
Project
for
justice,
the repercussions are being felt
but
places in the country.
are
stranded
at
Many
at
many
large-scale development projects
the moment as the national
government
has
failed to evolve a satisfactory resettlement policy.
It
is imminent then that a change in the legislative
and
framework as well as the administrative apparatus is a
policy
must
for
improving the state of affairs.
done
is
to
evolve
an alternative
What needs
framework
policies and to press for its adoption.
It
of
to
laws
be
and
is equally neces-
sary to create the means for utilizing available expertise for
better training and orientation of the cadre of administrators
who handle resettlement progams throughout the country.
158
APPENDIX
I
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRIBAL PEOPLE
The
typically
term
"Tribal
with stable,
people" refers here to
low-energy,
ethnic
groups
sustained-yield economic
systems, as exemplified by hunter-gatherers, shifting or semipermanent
farmers,
herders,
or fishermen.
They exhibit
in
varying degrees many of the following characteristics:
(a)
(b)
geographically isolated or semi-isolated;
unacculturated
or only partially acculturated into
the
societal norms of the dominant society;
(c)
nonmonetized,
largely
for
economic
system;
or
only partially
subsistence,
and
monetized
independent of
the
production
national
(d)
ethnically distinct from the national society;
(e)
nonliterate and without a written language;
(f)
linguistically distinct from the wider society;
(g)
identifying closely with one particular territory;
159
(h)
having
an economic lifestyle
largely dependent
on
the
specific natural environment;
(i)
indigenous
possessing
national representation,
individuals
or
participate
but
leadership,
partly
collectively,
because
they
do
not
and
(j)
having loose tenure over their traditional
for
the most part
which
lands,
is not accepted by the dominant society
its
by
no
and few, if any, political rights as
in the political process;
accommodated
or
little
courts;
and
having
weak
or
enforcement
even when tribal areas have
capabilities against encroachers,
been delineated.
Partly as a
people
services
do
not
result of these characteristics,
receive
particurally health,
-
services
-
reinforces
national
all the
or
communication,
normally available to other citizens.
tribal
people's
low national status
most tribal
social
local
and education
This
and
lack
limits
their capacity for change and adaptation to new circumstances.
Experience
adopted,
helped
ciaries
tribal
has shown that,
people
likely to
by development projects that are
be
harmed
intended for
are
than
benefi-
whenever
tribal
the design of projects should
include
other than themselves.
people may be affected,
measures
are more
unless special measures
Therefore,
or components necessary to safeguard their interests
160
and,
project
will
feasible,
whenever
Sound
planning and design reduce the risk that tribal people
suffer
from the project's consequences or
implementation.
opportunities
the
to enhance their well-being.
More
positively,
tribal people
to the wider society,
disrupt
may
its
offer
especially by increasing
national society's knowledge of proven adaptation to
and
utilization of fragile and marginal environments.
Source:
World Bank (1982), Tribal People and Economic Developments,
Human Ecologic Consideration,
Washington D.C.,
World Bank.
161
APPENDIX
II
GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION DATED MAY 1979
Land acquisition of area going
under submergence of Sardar
Sarovar and rehabilitation
of displaced persons.
Government of Guj arat
Narmada Development Department
Resolution No.RHB-1085-C
Sachivalaya, Gandhinager.
Dated the 1st November, 1985
Read:
G.R.No.Misc.
RES-1078-Amenities/Part-III/K-5,
dt.
11-6-1979
PREAMBLE
The
Narmada Water Disputes Tribunal,
States,
party
acquisition
issued directions regarding submergence,
and
rehabilitation
Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
of
Resolution
dated
facilities
at
major
medium
11th
displaced
Taking
directions, the Government of Gujarat
and
after hearing
persons
The
from
orders under the
above
for
New places of resettlement to the
Projects.
land
into account the said
issued
June 1979 noted
the
Narmada
granting
oustees
Water
of
Disputes
Tribunal has entrusted supervisory function over the construction of Sardar Sarovar Project to the Sardar Sarovar Construction
Advisory Committee.
