AN INSTITUTIONAL'ANALYSIS
OF
THE ARCHITECTURAL PROFESSION AND PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY:
THE DISCOVERY OF HIDDEN BARRIERS
by
MICHAEL FURLONG
I',
B.Sc.(Arch. ),
McGill University, Montreal
(1974)
B.Arch., McGill University, M ontreal
(1976)
.SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREES OF
MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE IN ADVANCED STUDIES
AND
MASTER OF CITY PLANNING
AT THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
MAY 1979
@
1979
Michael Furlong,
Signature of author ...
....
I
.t-....
.%v.g j...
V.....
tecture,
.Depar ment of Arc
.Department of Urban Studieg and Planning, May 1979
,Certified by
......
vy0..-.-
Thomas E.
Accepted by
....................................
Nutt-Powell, Thesis Supervisor
................................................
.Julian Beinart, Chairman, Department Committee
Accepted by
......
. ...
.....
.Rlaph Gaenheimer, Chairman, Department Committee
ARCHIVE.
MASSACHUSETTS
OF TECHNOLG
OCT 9
ITU
1979
LIBBAIES
AN INSTITUTIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE ARCHITECTUPAL PR)FESSION
AND PASSIVE SOLAR ENERGY: THE DISCOVERY OF HIDDEN BARRIERS
by
MICHAEL FURTONG
Suhnitted to the Department of Architecture and to the
Department of Urban Studies and Planning on May 21, 1979, in
partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degrees of
Master of Architecture in Advanced Studies
and
Master of City Planning
ABSTRACT
This study is an examination of the institutional arena within
which the architectural profession reacts with the rest of society, and
a search for the reason why a technology as economically and functionally
successful as 'passive' solar energy has not yet been integrated into the
pattern of society.
Much of the support for solar energy has made use of the same
'Active', however, is basically
approaches for both 'active' and 'passive'.
an engineering solution which can be incorporated into the routine of design
with relatively little impact on the role of the architect. It is essentially
a replacement technology, where one mechanical system is used in place of
another.
'Passive', on the other hand, is so integral to architectural design
that it cannot be left to a professional expert whose field is external to
architecture. Rather than being a replacement technology, it inplies a
radical restructuring of the responsibility, and therefore of the role, of
the architect, because it calls for a technical conand which is foreigr to
many.
An analysis of the profession as an institution which contributes to
the meaning of the cultural environment suggests that the acceptance of this
responsibility by the architect has a profound impact on the qualifications
needed to practice, on the 'image' of the architect, and on the place of the
architect in society.
Because these impacts are so strong in the case of 'passive', and so
minimal in the case of 'active', it is unlikely that any program directed at
the removal of barriers to active will have the same, or indeed any, effect
on 'passive.
2
Certain changes in the approaches of existing programs will help
in the restructuring of the profession needed before energy conscious design
techniques can be integrated again into the the routine of the architectural
profession, contributing both to the place of the profession in our culture,
and to a lessening of our cultural dependence on 'hard' energy solutions to
technological problems.
Thesis Supervisor:
Thomas E. Nutt-Powell,
Assistant Professor of Urban and Regional Planning
3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT
2
..............................
..........-
8
-..------..................--
PREFACE
CHAPTER
QNE
ORGANIZATIONS
13
Introduction ........................
..............14
Organizations Defined
25
A Typology of Organizations
TWO
INSTITUTIONS
.......
............
Introduction
...............
Institutions Defined
43
45
.............
Invention & Innovation
Innovations, Individuals,
....
Organizations & Institutions
57
Acceleration of Innovation
....................
Acceptance
THREE
ARCHITECTURAL
DESIGN
73
& SOLAR ENERGY
.
.......------------.----
Introduction
66
78
..............79
Architecture & Design
90
Solar Energy as a Design Constraint ..
.......
'Passive' & 'Active' Defined
...............
Redefinition of Role
FOUR
A
98
102
'PASSIVE' DESIGN
.........------.--
Introduction
Program Abstract
...................
104
105
The 'Intuitive' Approach .,.........107
Energy Conservation as a Constraint
..................1
in this Design..
'Routine'.&
'Passive' Design
Related
.........
.
A 'Passive' Design Method
................
Design Presentation
........................
Conclusion
(Continued)
4
114
116
125
134
Page
CHAPTER
FIVE
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ELIMINATING OBSTACLES TO 'PASSIVE'
-..-.-.-.--.---...--.------.
Introduction
The Architect's BRole & 'Passive'
-...--.-.-.-.-.-.-.-....-----.
Design
137
Institutional Theory Summarized
143
'Architecture' as an Institution
..............
Refinement of Programs
------------------.
Conclusion . --....
147
153
162
138
........--..--..--..---..--..--..--...--..--..--..-- 167
-..-.-... ...-..--..--..--..--..--..--..--..- 170
APPENDICES
'PASSIVE' DESIGN METHOD
ONE
MODIFIED
TWO
CALCULATIONS................-.......---
THREE
SUMMER INSTITUTE OUTLINE
5
.
.-.-..-
-..........--....-
172
175
215
DEDICATION
For those who mean the most.
For my
sisters, Patricia and Frances Furlong;
for my friends, Ken Kiernan, Isabel
Paul, Alan Chalmers, Michael Sheehan,
and Steven Gould;
and, of course, for
my mother, Madge.
6
How do you thank someone like Tom Nutt-Powell?
It wouldn't have been possible without his advice and
friendship.
which I
Nor would it have been half the fun.
also have to thank:
Anne Simunovic
Beth Frey
Bonnie Nutt-Powell
Cecca Le Roux
Christine Cousineau
Deborah Poodry
Glynton Le Roux
Gordon King
and
Irene Lee.
7
For
PREFACE
There is an undeniable concern about the problems which
attend continued reliance on non-renewable energy sources,
a concern which has recently been accentuated by the impact
of political changes in the Middle East, and by events which
have made the nuclear option less attractive to many Americans.
For a number of years the use of solar energy as an alternative
source for heating buildings has become more and more
attractive, judging by the increasing number of
homes one reads about and sees built.
'solar'
To most people, however,
'solar' means 'active' solar energy, in spite of the fact that
'passive' can be shown to be equally effective, to have a
considerably shorter pay-back period, and to be so integral
to the design of a building that it has minimal impact on form
and life-style.
Yet,
in-spiteof
all
these apparent
advantages,
solar energy is not gaining rapid acceptance.
8
'passive'
This study is
concerned with identifying, and suggesting ways of overcoming,
barriers which prevent 'passive', specifically, from being
integrated into the routine of the building industry.
This industry, in one form or another, opposed the
introduction of a multitude of innovations, a few recent
examples being poly-vinyl chloride
(pvc) pipe, copper plated
tubing, the mobile home, and the whole concept of industrialized
housing.
The opposition has been manifest through regulation,
finance, production, and political institutions.
Yet, though
each of these has contributed to the slow rate at which 'passive'
solar energy has been accepted, they are not barriers unique
to 'passive'.
If one thinks of the building industry as a pipeline flowing
from design, through construction, to inhabitation, and if one
moves back along the pipeline
(considering both 'active' and
'passive solar technologies) the barriers which come to mind
apply to each.
This common set of barriers is encountered
until one has tracked back almost to the beginning, to the
responsibility of the professional designer.
It is at this
point that it appears that there is a unique, and what I call
'hidden' barrier, the nature and practice of contemporary
design.
9
The process of innovation acceptance is dependent on
an understanding of what the innovation means, or what its
function is.
This attribution of meaning and function can
take place only when those who are supposed to be capable of
doing what is necessary to implement the change are really
capable of, and disposed to, doing it.
The general attitude that solar energy means
'active'
systems with flat plate collectors and underground storage
suggests that the concept of 'passive' has not been carried
very far by those who are supposed to be responsible for,
and capable of, doing 'passive' solar energy.
Because
'passive' is a solution which is integral to
the process of architectural design, the responsibility for
doing belongs to the architectural profession.
It cannot
be relinquished to any other profession without the architect
relinquishing his responsibility for design.
This was not
the case with 'active' solar energy, which is readily
routinizable by the mechanical engineer without altering in
any way the responsibility of the architect.
appears that the
Because it
'hidden' barrier to the acceptance of
'passive'
solar energy by the building industry lies in the nature and
practice of architectural design, the major task of this
10
stuay is to discover why routinization of this technology
has found opposition among architects, an opposition which
is almost subliminal, and how this opposition might be
overcome.
Chapter 1 presents a theoretical framework for use in
understanding the universe within which the architectural
profession is defined to its participants and observers.
Organizational theory is explored, and some conflicts between
theoreticians resolved, to produce an internally consistent
structure for the general analysis of institutions which
follows.
Chapter 2 builds on the framework of organizational
theory, abstracting those aspects of interaction among
participants which make for institutional, or aggregated,
contributions to the meaning structures of society.
Because
we tend to define ourselves in terms of the roles we are
expected to play, and by the actions which are correct for
those roles, an approach for understanding role definition
is presented.
A discussion of the nature of change
innovation adoption) is offered in this context.
11
(or
Using this analytical framework, Chapter 3 outlines
the role of the architectural designer in terms of the
salient aspects of design method, the nature of architectural
practice,
how 'passive'
design is
on one hand part of this
tradition, and yet how it necessitates a redefinition of
the currently perceived role of the architect.
In Chapter 4 an example of the incorporation of the
constraints of 'passive' solar energy into what would have
been a routine design without it is presented.
To show
the impact of the 'passive' constraint on the architect's
perception of what actions can be expected from a designer,
the gap between what is acceptable in routine design and
what is essential for 'passive' design is described.
In the final chapter certain activities which can
facilitate routinization of
'passive' solar energy techniques,
by addressing the hidden barriers found in the design
profession, are presented.
Drawing on the theoretical
framework presented in the first two chapters, these activities
are evaluated to determine their possible success as deliberate
intervention strategies to accelerate innovation acceptance.
12
CHAPT ER 1
OICANIZATIONS
INTIODUCTION
Theories of human groups have been developed by students working
fram two quite different points of view. Fran the first of these human
groups have been endowed with an implicit independent existence, and have,
in effect, been personalized. That is, human groups have been treated as
if their mechanics of operation are not just analogous to those of the
individual, but are, in fact, the same. The acceptance of this personification
is a central assumption in much of the literature on groups and organizations.
On the other hand, there are a number of writers who approach the problem
considering the individual to be the basic unit they are studying.
The primary interest of this chapter of this thesis is to
At
understand the acceptance of an innovation on a societal dimension.
this scale one sees organizational manifestation of innovation acceptance.
Since both sets of theory originate fram two quite different starting points,
and invariably lead to different analyses and conclusions, a determination
of the appropriate perspective, and its consequent analytic properties, is
necessary. This problem will be addressed in this chapter by focusing on
the definition of organization, with particular attention to organizational
typology, and laterthose aspects of organization theory which apply to
institutions will be dealt with.
13
ORGANIZATIONS DEFINED
Organizations have been defined as social units
devoted primarily to the attainment of specific goals.{1}
This definition, however, immediately forces one to
question whether an organization can, in fact, have goals.
I have problems in accepting this proposition,
although Karl Deutsch, building on concepts developed by
Norbert Wiener, expresses a view which supports this concept
of implied personification:
"Communication ...
makes organizations; and
it seems that this is true of organizations
of living cells in the human body as well as
of organizations of pieces of machinery in
an electric calculator, as well as of
organizations of thinking human beings in
social groups ...
Cybernetics suggests that
steering or governing is one of the most
interesting and significant processes in the
world, and that a study of steering in
self-steering machines, in biological
organisms, in human minds, and in
societies will increase our understanding of
problems in all these fields."{2}
Consistent with this implied personification, Deutsch says,
"The will of individuals and groups can be paralyzed by
destroying their stored past information".{3}
14
To accept that a group can have 'will', however, one
must accept the concept of group mind.
Despite his
communication theory of organizations Deutsch does not
go as far as accepting this.
Rather, he posits: "All we
can say now is that the question (of transferring mind) is
again open, in a way in which it was not open thirty years
ago."{41
In contrast, Lawrence and Lorsch reject this notion
completely:
"(One tends) to think of organizations as
having a purpose, but this is not literally
People have purposes;
the case.
organizations do not. A simple organization
may, of course, specialize in one thing such
as the manufacture and sale of shoes. We
call this its purpose, but this is
acceptable only as a shorthand way of
speaking."{5}
They define organization
in this way: an organization j_._q
coordination _ol different activities .o individual
contributors I& carry out planned transactions with the
environment.{6}
Thus, there are two quite radically different points
of departure, suggesting the possibility that any
conclusions reached, based on one assumption will be in
opposition to those based on the other.
Thus the importance
of definition is inescapable, and the question of
15
organizational 'goals' is central to this task of definition
of organization.
However, for one to accept that only an entity
conscious of its own will can have goals, and that only
individuals have this consciousness, (as is my inclination)
the contrary position must be confronted, and refuted.
An entity with goals is responsible for any actions
taken to reach those goals in proportion to its intention
to accept the effects of these actions.
Only individuals
can be said to exhibit this quality of responsibility, or
conscience.
To say otherwise would be to make the
organization, apart from its component individuals,
responsible (g.
absolve Eichmann), or the individuals
equally responsible for the 'actions' of the organization
(Cg. all Republicans are responsible for Watergate); both
situations are obviously absurd. It is in this connection
that corporations are, by legal fiction, individuals --and by this definition are forced to a responsibility which
is otherwise not an intrinsic (or defining) property.
in the practice of law, there is
Yet,
a recognition that this is
fiction, through the apportionment of responsibility among
organizations (fictional willing individuals) and persons in
organizations (actual willing individuals).
16
Take for
example the following legal determination:
"Last week the grand jury handed down an
eleven count indictment charging (two)
companies and seven of their high
executives with conspiring to rig bids
for contracts ...
Each (executive) faces
charges of anti-trust violations ...
If
convicted of the anti-trust indictments,
the men will be subject to maximum three
year prison terms and $100,000 fines
each. "{7}
Very rarely has the implication of responsibility
been considered by students of organizations.
Haworth{8}
has, however, confronted this problem, and has concluded
that organizations do act, because they can be held
responsible for actions.
He argues that assertions that
organizations are collections of individuals is
'reductivist', and that organizations are trivialized if, at
certain times, we do not take literally statements about
organizational acts.
"The responsibility inheres in the
organization rather than its members as a
result of two features of the act: first,
that the act represents an outcome of that
pattern of functions which constitutes the
organization's form, and secondly, that,
in the main, the quality of the act is
unaffected by the personal qualities of the
individuals who participate in its
performance."{91
Haworth develops the concept of organizational "form" and
"content".
Content is the personnel and tools, form is "the
system of jobs which the personnel and tools ...
17
carry out."
{10}
Further, "acts ...
are quite commonly repeated even
though the individuals who participated in the first ...
act
are replaced by other and very different individuals."{11}
Haworth argues that in asserting that organizations
cannot act "the fact of organizational responsibility is not
communicated"{12}, and that this is absurd because it
denies the fact that "there are occasions when a change of
personnel does not appreciably change the acts of the
organization".{131
Thus, in Haworth's view, organizational
responsibility resides in
its
form,
not in its content.
Replacement in the content dimension (personnel and tools)
does not change the form dimension (organizational
action).
Because of this continuity (form surviving content
alteration) the organization carries the responsibility.
Stated another way, form prompts content action.
Because of
this causal relationship, he believes form eliminates
responsibility, perhaps even .all the responsibility.
Thus:
"To attribute an act to an organization is
to identify the organization as responsible
for the act so that, if the act is
desirable, the organization will be
credited; if it is undesireable, the
organization will be blamed; if we wish to
eliminate the act, the organization will be
changed; and if we wish to maintain the act,
we will maintain the organization."{141
Thus,
he asserts that individuals are defined by the
18
form in which they reside.
The contrary
view (which
is that actions, not form, define the individual.
I hold)
Thus, we
find that Haworth's assertion is not supportable because
individuals in organizations are not replaced by very
different, but rather by very similar, individuals. When the
personnel in an organization change, they are replaced by
people who, to some extent, are prepared to perform the same
actions. Thus, while a person may be replaced by someone who
is very different in say, personality, the two individuals
are similar insofar as the replacement performs the same
actions. This would suggest that change is thereby
impossible:
replacement of people by 'similar'
the same actions in the same organizations.
people yields
However,
another dimension of similarity between replacement and
replaced ensures that change does take place,
namely the
ability of each to perceive and evaluate the correctness of
their actions.
At this point I would like to introduce the concept
of iterative perception change to explain the assertion that
change can be ensured by similarity. This concept is similar
to Charles Darwin's correlated
variation,
"that the whole organization (sicg)
by which he means
is so tied together
during its growth and development, that when slight
variations in any one part occur, and are accumulated
19
through natural selection, other parts become modified."{15}
The concept of iterative perception change attempts
to show how the actions of any member of the group are
affected- by the actions of the other members.
Each member
has a perception of a correct role, a perception which is
created in two ways.
First, the individual can be informed
by a hierarchical superior (i.e., someone in higher
authority) what the correct actions for that role are.
Second, the member is informed of the correctness of action
by an awareness of the actions of peers.
The hierarchical
superior is, however, also affected by his own awarenessof
the actions of subordinates, to the extent that he can
impose a definition of correctness which conflicts too much
with what they will accept.
These two forms of the perception of correctness are
not derived from 'formal' and 'informal' dimensions of
organizations.
An organization is formal insofar as the
imperatives of the superior are more important than peer
pressure, but in both dimensions of organization both types
of interaction take place. A peer can be a superior when he
has some preceding knowledge (creating a superior/
subordinate relational mode), while a superior can be a
peer when the relationship is evaluated in terms of
20
personality, a levelling mode. Thus, subordinates also
evaluate the 'edict'
of a superior in terms of the
perception each has of the actions of others, both formally
and informally.
Thus, any individual in an organization
will iteratively affect, and be affected by, the perception
he has of the correctness of any action, insofar as it is
His willingness to
exhibited in the actions of others.
perform these actions (and, therefore, accept responsibility
for them) is conditioned by his own values, and how much he
perceives a congruence between them and the overt expression
of the values of others in
Thus,
their actions.
while the statement,
everyone else does it,"
"I
did it
because
may be the reason why values in
conflict with those of others are changed,
it
does not
absolve the individual concerned from the responsibility
his own values.
If,
on the other hand,
maintain his own values,
In
this way,
for
he chooses to
he remains apart from the group.
individuals are rarely replaced by 'very
different individuals'.
When individuals are replaced the
'actions of organizations'
are,
to some extent,
changed as
perception of correctness is iteratively changed,
regardless of degree of individual difference between
replaced and replacement.
21
Thus, in contrast to Haworth's argument that
organizational change is implemented by form alteration, any
analysis which depends on organization members alone having
the consciousnes necessary for the assumption of
responsibility, has the following implications:
i
change occurs through a change of
members
ii
changes in form are evidence of changes
of will.
Both are explained here by the concept of iterative
perception change.
organization --appears,
then,
The attribution of goals to an
as encountered in conventional parlance --to be no more than a locution whereby the
task of speaking of the organization
as a whole with
interdependent parts has been made easier by the attribution
of human traits to what is, in effect, an intellectual
construct ---
a collective noun.
To take the analysis a step further I would like to
distinguish between 'goals' and 'purposes'.
Goals are
internalized preferences, developed without compromise with
any external entity.
Purposes are uses to which an external
entity can be put to further those goals.
(I have goals.
Organization 'x' has purpose insofar as it helps me achieve
those goals.)
22
All viewers of an organization are, by virtue of the
act of viewing it, external to it.
Hence they may view it
in terms of purpose, assessing the value of their
relationship to it in terms of the congruity of their goals
and the uses to which the organization may be put.
In this
way the same retail firm will be perceived as a source of
supply by a customer, a source of income by an employee, a
customer by jts sources of supply.
generally regarded as a participant,
The staff member, who is
is also an outsider
when he views the firm as having a purpose for him.
This last begs the question of what exactly are the
boundaries of an organization?
Who are the outsiders?
Etzioni,
Who are the participants?
who accepted the concept of
goal directed organizations, confronted this problem in
terms of the intensij
of the individual's participation,
thus avoiding the 'universalization' of the organization
which follows if those whose involvement is low are
classified as participants.
If one includes the customer of
a firm as a participant (as March and Simon did (161),
then
one is hard put to locate its limits, for who is not in the
position of potential customer?
avoids this problem:
23
Etzioni's delineation
"We ...
see as participants all actors
who are high on at least one of the three
dimensions of participation: involvement,
subordination and performance ...
Customers and clients ...
who score low on
all three criteria, are considered
'outsiders' ."{171
If one, then, considers the organization to be
incapable of having goals of its own, but rather serving the
purposes of the participant/viewer, then the definition of
organization posed at the head of this section is
unacceptable.
The following seems 'a more appropriate
statement:
An organization is a concrete social unit in
which there is a coordination of activities,
resulting from a congruence of purposes of
all participants with the imperatives of
higher order participants to optimize the
unit's relationship with the external
environment.
This may be shortened, insofar as 'coordination of
activities' and an 'optimal relationship with the
environment' may be inferred from the existence of
participants.
_unit in
Thus, an organization is
which there Is
a concrete social
congruence of purposes of -al
participants with tbe imperatives
participants.
24
21 higher order
A TYPOLOGY OF ORGANIZATIONS
Extra-organizational:
To avoid the complications of anthropomorphizing
organizations into sentient, goal-directed entities I will
use role instead of goal, implying thereby that the
organization is being viewed as having a place in
relationship to its external environment, role being the
mode of expressing its convergent purposes. Each individual
viewer will see the organization as having a different
function, the iteration of perception not having reached
stasis.