The Narmada Control
Authority
also required to look after the acquisition of the
under
tlement
lands going
sumbergence compensation and rehabilitation and
of oustees.
Moreover,
the Sardar Sarovar
162
is
reset-
(Narmada)
and on 10th
assistance
was posed to the World Bank for
Project
May 1985 an agreement with the World Bank has also been signed
Sarovar
obtaining assistance for the execution of Sardar
for
Dam and Power House Works.
tion
have
in
been discussed
the Narmada
Control
Authority,
with
Sarovar Construction Advisory Committee and
Sardar
World
The issues relating to rehabilita-
They have recommended that the facili-
Bank Missions.
ties to be extended to the oustees of Sardar Sarovar
Project
from Gujarat
in its agreement
of
pursuant
Maharashtra
to
the
to the
The World
Bank
inter-alia provided that the oustees
from the State of Gujarat, the State of
State
(Narmada)
should be the same as are extended
oustees from Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
has also
the
Madhya Pradesh and the
shall be relocated
provisions of the
and
rehabilitated
Water
Narmada
Disputes
Tribunal and to the following principles and objectives:
1.
The
main
of the plan
objectives
Rehabilitation
of
the
for
Oustees are to
resettlement
and
ensure
the
that
oustees shall, promptly after their displacement:
or at
least regain the standard
(i)
improve
they
were enjoying prior
to their
relocated as village units,
displacement;
village sections or
in accordance with the Oustee's preference;
integrated
and
(iv)
in
including
(iii)
the community to which they are
be provided with appropriate
adquate social
of
living
(ii)
be
families
be fully
resettled
compensation
and
and physical rehabilitation infrastructure,
community services and facilities.
163
2.
The
plan
for
Oustees
Resettlement
shall
ensure
and
Rehabilitation
adequate
participation
of
the
by
the
Oustees.
3.
Each
landed
Oustee
shall be entitled
irrigable land in the State
tle,
of
equal
to
and
in which he chooses to
acceptable to him;
provided however,
rigable
be entitled to at
land,
that
in those cases
paragraph,
the
land,
least 2 hectares
acceptable to him.
his
land ceiling laws,
where the Oustee owned less than 2 hectares of
shall
reset-
size to that which he owned prior to
resettlement, subject to the applicable
Oustee
allotted
such
of
Ir-
For purposes of
term "State" means individually
this
Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
4.
Each
landless Oustee shall be rehabilitated in the
cultural or non-agricultural sectors,
and
shall
agri-
as the case may be,
be entitled to stable means of
livelihood
in
accordance with the objectives set forth hereinabove.
5.
The
level of
wise,
to
compensation for land,
irrigable and
other-
be paid to landed Oustees shall be based on the
current market value of land of equivalent size,
location
and comparable quality in areas provided for and acceptable to
6.
Where
lieu
each oustee.
irrigable land is allocated to a landed
of
land previously owned by such Oustee,
164
Oustee
in
50% of the
shall
is entitled
compensation to which such Oustee
cash
be applied towards the cost of the allocated land, subject
to a
maximum of the value of the
balance of the cost of such allotted
by
allotted,
land,
land shall be treated
the State where the allotted land is
located,
interest-free loan repayable over 20 years.
of
paragraph,
this
and the
as
an
For purposes
"State" means individually
Gujarat,
Madhaya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
7.
In no case shall cash payments be made
actual rehabilitation.
in substitution for
Cash payments shall be restricted
to such to such transactions as mandated by the Decision.
Taking
into consideration the aforesaid,
the Government
of Gujarat resolves as under:
RESOLUTION
Government
private
lands
Rehabilitation
submergence
is pleased to resolve that acquisition of
the
going under submergence of Sardar Sarovar
and
of the displaced persons as a result
of
such
from the area in Gujarat shall be governed by the
following directions:
165
1.
DEFINITIONS
a)
"Land".