But this is as one would expect, there being few
organizations with functions so explicit that every
individual will perceive them in the same way.
It
is not simply difficult,
rather it
is
impossible
to state with certainty wu t the role of any organization
is.
Yet we do it
state the role of,
Church.
all the time.
say,
Few would be hard put to
the Communist Party,
Participants and outsiders will,
25
or the Catholic
of course, have
widely divergent opinions, and even within them there will
Yet we continue
be participants whose ideas will conflict.
to make decisions on the basis of this broad
'role',
estimating it in terms of present evidence of actions
What this end
relative to the organization's 'end product'.
product is, however, is just as dificult about which to find
agreement.
In
fact, attempts to distinguish between
relationship with the
organizations on the basis of their
external
environment will always be limited by this problem
of delineating exactly what the relationship
way as to find agreement among all
One other approach
of internal-external
particular
it
to concentrate
Regarded
can be viewed in
on the nature
in
this way a
terms of the
(or not work)
work
such a
observers.
interactions.
organization
mechanics which make
is
in
is,
so that the end
product which is important to an outsider (among however
many end
products there are)
Thus,
organization
be its
will be
at his disposition.
for one outsider the end product
may be its
political
power.
education
It
system,
of
an
for another it
may
should be sublimely unimportant
to each that the other product is
26
there,
except
insofar as
it affects the outcome of the desired end product.
Thus,
the question of what the relationship to the external
environment is is no longer a matter of speculation or
contention. its relationship to the individual outsider is
prime.
What does matter to him are the mechanics of
organizational structure which produce the end product
so that he can use the system to increase his benefits from
it.
But this trivializes the whole nature of the
discussion, for in concentrating on the evaluation of the
organization by outsiders in terms of its purposes for
outsiders,
it becomes so multi-functional that no evaluation
can be accepted by all students, observers, or outsiders
which can be general enough to apply to any other
organization.
Intra-organizational:
If, on the other hand, one were to concentrate on
intra-organizational fulfillment, it may be that a limited
number of typologies will emerge which are general enough to
provide insights which may,
then, be applied to the
perceived purposes of an outsider.
27
Fortunately, the definition of organizations (as
individuals who view the organization as helping them attain
those goals.
No organization will be the only mechanic for their
attainment.
An individual may have as one goal a life
secure from indigence.
He may work as a taxi driver to
survive, and buy lottery tickets to get rich.
His role as a
taxi driver may limit his chances of reaching his pecuniary
goal compared, say, to working part-time and studying
medicine. But he has other short-term goals which conflict
with this, and which affect his long-term goal.
remain internalized
preferences,
Thus, goals
developed without
compromise with any external entity (but not without
compromise with the individual's other internalized
preferences).
i.
Compliance Typology
Congruence of purposes is different.
process of compromise or trade-off.
It
is
a
A participant gets from
the other participants by giving to them in a way that there
is
a congruence between benefits and costs which is
28
acceptable to all.
in effect, basic to Etzioni's
This is,
concept of compliance which is the foundation of his work,
A Comparative Analysis of Complex Organizations.
for Etzioni,
'complex organizations' means
Though,
'complex
he has placed his investigation
bureaucratic organizations',
within the widest context possible, so that his study of
compliance contributes to the study of social order in
general.{18}
For Etzioni compliance
is "universal, existing in
all social units"{191, and (if one accepts the analogy in
Norbert Wiener's work) it coexists with information transfer
to contribute to a mechanism whereby the organization is
steered to fill some role(s).
Congruence of purposes is the relative stasis
which results from the interaction
and compliance.
of power,
information,
In relatively few (if any) organizations
will the participant with more power exhibit no compliance
with the lesser power of the participant who exhibits
greater compliance.
The assumption that power is exercised
in only one direction limits the concept of organizations to
the most simplistic model of information transfer.
While
the concept of congruence of purposes depends on the complex
process of iterative perception change, it does not negate
29
the fact that power is exercised unequally. Thus, the
concept of compliance, which for Etzioni
"refers both to a
relation in which an actor behaves in accordance with a
directive supported by another actor's power, and to the
orientation of the subordinated actor to the power
applied"{20},
between
is an accepted abstraction of the relationship
participants.
Power he defines as "an actor's ability to induce or
influence another actor to carry out his directives or any
other norms he supports", and is exercised coercively,
remuneratively, or normatively.{21}
Involvement
refers to
the psychological investment of the actor in the
organization. The intensity of the involvement may be high
to neutral, the commitment (Etzioni uses direction) positive
tonegative.
Commitment can be negative or positive because
it is based on one's assessmenmt of how well one's purposes
are served by participation in the organization. Involvement
exhibits itself as a 'parabolic' function of the parameters
of intensity
and commitment.
Thus,
while it
is
possible to
be highly positive or highly negative, it is only possible
to be low and neutral.
30
inv9LVLHW-NT
a
[16. I
/4Qkf=Llor\16f-
CbrT1
r1
Given these definitions we can, following Etzioni,
abstract
three discrete positions
(accepin,
tLae pdrboUu.ii
continuum):
a. alienative --b.
calculative
c.
moral ---
31
---
high/negative
low/neutral
high/positive.{22}
He then relates power and involvement to present an
organizational typology of compliance relations, as follows:
Typology of Compliance Relations
Involvement
(of subordinate)
Power
(of superior)
Alienative
and
hypothesizes that the diagonal
3
6
9
2
5
8
1
4
7
Coercive
Remunerative
Normative
Moral
Calculative
relationships,
1,
5,
and
9, have a compatibility (he uses the term congruence) which
the others lack.{231
This incompatibility
becomes obvious,
not simply in
the dificulty of finding stable relationships of this nature
but,
rather,
in
the incongruity of purposes which such
relationships imply.
i.
There are six of them:
coercive/calculative
ii. remunerative/alienative
iii. normative/alienative
iv. coercive/ moral
v. remunerative/moral
vi. normative/calculative.
32
In the first case the higher order participant (the
one with more power) uses force, and the lower order
participant complies calculatively.
The implication is that
the amount of coercion is so low that the complying
In
participant can extract benefits from his compliance.
the second case the remuneration is too low.
(The first is
seen in some prisons, the second in many employer/employee
relationships.)
The third case results when the norms of the more
powerful participant are in conflict with those of the
compliant participant
and the police
conceive
(the hierarch/heretic
state).
except
The fourth is,
for relationships
relationship,
at first
difficult
to
that are analogous to the
sado-masochistic, except that this is a power/compliance
interaction that many regulators expect from regulation.
The last
others that
pragmatic
is
two have implications of a cynical
not uncommon,
religious
and which
attitude:
is
exhibited
use of
in
the
"I'll (you) be good and then
I'll (you'll) be successful".
None of these is
inherent instability
in
impossible,
each,
and
33
but there is
an
Etzioni hypothesizes that
this instability results in ineffectiveness which is only
reduced by a movement towards compatibility.
"(Compatible) types are more effective than
(incompatible) types. Organizations are
under pressure to be effective.
Hence, to
the degree that the environment of the
organization allows, organizations tend to
shift their compliance structures from
(incompatible) to (compatible) types and
organizations which have (compatible)
compliance structures tend to resist factors
pushing them towards (incompatible)
compliance structures.{24}
ii.
Typology of Function
An organization can be sub-divided into two
groups, that which performs line functions, and that which
performs staff functions.
While the functions take place at
different points of contact between the organization and the
external environment, it is the internal relationship
between line and staff which is important here.
The concept
of line and staff has been drawn from military terminology
(the line fights, the staff supports the line),
and has been
applied to commercial organizations where the line sells and
the staff supports. There are two aspects of the line
function in commercial organizations, production and sales,
which may be applied analogically to all organizations. Both
contribute, in quite opposite ways, to the relationship
3-4
between the line and the external environment, (which is not
the same as the relationship between the organization and
the external
environment).
The function of the
organizations,
'sales'
group,
for all
is the maximization of external support
through the maximization of the rate of exchange of
'support' for 'product'. The function of the 'production'
group is
to supply
external
environment,
of
'sales',
and extract components
from the
while minimizing the rate of exchange
'support' for component. The staff function is the
maintenance of an efficient organizational structure so that
the line function can be optimized.
While there is a symbiotic relationship between
staff and line, there is a dichotomy of interest as well.
The dichotomy stems from the fact that, by definition, the
staff function is a throughput
function, while that of the
line is an input-output function.
For the maximization of
benefits as far as line personnel are concerned the ratio of
input (j.e.
work) to output should be minimized.
For the
staff personnel to benefit the volume of throughput
(i.e. work) should be maximized, without regard to output.
Thus,in any organization where the staff function
35
grows to outweigh the line, the congruence of purposes
personnel
between line and staff
interrelational
imbalance.
is
in
a state of
This situation is
uncommon
in
most commercial organizations (except perhaps monopolies),
where the micro-economic rationalization of the market tends
to optomize the relationship in terms of effectiveness.
In contrast to incompatibility of compliance, which
results in an incongruity of purposes which forces the
structure towards compatibility, incompatibility of function
tends to result in the formation of a 'new' organization,
new (or changed)
in that incompatibility of function causes
the purposes of the higher order participants to be less
dominant than they were.
The movement towards compatibility
of compliance, on the other hand,
tends to reinforce the
original purposes of the higher order participants.
In more 'institutional' organizations, (for example,
hospitals, schools &c.)
certain normative aspects tend to
intefere with the process of economic rationalization.
The
staff group, which sees personnel growth as beneficial, can
take advantage of the importance given to these normative,
non-economic values.
The growth of the staff function will
cause the importance of the line function to atrophy, given
certain changes in the external environment, and the
36
congruence of purposes will find a new equilibrium in a
deviation from the original
perception of the purpose of the
organization.
Thus, peacetime military organizations, government
bureaucracies, church hierarchies, tend towards the
conservation of a status quo, whereas the original
perception of the purpose of the organization of which they
are a part was the correction, or change, of part of the
external world which was perceived as not worthy of
conservation.
iii. Compliance/Function Typology:
The idea of a conjunction of the compliance and
functional typologies is tempting.
It presents the
possibility of a new, richer typology which may suggest new
compatibilities.
37
1.
L
pr4IN/0R
M
li1{tMchfC
This figure illustrates the typological interaction
of function and compliance, and suggests that:
i
coercive/alienative organizations tend to
rely more heavily on staff functions, or
organizations which are predominately
staff organizations tend to rely on
coercion to maintain compliance
ii
remunerative/calculative organizations
tend to have a 'balance' of line
and staff functions, or 'balanced'
organizations tend to function through a
reliance on remuneration more than on any
other method to maintain compliance
3.8
iii
normative/moral organizations tend to
rely less on the support of a staff
group, or groups which have little or no
staff support are maintained by the
moral commitment of their participants.
A corollary of this is that as the shift away from
coercive/ alienative, through remunerative/calculative, to
normative/moral occurs there is a similar shift away from
the dominance of higher order participants towards the
elimination (or vestigial existence) of the superior/
subordinate relationship.
The correspondence between compliance structure and
functional structure is not one-to-one (i.e. not all
coercive/alienative organizations are predominately staff,
&c.),
but incompatible correspondence is highly unlikely,
although possible.
A movement away from compatibility
results in an organizational instability or ineffectiveness
which can be resolved in one of three ways:
i
ii
the organization ceases to function
the organization shifts back towards
compatibility
iii
the organization
shifts towards a
remunerative/calculative
39
compliance.
In a coercive/alienative organization, in spite of
the power of the higher order participant, peer pressure
tends to work actively against the acceleration of
innovation acceptance.
In the 'balanced' organization peer
pressure is a more passive barrier to the introduction of
innovation.
Its power to retard acceleration, because of
this passivity, can be overcome by the imperatives of higher
order participants.
In normative/moral organizations peer pressure is
the only real tool
for innovation acceptance.
There is,
however, a tendency for this type of organization to be the
carrier of only one change, a change which, once it is
accepted by the broader society,
is integrated into the
routine on a remunerative/calculative, or even
coercive/alienative basis ---
but not on a normative/moral
basis. That would imply a transformation not only of
society, but also of human nature.
It would seem that real
innovation comes before the
organization is formed, and that the organization is the
result of a number of individuals' positive evaluation of
the change.
(See page
.)
The effort of convincing enough
others that the innovation is worthwhile, so that it will
40
find a ready acceptance in society,
is the normative/moral
stage which lasts a short time in the case of a commercial
innovation like the plastic shampoo bottle, or may take a
long time when the innovation is to have a greater impact
(kg. Christianity, Marxism).
Thus, the more 'line' the organization, the more it
tends to be a vehicle for innovation, while the more
coercive its compliance structure, the more it tends towards
conservatism (at all levels) which rejects change.
The
routinization of an accepted innovation into the structure
of an organization tends to take place at the level of
staff/line balance where calculation and remuneration are
the mechanics of evaluation.
A commercial organization, which is basically
remunerative/calculative, relies for its effectiveness on a
balance between staff and line.
As it grows, however, it
will formalize intra-organizational relationships and
increase its staff function.
This will demand certain
regulatory mechanics which will result in some alienation.
In a commercial organization where sales and production
(i.e.,
line) is integrated, and probably small, the staff
function is minimal, and there may even be a normative/moral
commitment to the product.
41
The hypothesis will bear further testing, but enough
examples come to mind to allow one to question whether the
apparent purpose of an organization can be its real purpose,
if its functional structure is innapropriate to its
compliance structure.
42
CHAPTER 2
INSTITUTIONS
INTIODUCTION
Organization theory is the basis of the understanding of how
deliberately organized groups of individuals interact. Where a
group is not organized, either formally or informally, organization
theory makes no contribution to the understanding of the interaction
of the participants.
It
is the purpose of this chapter to describe and define entities
which are extant but not organizational,
and to extract fram organizational
theory those aspects of structure and function which apply to all groups,
whether they are organizational or not, and whether there is
a perception
of participation by all who comprise the group or not.
The reason for the universality of this approach is to permit the
evaluation of the architectural profession in all its manifestations,
frm membership in the most rigidly organized firm to the contribution
to, or participation in, an institution as vaguely delineated as beauty.
This evaluation will permit one to understand the relationship between
participant and institution in terms of the narrowest, as well as the
broadest, definitions of institutional role, an understanding which is
essential before role can be redefined, or before the pace of this
redefinition can be accelerated. The pressures which can be brought to
bear successfully on an individual's perception of his institutional
role vary, depending on the function which the institution performs.
This chapter will integrate the understanding of organizations
and institutions to simplify later evaluation of the individual's role
and how his perception can be changed. This will be done in the light
of innovation acceptance,
and how this acceptance is
dependent on a
redefinition of role -or how a refusal to redefine is equivalent to
a rejection of change. This is what makes innovation new. If it is
not really different it slides into the individual's routine as a
replacement for something already integrated, and does so without much
43
difficulty. If it is new it implies a restructuring rather than a
replacement, and it is the redefinition and re-evaluation which is
implied by this which is the obstacle to any real innovation.
44
INSTITUTIONS DEFINED
Institutions have been defined as discernible
entities which carry, or are repositories for, social
meaning.{25}
They are manifestations of society's normative
formulations which embody society's judgements, and provide
a framework for the examination and resolution of situations
which necessitate a determination of relative
desirability.
{26}
Delineation, beyond the limits of the definition
given, has concentrated on function, activity, and role
as the evidence of institutional exchange ---
{27}
relying in
particular on description of the institutional entities
which exemplify this
:.change.
Institutional entities have
been divided into those which are organizations and those
which are not ('non-organizations').
It is not implied that
all organizations, or all non-organizations (when viewed
45
from the standpoint of the individual observer, at least),
are institutions, and their relationship may be expressed in
the following way:
Institutions
Organizations
Non-organizations
Both organizations and non-organizations are
describable in terms of the formality of their structure,
and in terms of their individual components.
Thus:
Organizations
Formal
Informal
Members
Non-organizations have a similar structure:
Non-organizations
Collectivities
Social Orders
Persons
46
(A collectivity i* an indistinct entity with members
characterized by a
condition or quality of collective focus,
gg. the 'Women's Movement',
'white men'.
A social order is
a societal disposition without sgecified members {281,
but
whose existence, being societal, depends on the
participation of some individuals, gg. 'good taste'.)
The peculiar nature of the transformation of a
societal entity into an institution is that there is a
process of perceptual abstraction of certain attributes
which embody the meaning structures of a society.
Thus a
member of an organization, or a person who is a participant
in a non-organization, can be the institutional equivalent
of the entity in which he is a participant insofar as he is
perceived to manifest the qualities of
qualities of 'personality'.
'membership', or the
Thus the institutional arena is
composed of these entities:
(A) Organizations
Institutions
(B) Non-organizations
i. Formal Organizations
ii.
Informal Organizations
iii. Members
i. Collectivities
ii. Social Orders
iii.
47
Persons
Is the definition of an institution as 'a
discernible entity which is the repository of social
meaning' enough?
Or can it be delineated further so that
it still includes all the entities considered to be capable
of being institutions, and yet express a more explicit
functional relationship with the environment, in the way
that the definition of organization does?
Is there
something which the following examples have in common
(beyond their role as repositories of social meaning) and
which can be extracted and delineated?
"Bell Telephone is an institution to most
Americans."
(A)i
"The Jets were an institution of more importance to
the kids of 'West Side Story' than the police." (A)ii
"The I.B.M. executive is no longer an institution
of importance in society as he was in the 'fifties'." (A)iii
"The movement for equality of women has become an
institution of stature." (B)i
"The Plaza Hotel, and the 'round table' at the
Algonquin, are New York institutions." (B)i
"No-one who's seen the head waiter at the Ritz in
confrontation with a beige, double-knit, polyester leisure
suit can doubt that 'good taste' as an institution is still
alive."
(B)ii
48
"Mae West!
There's an institution! (B)iii
There are certain other aspects which must be taken
into account, aside from the 'structural' exemplification.
Consider the following: "The rigidly structured family of
the Roman world was a formal organization whose male head
held the power of life and death over all its members,"
and,
"The Roman family .A an institution whose values still
pervade the modern family structure."
are not transposable.
The underlined verbs
Thus, while the Roman family exists
as an institution, the Roman family as an organization does
not exist.
The institution is abstract (though durable) in
a way that the organization is not.
In this way both Mae West, Mickey Mouse, and even
things that have never existed, can be said to be
institutions: "Ptolemy's universe is an institution of such
magnitude that it still manages to constrain man's
conception of reality.
Who can say that Einstein's universe
will be any different?"
In what way, then, are organizational and
non-organizational institutional entities similar?
49
Both are abstract constructs.
Both are perceived
to manifest a sharing of meaning by those who belong to them
as non-institutions.
Both are assessed as repositories of
meaning structures against the meaning structures of
observers, and the meaning structures of observers are
assessed against their perceptions of those manifest in the
institution.
An institution is
an abstract social entity which is
perceived to manifest shared meaning structures, and in
relation .t
dA
which _the meaning structures of those who do, or
not, share them are assessed.
The dissimilarities are important too,
reason.
for another
At this stage we have a definition of institutions
which includes certain perceptual abstractions of
organizations and non-organizations.
However, if we wish to
use the work of organizational theorists, we must know where
to place limits on this use.
must be considered.
First:
There are two factors which
how dissimilar (or similar) are
institutional organizations and non-organizations?
Second:
insofar as they are similar, how does organizational theory
explain institutions, or will it be necessary to discard all
organizational theory as inapplicable, and rely on (or
develop) a parallel theory of institutions?
50
Three major points of difference emerge between
organizations and non-organizations:
i
organizations have discernible boundaries
ii members are aware of membership in
organizations; persons are not
necessarily aware of their participation
in non-organizations
iii in non-organizations the imperative is
subordinate to peer pressure (or
iterative perception)
in
a way that is
opposite to the mechanic of the
organization.
Any entity,
perceived to exist.
if
it
is
to be said to exist,
must be
It is perceived to exist by virtue of
'actions' which express its difference from the rest of the
universe.
One perceives a rock by virtue of 'actions' which
express its difference, in the same way as one is aware of a
social unit.
Insofar as members of a group perform actions
no different from the rest of the society in which the group
exists it cannot be perceived to exist.
Thus, for a group
to exist, its members must perform actions which are
different from the broader society's participants, And
similar to the actions of other members.
51
The awareness of
what these actions should be is communicated to a
participant in an organization, primarily from the
imperatives of higher order participants, and secondarily
through iterative perception.
In a non-organization the
importance is reversed.
But a non-organization includes participants who are
not necessarily aware of their participation.
Can iterative
perception take place under these conditions?
I believe it
can.
Take the expression 'rough diamond' as an example (a
person of high intrinsic worth, but rude and
unpolished{29}).
This "high intrinsic worth" must be
perceived to exist by virtue of the actions of the
individual.
These actions are defined as worthy by members
of a group which perceives these actions to be correct for
'diamonds'.
These members may, or may not, perform these
actions (i.e. belong to the group 'diamonds').
The
perception of the correctness of another's actions is
enough.
The 'rough diamond' performs these actions without
having this perception.
Thus, someone can perform the
actions which contribute to the perception by others of a
social order like 'good taste' without being aware of the
social order.
The perception of correctness by all
contributors is not essential for the existence of the
social order.
What is necessary is the perception of
52
correctness by observers.
Similarly for collectivities.
I, as a white man, am
perceived to be a member of that group by virtue of the
'actions' of being white and being male, actions over which
I have no control.
I may perceive these actions as neither
correct nor incorrect,
'correctness' inhering in
responsibility, for which an ability to control actions
which can be evaluated normatively is essential.
But that
does not affect the existence of the collectivity, which
exists by virtue of the perception of observers of the two
necessary actions.
What do groups such as
Jets',
'white men',
have in common?