The expression
meaning as defined
after
referred
'land'
to
includes
attached
to
attached
to
the
benefits
earth
"Oustees".
at
have
the Land Acquisition Act,
as the Act)
the
shall
which states
or permanently
fastened
same
(herein-
expression
land
and
to
things
anything
An 'oustee' shall mean any person
least one year prior to the date of
publication
notification under Section 4 of the Act,
arily
1894
"the
to arise out of
the
the earth".
(b)
since
in
"land"
of
has been ordin-
residing or cultivating land or carrying on any
occupation
who
trade,
or calling or working for gain in the area
likely
to be submerged permanently or temporarily.
(c)
"Family"
(i) A family shall include
husband,
and minor children and other persons dependent on the head
the family,
e.g.
widowed mother
(ii)
wife
of
Every major son will be
treated as a separate family.
II.
LANDS WHICH ARE TO BE COMPULSORILY ACQUIRED
(a)
All
the
situated below FRL and all
Project
lands within Gujarat
138.68 mts.
of private
(455 ft.)
of Sardar
ownership
Sarovar
interests therein shall be acquired for Sardar Sarovar
under
the
provisions of the Land
166
Acquisition
Act,
1894.
If on the basis aforesaid,
tiguous
75% or more
land of a con-
holding of any person is required to be
acquired,
compulsorily
such person shall have option to compel
compulsory
acquisition of the entire contiguous holding.
(b)
All buildings with their appurtenant land
FRL +
between
ft.)
(S460
resulting
acquired
138.68 mtrs.
as also those affected by the back
MWL +
for
140.21
mtrs.
water
effect
also
be
Sardar Sarovar Project under the provisions
of
from
140.21 mtrs.
the Land Acquisition Act,
III.
(455 fts) and MWL +
situated
(460 ft.)
shall
1894.
GRANTS AND AMENTITIES
The
following
grants and amenities will be provided
to
the oustees:
(a)
Resettlement Grants
of Rs.750/- per family
resettlement
(b)
(Rehabilitation Grant) -
A
inclusive of transportation charges
grant.
Grant-in-aid.
Where total
compensation
is received
Grant-in-aid
Above Rs.2000/-
Nil
Between Rs.2000/- and
Rs. 500/-
Rs.500/- less an amount
equal to 1/3 of the
compensation in excess
of Rs.500/-
Less than Rs.
500/-
Rs.
550/-
167
sum
as
(c)
rooms)
100 families
Primary school
2.
One panchayat Ghar for every 500 families
3.
One dispensary for every 500
4.
One seed store
5.
One Children's park for every 500 families
6.
One village pond for every 500 families.
7.
Drinking water well
8.
colony shaould be linked to main road by roads
Each
of appropriate standard.
9.
One platform for every 50 families
families
for every 500 families
with through for every 50 families
Every oustee family shall be entitled to and allotted
x
i.e.
a plot of land measuring 18.29
a house sit.
27.43
m
(60' x 90) free of cost.
In
addition, a
roads,
Governprovision of 30% additional area for
ment buildings,
open space etc.
shall be made under
civic
amenties.
ALLOTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS
Every
land
(3
for
1.
10.
IV.
Civic amenities:
displaced
family from whom more than 25%
holding is acquired (hereinafter referred to
agricultural
family)
shall
be entitled to and
as
be
irrigable land to the extent of land acquired from it
to
its
oustee
allotted
subject
the prescribed ceiling the the Gujarat State and a minimum
of 2 hectares
(5 acres) per family.
This land shall be trans-
ferred to the oustee agricultural family
it.
of
Of
if
it agrees to
take
the price to be paid for the land a sum equal to 50%
of the compensation payable to the oustee agricultural
168
family
the
for
land acquired from it will be set off as an
installment of
shall
be
ments,
free
payment.
The balance cost of the allotted land
recovered from the allottee in 20
of
Each
initial
yearly
install-
interest.
oustee agricultural family shall be
offered
lands
entitled to it at three different places from the lands vested
in
the Revenue Department and in the
the
Government of Gujarat,
Govt.