'the Marine Corps',
and (those who exhibit)
'the
'good taste'
In every case those who know they belong to
the group know what is expected of them as participants, as
do those who perceive the group as existing.
is that in the case of
'white men' and
The difference
'good taste' (both
non-organizations) it is not essential that the participants
be aware of participation for the group to exist.
Thus, iterative perception processes can take place
at two levels, the level of the participant and the level of
the observer.
Organizational theory is the province of the
5-3
first level, institutional theory of the second.
But what
is important is that iterative perception is applicable to
both.
A further observation is also important.
Insofar as
individuals can be aware of their participation in a group,
and be responsible for any actions which are the expression
of this participation, the application of organizational
theory to institutions is valid.
Thus, to use the example 'white men',
organizational
theory is totally inapplicable to the study of this group
define membership are whiteness
when the only actions which
and maleness.
entity
However, institutionally, the abstract social
'white men' may be perceived to manifest particular
shared meaning structures, whatever they may be (.eg.
men',
'white men',
'white men',
'white men').
'white
If anyone is
perceived as sharing any of the values of the group, then
the process of iterative perception is important because it
defines the institution.
Insofar as individuals perceive themselves as
sharing any of the values of any group the particular
process of the formation of the perception of what is
correct is,
even when we speak of institutions,
54
similar to
the processes described in the section on organizational
theory.
A third, and synthesizing point is that one's
perception of what the shared values of an institutional
group are will iterate with the perception of others,
including the perception of participants as well as outside
observers.
What this implies is that, in studying institutions,
we may use the concept of organization analogically, in the
same way that students of organizations should be able to
use the concept of individual analogically.
That is we must
consistently avoid the idea of explicit goal directedness,
and stay at a level that Deutsch was not happy with, yet
which certainly appears to incorporate the possibility of
change inherent in the concept of iterative perception:
"In the view of many scientists ...
evolution does not necessarily lead to one
fixed goal, nor does it have to approximate
any such single goal ever more closely.
Rather, it is an open-ended process,
containing the possibility of
self-disruption or self destruction, as
well as of a change of goals. Such a
possibility seemed at least hinted at in
the words of the New Testament, 'now are we
the sons of God, and it doth not yet appear
Yet if this had been a
what we shall be'.
hint of growth with no definite end, most
theories of organizations persisted in not
taking it."{30}
55
One may, then, consider the development of
institutional entities of a society (in their role as
repositories of meaning structure) as the evidence of the
goalless development of the society itself.
But insofar as
the individual members of a society are caught between an
awareness of the imperfections of the society, and the
possibility of change induced disruptions, institutions are
generally perceived as positive manifestations of things as
they are.
A society, then, is as stable as its institutions
exhibit a perception of the sharing of the meaning
structures of the society itself by all
its members.
The
impossibility of this sort of state of static equilibrium
ever existing creates 'gaps' which are filled by change or
innovation.
Thus, while change restores equilibrium (which
is the summa of individual's demands), the dynamic
equilibrium to which it brings society is anathema to its
members, because it implies continued change.
("New York
will be a beautiful city if ever they finish it.")
Institutions reflect the tendency of the mass of individuals
in a society to react negatively to the risk inherent in
change.
And yet the fact of change is the most unchanging
aspect of society.
5.6
INVENTION AND INNOVATION
There is considerable confusion which often arises
in the discussion of innovation acceptance because of the
confusion between invention and innovation and change.
The
first two concepts are quite similar, except that invention
takes place at the individual (psychological) level, while
innovation is the same process at the societal level of
shared meaning, the level of the institution.
An invention is I thing, practice, method, jc.,
newly contriyed by an individual, and invention is the
action of contriving invention.
An innovation is
a new thing, practice, method, jc.,
newly introduced into I society, and innovation is the
action of introducing innovations.
Change is
the effect invention has on the individual
and innovation has on society.
The word invention is derived from venire, (Latin,
57
to come) and has the sense of discovery, to come across, and
does not imply that the inventor created the invention from
nothing.
The reliance on, what might be termed,
'cultural
residue' is important, for it will be contended that
invention (which will be used here interchangeably with
physical and intellectual 'artifacts') is the action of
reprocessing of 'things' which are already extant in the
society.
An invention, therefore, is an aggregation of
'parts' which exist before the process of aggregation.
In
considering the concept of invention, one must confront
the concept of the 'whole' being greater than the sum of its
'parts'.
The 'whole' which constitutes the invention is not
simply a collection of 'parts', but a functional combination
of them.
Further, it is contended that the combination is
itself one of the parts.
Take, for example, the plastic bottle.
For the
process of invention to take place, or for an innovation to
be introduced, the combination 'plastic' and 'bottle' must
have a function for at least one individual (in the former
case) or for a group of people (in the latter case). If, for
58
example, the bottle had been washed up on a beach on a
desert island, with one castaway as its population, its
function as an unbreakable container of liquids could only
be perceived if there were a perception of a functional
synonomy between the bottle as container, and a hollow gourd
(for
example) as container, and if there were a perception
of the functional value of the unbreakability exhibited by
the plastic.
This functional value may have been high for
the original inventor and the society in which the invention
was introduced, because of the avoidance of cut feet in
showers perhaps, but to an individual unaware of glass (our
island dweller, to whom gourds are plentiful) this value may
be low.
Thus, it is not impossible to think of the plastic
bottle being perceived in terms of its transparency, its
ability to be cut into pieces, and/or the symbolism of its
shape, and to find it not at all perceived in terms of its
function in the original society.
So, one of the parts that an artifact (physical or
intellectual) must have if it is to be other than a 'thing'
or a group of 'things' is meaning or function.
Thus,
the
transformation of a number of 'parts' into a 'whole' entails
the addition of meaning (or function) to an aggregation of
'parts'.
Indeed, this meaning (or function) is itself one
of the 'parts'.
59
Let
But,
if :
A + B + C /
D
then
A + B + C + x = D
60
This 'x',
the attribute which makes D out of A, B, and C,
must be present if D is to be present.
If the concept of
container (as exhibited in 'bottle') and the concept of
unbreakability (as exhibited in 'plastic')
are abstracted,
or isolated from the rest of reality, the concept
'unbreakable container' exists only conceptually until a
process of functional summation (or attribution of meaning)
has taken place.
This process is motivated by a perception
of the need for the function which the summation fills.
"Every artifact, such as for example a
machine, can be understood only in terms of
the meaning which its production and use
have had or will have for human action; a
meaning which may derive from a relation to
exceedingly various purposes. That which is
intelligible or understandable about it is
thus its relation to human action in the
role either of means or of end; a relation
of which the actor or actors can be said to
have been aware and to which their action
Only in terms of such
has been oriented.
categories is it possible to 'understand'
objects of this kind."{31}
Inventions may be the result of almost microscopic
changes in awareness (such as the dissatisfaction of the
individual who kept breaking shampoo bottles in the shower)
or they may have had macroscopic proportions, and have
resulted in theories as encompassing as the theory of
evolution.
which the
In either case, however, the transitions through
'inventors' pass are the same.
61
First, some individual becomes aware of one of the
'gaps' in the structure of society by perceiving a 'lack'
which exhibits itself in a sense of personal disequilibrium.
Through a process of the synthesization of the available
artifacts
(drawing on the 'cultural residue' of
contributions made by people alive now, or long dead)
he becomes aware of the 'feasibility' of eliminating this
'lack'.
If this 'feasibility' is transformed into
'possibility' by further experimentation an active state of
'desire' can replace the original state of 'need'.
If it
is acted upon the inventor can eliminate the 'need' and pass
The transformation can be summarized;
to 'gratification'.
"I wish I had
"I want
...
",
"I could
...
",
"I
have
...
have
...
",
"I
can have
..
"
".
At this point the process of invention is complete.
Upon its introduction to others than the inventor the
invention becomes an innovation.
It passes from the
individual realm to the societal, and becomes part of
society's collection of available
artifacts.
At this point
society must 'pass' through a process which is similar to
that of the inventor's transition from 'lack' to
'gratification' if the innovation is to become accepted.
The social interaction change models (in
62
particular those
of Rogers{32}, of Lionberger{33}, and of Holmberg {34})
outline a societal transition from 'awareness' to
'integration'.
This transition is no different from the transition
It was made, first, by the
from 'lack' to 'gratification'.
inventor, and now must be made by other individuals.
Society's 'transition' is no more than an aggregation of the
transitions
of its individual members, whether individually
or organizationally manifest.
(Here, recall the earlier
discussion on the definitional
properties of organization.)
For the innovation to be accepted,
individuals must
have been aware of the 'gap', or have experienced the same
'need' as the inventor (even if this awareness came about as
a result of the introduction of the innovation). This
introduction fulfils the requirement of 'feasibility', The
individual's positive evaluation of 'feasibility' takes him
through the 'possibility' stage.
'Desire' follows once this
evaluation has been made; a trial of the invention will
complete the transition to 'gratification'
and
integration'.
Societal acceptance will follow if
evaluation is
performed by enough individuals ---
and/or in organizational relation.
63
this
separately
To a certain extent the simplistic nature of the
model is obscured in the real world by the overlapping of
numerous individual transitions.
At one moment, while a few
people have integrated the innovation into their routines, a
majority may be in the 'awareness'-'evaluation' stage.
At a
later time a majority may have 'integrated' the change into
the pattern of their lives, while a few stragglers are at an
earlier stage.
One's perception of the passage from
'awareness' of this concept to its 'integration' into a
conceptual 'societal' transition. 'Society' does not exist;
it is an abstract construct which has been 'invented',
'introduced', and 'integrated' to fill a 'need' which one,
as an individual, shares with others to understand the
zgstalt of one's own transitions, and how this gestalt
supports (or does not support) them.
At other extremes are cultures which cannot conceive
of any reality in terms other than those of the individual:
"'Truth', according to the (Dakotah)
Indians, is what happens ... You cannot have
the concept (of should), according to the
(Dakotan). If you should do something, you
do it. The (Dakotans) have no word for
'we'. 'We' puts you in with somebody. The
(Dakotans) refer to 'I and you'. It's never
'you and I'. 'I' is the sacred word. 'Think'
is conjugated only in the first person
singular. No (Dakotan) presumes to say what
another thinks." (35)
We have defined concepts such as society to help us overcome
64
the limitations of expressing aggregate 'actions' in
individual terms, but we have gone on to endow this
'shorthand' with an implied reality which has become
accepted through the habit of usage.
65
INNOVATIONS, INDIVIDUALS, ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS
The very existence of the concept of organization,
and indeed of any organization, is a consequence of a 'lack'
shared by the 'inventor' and others.
At some
innovations.
an concept of an individualistic world structure was
not enough for one particular individual, who (in making use
of the shorthand locution whereby the actions of individuals
is used analogically for groups) introduced an idea, the
lack of which others immediately (or previously) felt).
Thus, when we look at the process of innovation
acceptance, we are looking at the swell of the aggregation
interest, evaluation, trial,
of individuals' awareness.,
adoption, and integration ---
or their rejections of the
innovation somewhere along the way.
The institutions we analyse can be formal or
informal, conceptually abstract or rooted in the concrete,
but in absolutely every case they are expressions of
aggregations of individuals.
'Good taste',
for example, is
not a separate entity, but the aggregation of that aspect
of individuals through which each is sensible to what is
66
harmonious, appropriate, or beautiful.
It becomes an
institution in being perceived by individuals as the same
aspect of all other individuals, insofar as the perception
of this aggregation (not the aggregation itself) has an
iterated impact on individuals.
That is; the perception of
the aggregation by one individual becomes part of the
perception of another.
It passes in a process somewhat akin
to the process of dynamic disequilibrium to and from all
individuals simultaneously.
The effect of this perception is exhibited in
concrete, ways ---
no matter how abstract the institution.
The belief, or perception, of an individual is not something
which has no relationship with the real, existing as it were
in vacuuo.
It affects what the individual does, and is
expressed in actions.
The awareness of the correctness of
the actions of 'all others' by 'me' is the stuff of which
institutions are constructed.
When institutions are viewed as abstractions of
certain aspects of groups of individuals with a perceived
commonality of interest, they must also be seen as
overlapping.
In contrast to the physical organism (or even
the organization) there is less discreteness.
67
The
institution 'Catholics' overlaps with 'blacks', with
'middle-class', with 'city dwellers'.
So, while there is an
acceptance by an individual of the actions one is expected
to perform as a participant in one group (and an influence
one contributes to that group's pressure on another),
there
is also a more than analogous iterative influence among
groups as well.
When the process of innovation takes place the
dissemination of the innovation ricochets back and forth,
affecting and being affected by the group's members.
process is usually described as the
depicts the rate
This
'learning curve' and
of innovation diffusion.
If the
innovation is dropped, like a stone into a basin of water,
into a finite group, the awareness of each individual reacts
with others and exhibits this S-shaped pattern over time.
INg4PfTINA
TH'
68
First, one person (the inventor)
aware, and they affect others.
makes others
The process speeds up until
half the population has been exposed to it.
At this point
it becomes less and less likely that an individual in the
group does not know of it.
Eventually the curve flattens
out until 100% of the group has been made aware of the
This is the pattern which illustrates the
innovation.
regular acceptance of things like hula-hoops and yo-yos,
which are disseminated by peer pressure.
When the group itself begins to be perceived by its
members as a group, then the commonality of interest among
the conjunction of individuals is expressed in their
actions, as a conformity to a set of formal or informal
'regulations'.
These 'regulations' can become 'imperatives'
when they are imposed on the members by representatives who
(depending on the organizational typology of the group) are
formally, or informally, empowered by the members.
This brings us to the point of the extent to which
'non-organizational' institutional entities
by the imperative.
necessarily
In a group where there is not
an awareness of participation
participants,
are influenced
by all
this does not prevent these participants
being influenced by those who are aware of their
69
from
At the point when peer pressure and the
participation.
imperative are equally important we are at the point of
transition between 'organizational' and 'non-organizational'
institutional entities.
In this situation an inadvertent participant reacts
to what is perceived as 2eer pressure,
'peers' being members
of some other group of which the participant is
membership.
aware of
In this way a woman who dresses well may be
evaluating the correctness of her actions by comparing hers
to those of 'other women',
or 'her friends'.
Some of these,
however, see themselves as members of the group 'well
dressed women',
and evaluate correctness in terms of the
actions of other 'well dressed women'.
Some of these follow
rigorously the dictates of New York designers, who
themselves are influenced by the acceptance of their
clients, who are in turn affected by the actions of their
peers.
Thus, one may have a collectivity like 'well dressed
women' which is certainly not an organization, but in which
there is, to some degree, an unmistakeable influence of the
'imperative',
even on individuals who are unaware of their
participation in the group.
The purpose of institutional analysis is to make use
of the knowledge gained from this analysis, to understand
70
the way things work, or to make things work in a manner more
to one's liking.
For the 'higher order participant' this
knowledge may be used in the manner of public relations to
alter the perceptual abstraction of the institution's
observer, so that while (as an organization) it may continue
to do the same things that it has always done, it may be
perceived as doing other things (or else the same actions
may be perceived as meaning other things).
For those of us whose intention is to use the
institution itself, the purpose of analysis is different.
Two things can be done;
the institution can be understood
and used ('organizationally')
the way it is, or the
institutional entity can be changed.
If one is to use the institutional entity the way
it
is, one must understand the relationship of the compliance
structure, and the functional typology,
so that the entity's
interaction with the environment can be used to optimize
that of another institutional entity of which one, as a
participant in that entity, desires.
Another possibility
is that, by emphasizing certain of the functional/compliance
aspects of the 'manipulated' entity, one may lead it to
perform actions which are not normally expected of it.
(In
this way the normally coercive/alienative interaction of the
71
environment with the legal system may be avoided, and the
system used to heighten the remunerative/calculative
interaction of different sub-sets of the environment.
Examples of this are the miles-per-gallon rating of cars,
and the efficiency ratings of air conditioners.)
If the intent is to change the institutional entity
(rather than the institution), the task is not simply an
exercise in public relations.
That is; it is not a question
of altering what the institution means, but what the entity
does.
There are only two mechanics for this; manipulation
of higher order imperatives, or manipulation of peer
pressure.
72
ACCELERATION OF INNOVATION ACCEPTANCE
While the foregoing discussion of the process of
institutional manipulation may sound cynical or
hypocritical, it would in fact be cynical and hypocritical
to deny that this is the very function of institutional
analysis for those who wish to accelerate the acceptance of
any innovation.
The 'bottom line' of institutional analysis is the
acceleration of innovation acceptance.
That is, one wishes
to have the innovation accepted at a rate faster than will
occur if the normal process of peer pressure is the only
mechanic of acceptance.
The 'demonstration program' is one
way of exposing the innovation to more people, but it is not
a method of acceleration.
The effect of the 'demonstration
program' is to increase the awareness of a few sooner than
normal.
Once the program ceases, however, the process of
peer pressure continues as the only mechanic.
73
rE4r F%-P MA
49-~
4
F4~~-f
OF /5
2.ON
ON
p
j.
Real acceleration occurs when the rate of acceptance
changes so that the curve 'becomes more vertical', not just
momentarily ---
as above ---
but permanently.
\00
/
c2
Of,
e:
f->r{rv,6
74
L~~Ih
to
The most common, or typical, method
hasten the process of iterative perception is the use of
peer pressure, whereby the actions of participants in the
entity would affect the actions of others.
This is the
method that most advertizers use, and the framers of
demonstration projects.
It must, however, be emphasized
that institutional analysis is not 'market research'.
However, institutional entities, to be made
receptive to innovation, must be altered.
That is, they
must be made do what it is their function as institutions
not to do ---
act as the repositories of new meaning
structures for society.
"Institutional action is risk adverse;
innovations will be avoided.
Innovation
institutionalization occurs through a
process of repeating stages;
(changing)
the innovation from unknown to convention.
The innovation has a different meaning and
form in each cycle and for each
institutional
entity ...
Successful
innovation institutionalization
is
mediated through previously created
institutional
forms, notably personal
information. {36}
The institution is altered when the awareness of the
correctness of the actions of 'all others' by
altered.
'me' is
But awareness is no more than the perceptual
impact of the actions of all others on individuals,
75
iteratively affecting the actions of other individuals.
Thus, the manipulation of institutions can be carried out by
altering awareness or by altering actions.
are obverse and reverse.
actions.
However, these
One's awareness is an awareness of
Thus, for any acceleration of the acceptance of
change to take place, the alteration of the awareness of
what actions are correct, through means other than iterative
peer pressure, is essential.
In any institutional entity which is absolutely
non-organizational (j..g.
in which there is no perception
among participants of higher order participants, or
representatives) there is no possibility of acceleration,
for in these entities information can only be disseminated
by peer pressure.
However, in most cases, the human organizational
structure is invested by its members with some primacy or
importance in the perception of participants, and in the
perception of their representatives, a primacy which
overrides the importance of the individual member.
The very
act of 'belonging', as has been mentioned earlier, is the
awareness of some commonality of interest which makes the
individual compromise his purposes (be it ever so slightly)
to those of the others who share the same interests,
76
although goals are never compromised.
In some cases the primacy of the institutional
entity is such that the individual becomes inconsequential.
("Ask not what your country can do for you; ask rather what
you can do for your country.")
In such cases, the extent to
which the function of the entity is given primacy over
individual purpose is seen in the rigidity of the
iterative perception which lies behind peer pressure is the
base against which acceleration is
measured.
If the
representatives at the head of an institutional entity have
been given the right to define correct role to the
individual participants, then and only then can this curve
(which reflects the interaction of peers) be made more
vertical, by the manipulation of the perception of the
representatives.
This is because the participants have
their perceptions of correctness changed, not by each other
over time, but by those 'in power', instantly , by virtue
of their right to impose imperatives.
Peer interaction,
then, becomes simply a method of contributing to the
maintenance of acceptance, rather than mechanic of
change.
77
CHAPTER 3
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN AND SOLAR ENERGY
INTRODUCTION
This chapter briefly discusses the salient points of architectural
theory. The intent here is to describe architectural design so that
the impact of solar energy technology (both 'active' and 'passive')
on the designer's role can be understood.
Solar energy is defined in terms of 'active' and 'passive' approaches.
The different implications of each on the process of design is shown.
'Active' solar energy technology relies on mechanical systems to bridge
the gaps between collection, storage, and consumption of energy. Because
'active' is mechanical it can be integrated into a design routine on a
completely extra-architectural basis. Thus the acceptance of this solar
innovation does not necessitate a role redefinition on the part of the
architect.
A building uses 'passive' technology when the methods of energy
collection, storage, and distribution are totally independent of
mechanical systems. 'Passive' cannot be separated from the design
process.
Twentieth century building has seen the introduction of mechanical
aids which can provide a rigorously well tempered environment. This
capability has resulted in the creation of new professions, in particular
that of mechanical engineer, which have assumed responsibility for the
fine tuning of the interior environment.
This sort of camfort is possible with 'passive' design. But,
because it demands a mastery of mathematics, and an attitude towards
the evaluation and integration of technical information which is not
part of the competence and disposition of the contemporary architect,
'passive' demands a redefinition of the architect's role.
78
ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
There is an old (2nd. Century A.D.) definition of
architecture, implied by Vitruvius in his "Ten Books on
Architecture", as the conjunction of "firmitas, utilitas, &
venustas", which have been translated as structure,
function, and beauty (or sensual appeal).
It is a definition
which has stuck because of its succinctness.
Though it has.
been argued about since the Renaissance, it continues to -be
useful, because it defines architecture in terms of three
different yet united aspects which can be used as starting
points for design.
79
Design is a process of correcting mistakes, not
unlike the notion of evolution as a minimally controlled
drift towards an uncertain end. (See page
.)