Act
of
Gujarat
lands available
to
of
Project.
acquisition
in
the
command
of
Sardar
ticable according to the provisions,
less
as
a
Sarovar
For the said purpose, the acquisition in the command
the Sardar Sarovar Project will be made,
having
the
under the Gujarat Agricultural Land Ceiling
and from the scattered lands that may be available
result
of
from the
Irrigation Department of
rashtra
lines of Part
prac-
which will be worked out
regard to the size of holding and,
similar on the
as far as
it will be more or
II Schedule A of the
Maha-
Resettlement of Project Displaced Persons Act,
1976.
Moreover,
complete
Government
for
details of the lands available
allotment to the oustee
with
agricultural
the
family
will be maintained in the office of the Rehabilitation Officer
at
Kevadia
suggest the
In
the affected agricultural
family
may
also
lands acceptable to him for allotment.
all
acceptable
oustee
and
the cases where offer of
to
the oustee agricultural
agricultural
lands by Government
family
family is able to select
169
or
is
where
the
lands from
the
lands
available with the Government the extent of
land to
be
transferred to it shall be the extent of land acquired from it
subject
to
the
prescribed
ceiling
in
Gujarat
State
and
a
minimum of 2 hectares per oustee agricultural family.
V.
PURCHASE OF PRIVATE LAND BY OUSTEE AGRICULTURAL FAMILY
In
case,
agricultural
not
however,
the
lands offered to
the
affected
family are not acceptable to it and it
is
also
in a position to suggest any alternative land that may be
allotted
to
it after examining the details with
the
Govern-
ment, the Government would help those affected oustee agricultural
families in purchase of private
land from the amount of
compensation payable to them through a Committee appointed
the Government
VI.
the
compensation payable under the Land Acquisition Act,
for the acquisition of
market
land going under submergence and
value of the land of equal size
prescribed
Act),
for the said purpose.
EX-GRATIA PAYMENT
The
1894,
ceiling
(subject
under Gujarat Agricultural
Land
to
land
is
purchased by the
oustee
of
case
land
by case basis and the difference
so purchased and the amount
170
of
the
agricultural
family through committee specified in paragraphs V.
examined
the
Ceiling
location and comparable quality in the areas where
agricultural
price
by
if
shall
be
any,
in
compensation
shall
be
gratia
payment.
VII.
paid to
the
oustee agricultural
family
as
an
ex-
REHABILITATION OF LANDLESS FAMILIES
The Director, Resettlement, Narmada Project, will prepare
a
list
of
seeking
ployment
landless families who require Government
employment.
after
National
Rural
He would prepare schemes and offer
laying
ordination with local
down modalities
for the same
in
Programme
(IRDP)
(NREP),
Integrated
under
emco-
Rural
& Tribal Area Sub-plan.
VIII.
ADJUSTMENT
NECESSARY FOR OUSTEES OF
SARDAR
PROJECT REHABILITATED PRIOR TO ISSUE OF THESE ORDERS
All
in
officers implementing programmes such as
Employment
Development Programme
help
SAROVAR
the affected persons from the area in Gujarat
going
submergence of Sardar Sarovar rehabilitated so far will
also be entitled to the aforesaid rehabilitation and resettlement facilities.
the
orders dt.
Any entitlement
11th June
in view of the difference in
1979 and these orders shall be
im-
mediately made available to oustees.
The
dated
issues
21-10-85
with the concurrence of
obtained
on this
Finance
department
number.
171
file
Department
of
even
By order and
in the name of the Governor of Gujarat.
T. V. Krishnamurthay
Secretary to the Government
Narmada Development Department
172
APPENDIX
III
GOVERNMENT RESOLUTION DATED MAY
1985
Ex-gratia payment to oustees
who are unauthorisedly
cultivating Revenue Kharaba
lands/Forest land going under
submergence in Sardar Sarovar
Government of Guj arat
Narmada Development Department
Resolution No.RHB-NMD-7082-48-K-5
Sachivalaya, Gandhinager.