Though the
designer has a general idea of where he wants to end, rarely
is it more specific at the beginning of the process than the
list of client requests, or program, which he is given as a
point of departure. It is like the process of drawing.
One
sits in front of a piece of paper, pencil in hand, and some
object to be represented.
Any attempt at rendering a three
dimensional object in two dimensions will result in some
abstraction from reality.
The fact that one is working,
say, in black pencil on white paper means further
abstraction.
Thus, no matter how 'good' the result
(accurate, comprehensible, recognizable, or whatever), it is
going to be something quite different from the object.
From the moment the first mark is made on the paper
one has made the first 'mistake'.
A process of 'correction'
begins as one 'steers' towards who knows exactly what,
trying to make each 'mistake' equilibriate with all the
others to produce something which is 'good', and which
conveys the 'message' one set out to deliver.
The design of a building is somewhat similar.
One
does not have much more than a vague 'description' of the
80
end at which one hopes to arrive.
It is not a process of
representation, nor is it even as simple as th'e process
through which a police artist goes, when at least one person
knows what the end product is supposed to be like.
The theoretician of design can produce a rigorously
outlined description of the design process.
But there are
about as many of these descriptions as there are
theoreticians.
As rigorous as these outlines appear to be,
they are no more than an attempt at 'linearizing' a
circular, iterative feedback process, from a starting point
which is unnecessarily overspecified.
The abstraction
unavoidably oversimplifies.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century (and
again today, to some extent) a number of people, in
particular John Ruskin,
of venustas.
'rationalized'
design on the basis
One might call them 'aesthetic rationalists'.
Ruskin was derided by many because his theory implied that
architecture was simply the application of decoration to
building.
But he was not the naif that many people assume
him to have been.
firmitas and utilitas.
He was aware of the importance of
He simply presumed that any
architect would ensure that his building would stand up, and
that it would enable people to do in it what was required of
81
them. This he believed was no more than the province of the
builder.
For Ruskin the task of the architect was to
transform building into architecture, by the application of
venustas.
In the early twentieth century fascination with the
machine led many architects into a flirtation with
'functional rationalism',
(although this school had had its
beginnings in the early nineteenth century in the work of
J.A.Borgnis, to whom the pivotal purpose of architecture was
utility). The most explicit statement of this attitude was
not le Corbusier's famous aphorism,
for living in",
"A house is
a machine
which has been taken out of a most
unrational context{371, but rather Louis Sullivan's, "Form
follows function".
To many of these architects the question
of 'beauty' was secondary to their delight in (or obsession
with) function. Reacting to the apparent lack of function in
decorations they rejected
it
completely,
and reached a point
where any building, even if it were a country outhouse (I
believe the accepted paradigm was 'bicycle shed'), was seen
as inherently beautiful if it just did what it was supposed
to do.
Naturally, another group of architects believed that
structural integrity was pivotal.
82
These were, in fact the
'original' rationalists, whose roots went back to the work
of Laugier in the eighteenth century. To hide a structural
system behind applied decoration, or 'artificial' massing
was anathema.
An arch or column was used only if
performed a structural task,
it
and was exposed (if possible)
to express the forces which caused it to be there.
was not needed it was not used.
If it
A later movement,
brutalism, developed out of this, which had to do with a
cohesion of 'structural rationalism' and the rationalism of
building materials.
'Rationalism' meant the elimination of
all that was 'unnecessary'.
Thus the rationalist tried to
limit himself to the most essential structure and the most
economic (though not necessarily cheapest) materials.
None of these 'movements' need necessarily be
thought of as taking place in a particular chronological
order. Although there was a particular 'stylistic' component
to each of these forms of rationalism (which implies that
after a certain period they went out of style) there was a
certain interrelationship among them all.
One form of
rationalism played against one or another, so that each was
in a continual state of transformation.
One particular interaction was the work of one group
which tried to integrate firmitas,
83
utilitas,
and venustas on
a basis of 'rationalism'.
To members of this group
'aesthetic rationalism' appeared to be totally inconsistent
and self-contradictory. But beauty in architecture was
However, by definition
unavoidably important to them.
'rationalism' reduced design to the essential.
As beauty
was not necessary for the building to stand up, nor for the
practice of any particular activity within it, it was not
rationalizable in itself.
Thus, out of functional and structural rationalism,
and the concept of integrity (which had to do with the
'honest' expression of function and structure) a body of
theory developed which attempted to account for venustas.
Stated simply,
it
was posited that it
was not only essential
that the demands of structure and function be served; they
must also be seen to. be served.
to be expressed.
Thus,
Function and structure had
one made sure that the different
purposes of different spaces,
and the basic structural
mechanisms, showed in the form the building took.
enough,
an attitude expressed at its
Van Der Rohe's aphorism,
In this way
"Less is
This was
most succinct in
Mies
more".
'structural-functionalists'
incorporated
all the Vitruvian triad into a theory that any building
which really expressed the essential interplay between a
84
rational structural system and a rational functional system
had to be, bl virtue o.
this expression, beautiful.
However, I do not believe in the primacy of any of
the three definands, nor do I believe that the beauty of a
building is
function.
related quite so simply to structure and
At least,
not to the rather limited definition of
function which 'functional
rationalists'
use, limiting it to
the function explicit in the program.
Planners have an expression, 'first cut', which
implies a certain human-ness which is absent from the
concept of rationalism.
on the white paper.
It is analogous to the first line
In design it does not really matter
where one starts, because whatever is done to begin is going
to be changed anyway,
I have made 'first cuts' in design on
the basis of structural, of functional, and of aesthetic
values.
Whatever comes first, the introduction of the next
of the triad always forces quite major changes.
By the time
the third is introduced the original concept is quite
unrecognizable and the process has hardly begun, because it
is repeated again and again. The iterative effect of each on
the others goes on and on. In effect, it can continue
forever. The process of design is never finished; it is only
stopped.
85
If design were no more than this, however, one would
be close to the structural/functionalist position.
What
really enriches the task of design is a different definition
of function, and the scope over which one lets this
definition range. To many architects, function is the
explicit delineation of particular activities expressed in
the program which the client gives the designer.
But a
variation on the planner's question, "Who exactly is the
client?", alters the concept of function completely. I do
not mean that the designer must consider himself as working
explicitly for a constituency beyond the original client,
but that an awareness of this client's role in the broader
society is
necessary before the concept of function is
complete.
Thus, while an architect is designing a building to
perform a specific function for a particular client, he must
be conscious that the client is part of the matrix of
society. (Recall the black, middleclass, Catholic, urban
dweller of the first chapter.)
The 'client' may be a group
of bank owners, and their building will have to permit a
staff to perform particular banking functions.
But the
clients are also building owners, and as such have other
roles which interact with that of bank owner, and which
86
present the designer with a richer set of 'environmental'
constraints Some of these constraints may be as formal and
rigorous as adherence to the street and sewer grids, while
others may be as informal as Edmund Balcon's "principle of
the second man", whereby an owner (depending on the society)
is expected to conform to the existing set of patterns of
building form.{38}
It is this richness that 'functional rationalists'
dismiss when they limit definition of function to the terms
of the program.
The presumption implicit in the dismissal
of the expectations of the individuals who make up the
society is the belief that tradition is no more than the
detrius of a past which has no importance in a new world, a
belief which makes of architecture a less than human art.
Architects and theoriticians of the 1960's and 70's
(in particular Robert Venturi, with his, "Less is a bore")
reacted against this. They expressed a belief that
buildings, in commom with all of our artifacts, have to
perform the function (among others) of communication.
This
has been dismissed as foolish by those who believe that the
expression of function and structure produce all the beauty
necessary or possible. The cynical among them have suggested
that one might as well look for a message from the cook in a
87
Big Mac.
But indeed there is
a message there; simply by
virtue of their existence Big Macs contribute to the culture
in as valid a way as the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
In
producing both, the culture is defining itself. Thus, any
building is contributing to the definition of the culture
within which it exists; this is its communicative function.
It expresses, in some small way, the meaning, or function,
of its society.
If a designer chooses to ignore this as part of the
building's function, he is choosing to avoid some of the
most challenging design constraints, and the most enriching
possibilities. He may do just that, but misses out on most
of the interplay of creativity and criticism which is
essentially what the process of design is all about.
What
Robert Venturi calls the "complexity and contradiction of
architecture"{39}(which in its very terminology is as far
from 'rationalism' as possible) is the result of the
interplay of the various aspects of a rich, rather
overpowering environment.
in the face of all this.
It is impossible to be 'rational'
The recognition that the
contradictions of a society can never reach stasis is more
than analogically expressed in the contradictions of a
building's design.
If the designer is aware of the real
functions for which he is designing, then the dynamic
88
disequilibrium of these functions cannot permit any design
to be rational, because rationalism implies the recognition
as real of a stability which is not possible.
89
SOLAR ENERGY AS A DESIGN CONSTRAINT
When one begins the study of the design of 'solar'
buildings there is a temptation to limit the definition of
function to energy efficiency alone.
'solar' designers
Many
go so far as to presume that any change in lifestyle implied
by the optimization of energy efficiency should be made,
simply because conservation
morally good.
is
In "House Form, and Culture", Amos Rapoport presents
and
supports the hypothesis
that socio-cultural
determinants
and that a
of house
form are the prime determinants,
reliance
on physical factors to explain form of buildings
will leave one far from satisfied.{40}
Many who accepted
his position, however, have transformed energy efficiency
into a socio-cultural factor by virtue of the morality of
conservation , a morality of the 'counter culture' based on
the assumption that less is,
'better'.
if not 'more', most certainly
This is not an idea which finds a ready reception
among the vast majority of Americans.
A change for the
material worse in their way of life will be accepted only
when it is inevitable, and not before. To most lay people
the sort of change which morally committed 'solar'
architects presume to be good because of the constraints on
90
consumption, is unquestionably bad because of these very
constraints.
The inability of these designers to see this
dichotomy has resulted in energy conscious design being
viewed as a symbol of a less than desireable way of life.
The imposition of the demands of physical
determinants on life-style will always be resisted until
these demands are validated by circumstances which go beyond
the moral committment of a few.
Certainly these few are
preparing others to cope with these circumstances if they
come, but as long as these circumstances are only possible,
and not inevitable, things will tend to go on as they are.
Energy connscious design can fit into the way of life with
which most are comfortable, and contribute to its
continuation. While this does make energy efficiency one
determinant among others,
it does not relegate it to the
position of unimportance it had in design before.
The
problem for many architects is that the very fact that it is
included at all complicates the design process considerably,
a point which will receive attention later.
Solar energy has been presented to us as part of an
ancient folk wisdom, forgotten in our mad rush away from the
good earth.
We have but to return to the simple values of
the past, building in the way our ancestors did,
91
for
architecture to be really responsive to our needs.
This is
a romantic oversimplification of the problems we face, for
the societies which developed these simple systems were
quite simple themselves, specially when compared to the
complexity of modern industrial urban society.
The
solutions which worked for their problems do not work for
those of our complex culture.