Dated the 30th May, 1985
A question of making ex-gratia payment to oustees unauthorisedly cultivating Government waste
land and forest
land and
who have unauthorisedly constructed houses on Government waste
land
as
Sardar
well
as on forest land going under
submergence
Sarovar was under the consideration of Government
in
for
some time.
RESOLUTION
After
careful consideration Government has
resolved
as
under:
Those
Government
oustees
waste
who
are
unauthorisedly
cultivating
land/forest land going under submergence
in
Sardar Sarovar on the date on which notification under Section
4
of Land Acquisition Act has been issued for acquisition
private
lands going under submergence of Sardar Sarovar.
173
of
(a)
They
will be given ex-gratia payment for the
unauthorisedly
compensation
cultivated
is
at
the
rate
land
at
being
which
being paid for acquisition
of
the
private
lands;
(b)
they
of
will
land
acres
be offered land for cultivation to the
being
and
married
cultivated subject to minimum
maximum of five acres
son
and
for
will be alloted if
of
every
he
is
extent
three
individual
willing
to
accept.
2.
Moreover,
Government
full
waste
value of
payment
in case of houses constructed unauthorisedly on
land/Forest land the oustees shall be
the building as
compensation
or
per
will
valuation.
be
made
paid
However,
for
the
no
land
unauthorisedly occupied by them for construction of the house.
They
will
be allowed to take away
dismantled
materials
of
their houses.
3.
This
Department
issues
and
with
the
concurrence
Revenue Department dated
respectively on this department
of
15.5.85
the
and
Finance
6.2.85
file of even number.
By order and in the name of the Governor of Gujarat.
I.M. Shah
Secretary (Construction & Coordination)
Narmada Development Department
174
APPENDIX
IV
GOVERNMENT
RESOLUTTON DATED
FEBRUARY
198e
Fixation of subsidy norms for
resettlement
and development
schemes for Sardar Sarovar
oustees.
Government of Gujarat
Narmada Development Department
Resolution No.MISC-1086 (3)C
Sachivalaya, Gandhinager.
Dt.21.2.1986
RESOLUTION
The rehabilitation of oustees of Sardar Sarovar
is
to
be done as per the provisions of the Resolution
1.11.85.
raise
(Narmada)
dated
In order to enable the oustee families to regain or
their standard of economic living following their
tlement
Government
of Gujarat intends to
cover
set-
them
under
various productive schemes such as Agriculture, Cottage
Indus-
tries,
Minor
Development
oustees
Irrigation,
etc.
loan
They are also not able to repay the
revised
the
to
installment
In
most of the tribal oustees remain deprived
benefits of these schemes.
Government
of
hence they do not come forward
because of their weak economic conditions.
circumstances,
the
It has been experienced that most
are poor tribals,
obtain loan.
of
Animal Husbandry, Fisheries, Forest
the
of
After careful consideration,
therefore felt that unless norms of subsidy are not
on higher side,
tribal oustees cannot take
After
careful consideration Government therefore
grant
special
assistances
to the tribal oustees
175
benefit.
decided
of
to
Sardar
Sarevar
Project
who are eligible to get
50%
subsidy
under
tribal areas subplan scheme as follows:
1.
Maximum
75% subsidy to agricultural tribal oustee family
of Sardar Sarovar Project,
subject to maximum of Rs.5000
per
family.
2.
Maximum 90% subsidy to landless tribal
individual
tribals,
cases
where
10%
contribution
oustee family,
is
not
in
paid
by
then 100% subsidy.
The assistance will be paid by the Director, Resettlement
and Development after individual verification of the cases.
This
Financial
issues
with concurrence of Special
Adviser
(Narmada)
on this
Department
Secretary
file
of
and
even
No. dated 14.2.1986.
By order and in the name of the Governor of Gujarat.
Narmada
176
K. G. Vansara
Section Officer
Development Project
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