Because of its separation from all but the most
immediate environmental impacts, our society has developed a
highly sophisticated, technological infrastructure which, as
is the case with any successful societal artifact, has been
integrated into the culture at many levels.
The food we
eat, the clothes we wear, and the buildings in which we live
are, because of technology, only marginally similar to the
equivalent products of fifty years ago.
We depend on
methods of food preservation which were unheard of then.
Clothing is a product, in part, of the chemical industry.
The buildings in which we live and work evidence a
technology of the utmost complexity.
The high-rise office
building and apartment tower, essential to the functioning
of our society, are far removed from the self-contained
farmhouse. The architectural folk wisdom which made the
pueblos perfect reactions to the physical and socio-cultural
determinants of their time, is not applicable today, except
92
at the level of the most 'uninterdependent' structures.
Of all the professionals, architects seem to have
avoided as much involvement with technology as possible, in
spite of the fact that buildings are so much involved with
the technological infrastructure characteristic of our
contemporary culture.
This statement seems to contradict an
earlier comment about the technical complexity of modern
urban buildings. In fact, it does not.
The architect has
little immediate personal involvement with technology
because he has been led into a dependence on a number of
relatively new professions by virtue of this complexity, in
particular on mechanical and civil engineers, whose
specializations have advanced as the technological command
expected of the architect has retreated.
The architect, even in a period as late as Ruskin's,
was part of a tradition of relatively steady change, and his
meaning in the culture (while obviously open to a certain
speculation, reflected in the conflicting theories which
were developing) was fairly well defined.
were much the same as they had always been,
materials were the same.
Building methods
because
Architects could rely on a
tradition of structural methods which, compared to today's,
were little more than a set of rules of thumb.
93
With the
development of elevators, concrete, steel, artificial
lighting, mechanically controlled environments &c.,
the
command of technical information which had to be synthesized
into the construction of a building was beyond most of those
who were capable of what, previously, had been all the
'correct actions' expected of an architect.
Architecture
remained what it had been, and did not change to incorporate
these changes, because individuals in the profession were
replaced by others expected to perform the same 'correct
actions' (and, thus, by people who expected to have to
perform only those actions).
Thus, in spite of all the arguments about
'structural rationalism' and 'structural functionalism',
there are very, very few architects who know enough about
mechanics and building materials to be truly rational about
any system larger than the family house.
In the same way,
there are very, very few who understand the complex
technology behind the maintenance of human comfort, which is
the province of the mechanical engineer.
Thus architecture
remains very much what it was to John Ruskin, the
integration of decoration and building. For Ruskin, that
aspect of building which was not architecture was the
integration of firmitas and utilitas alone.
For most modern
architects it is whatever is the province of the civil and
94
mechanical engineer.
The architect is trained to integrate
their structuring and machining of the building with the
function of the building. He will work with them to create a
relationship between the massing, the materials, the
mechanics.
He can expose the duct-work, and paint it bright
colours; he can decide to clad the structure in granite, or
to go with bush-hammered concrete.
But,
in the end, he is a
manipulator of venustas and utilitas, and is content with
this role, not simply because of the fact that he is
incapable of working at the technical level of the engineer,
but rather because he is not expected to.
Unfortunately, the inclusion of energy efficiency as
a design constraint has complicated the process of design in
an extremely technical way.
It requires the routine
integration of firmitas, utilitas, and venustas on the basis
of a definition of function which includes the program
outline, as well as the broader definition of function
discussed earlier.
But,
it must also include the
maintenance of human comfort which was a responsibility of
the architect in a tradition of less complicated structural
problems, a responsibility which has become that of the
mechanical engineer.
There are three ways out of the
problem. First, design can stay the same, and the architect
continues to perform the same set of
95
'correct actions'.
In
this way solar architecture becomes the responsibility of a
non-architectural expert.
Second, design can incorporate
the constraints of human comfort, but gets to be no more
difficult.
(That is,
something else has to go;
usually this
means the sort of redefinition of function to eliminate
anything which stands in the way of energy efficiency.)
The third way out is for the architect to accept the
redefinition of function to include the maintenance of human
comfort, and to expand his capabilities to permit him to be
able to design in such a way that the integration of the
Vitruvian triad incorporates comfort into utilitas.
To many
this means a reevaluation of their role, and as such, can be
fraught with problems.
Technical training in mathematics, physics, and
chemistry is necessarily limited by the demands of other
aspects of architectural education which are important, and
by the tradition of reliance on other professions. In most
cases the architect's only exposure to technology is through
the work of these other experts.
this is the reason why
than 'passive',
To a very large extent
'active' solar energy systems, rather
were the ones which started the movement
towards solar, because the
redefinition of role.
'active' solution calls for no
In fact,
916
'active' can be routinized
into the regular pattern of interprofessional practice with
no more radical perturbation than the replacement of one
mechanical system by another.
97
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE DEFINED
'Solar' architecture attempts to minimize dependence
on external energy sources, other than sunlight, for the
maintenance of human comfort in a building.
A solar building is defined as 'passive' when the
methods of energy collection, storage, and distribution are
totally independent of mechanical systems.
'Active' solar
energy, on the other hand, relys completely on mechanical
systems to bridge the gaps between collection, storage and
consumption.
A system is 'hybrid' when one of these two
gaps is bridged mechanically.
A more 'active' hybrid system
links collection and storage mechanically; it is more
'passive' when the mechanical link is between storage and
the locations of energy consumption.
While 'passive' solar design is unquestionably a
more architectural approach, the facility with technical
knowledge which is required for the integration of
collection, storage, and distribution into the fabric of the
building is immense, compared to the architect's normal
routine of working with a mechanical engineer and designing
98
the building around an H.V.A.C. system designed by him.
'Passive' design is absolutely integrated into architectural
design.
It cannot, as is the case with
'active', be handed
over to an expert external to the process.
Unless an
architect is prepared to be educated (or reeducated) in the
technical knowledge required for this sort of design
integration he is incapable of real 'passive' design, for
the maintenance of a rather rigorously defined range of
human comfort depends on much more than the application of a
few rules of thumb to a 'regular' design. It is for this
reason that many architects have found it easier to 'go
solar'
with 'active'
systems.
If the building is small, and he is designing the
'active' system himself, it will be, essentially, a building
with a mechanical system similar to the one it replaces or
supplements, with ductwork and fans for example, used in the
same way.
The major difference is the impact of the flat
plate collector, which should not be a difficult constraint
to deal with, as powerful as its impact on form may be.
If the building is large the system will be designed
by an engineer.
Within the constraints of this routinized
setting, the architectural impact of the flat plate
collector is basically similar to other technological
99
impacts (elevator housing, cooling vents, &c.).
The
architect designs around an 'add on' technology, the
understanding of which can be left to a technical expert, an
engineer.
The innovation of
'active' solar energy is, thus,
immediately routinizable at the level of the design
professions.
In contrast, 'passive' solar energy is a completely
architectural concept.
Because of the integration of energy
collection, storage, and distribution with firmitas,
utilitas, and venustas, it is essentially the separation of
architecture from the routine reliance on the external
technical expert.
But one of the results of this reliance
has been a history of tighter and tighter definitions of
comfort, so that a building is now expected to provide a
rigorously well-tempered environment.
Designers, once cheap
fuel and the technology essential for its conversion into
useable heat and cool was available, not only gave up the
responsibility for comfort; comfort was very quickly
redefined.
When fireplaces supplied the heat, then
furniture, clothing, and even patterns of living contributed
to define a level of comfort which most would find
unacceptable today. The emergence of the technical
professions permitted the internal environment to be so
finely adjustable that we are now free to wear summer
100
clothes throughout the year indoors, and furniture which
would have meant pneumonia for its users a hundred years ago
is the norm today. In passive design this well tempered
environment has to be entirely the responsibility of the
architect.
101
REDEFINITION OF ROLE
Before he can accept this responsibility for the
comfort of the building's occupants, the architect must
reevaluate certain aspects of his professional role, and
redefine what
'correct actions' are for that role.
are two barriers to this redefinition.
There
First; as much as
teachers and practicioners of design make gestures in the
direction of this responsibility, the availability of
mechanical environmental control, and of the technical
expert to design it when the scale of the work calls for
him,
has limited the definition of the architect's
role to
one with which many are comfortable. Second; the acceptance
of all responsibility for the internal environment implies a
technical involvement which most architects are either quite
happy to avoid, or incapable of, by virtue of the
limitations of their training, and by the sort of person
'called' to the study and practice of architecture.
The design of a passive building, while in many ways
similar to the regular design process, goes far beyond the
application of a few simple
'rules of thumb',
results which the technical expert can refine.
102
to produce
The
architect is the technical expert in this case.
The
'passive' design process combines all of the features of
regular design with what is essentially an exercise in
rigorously applied mathematics acting as the governing
design constraint.
And (even when this is reduced to the
use of programmable hand held calculators) this is the sort
of constraint most practicing architects, who have developed
a working routine with which they are comfortable, are quite
happy to avoid.
Even the architectural student is socialized to
accept a role created by the iteration of perception
stabilizing at the level of artist.
But this stability is
not real stability, existing as it does in a gestalt of
dynamic disequilibrium.
It is the constancy of change which
this implies which will enable individuals who comprise the
group 'architects and architectural students' to iteratively
redefine 'correct actions' to incorporate a command of the
technical knowledge necessary for the routinization of
'passive' solar energy. But this is the path of peer
pressure, and the rate of acceptance will not be accelerated
by dependence on this path alone.
External motivation is
essential for acceleration, and it will be one of the
purposes of this study to suggest methods by which this
might be done.
103
CHAPTER 4
A 'PASSIVE'
DESIGN
IN'RODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to present an abstract of a
program and an example of a 'passive' design which illustrates that
the acceptance of the responsibility for the finely tuned environment
concern with other
is not contrary to the architect's and client's
determinants of design, in particular, form. To a great extent the
manner in which 'passive' design was presented until recently meant
that the constraint of energy efficiency was quite inimical to formal
concerns.
Aditionally, and primarily, the purpose of the example is to
illustrate the extent of the technical involvement required of the
architect. The mastery of calculative techniques had an impact on
'massing'
of the building, affected choice of materials, and influenced
the treatment of the building's membrane.
The process of design did not, however, negate the 'intuitive
When a 'formal' decision was
approach, but rather adumbrated it.
made intuitively its effect could be measured with exatitude. The
scale of the change could be adjusted to ensure the thermal camfort
of the users. This is the most important aspect of 'passive' design,
for comfort is 'the name of the game'.
104
PROGRAM ABSTRACT
The Christian Herter. Center, on the Charles River in
Boston, is among other things a demonstration center for
energy conservation programs, projects, and ideas.
The
directors of the Center want to add a restaurant to the
original structure which will serve as a 'state of the art'
demonstration of good energy conscious design.
A number
of students at MIT presented designs among which the example
presented in this chapter was one.
The following items constitute the salient aspects
of the building program:
i
the restaurant must be contiguous to the
original building, and be a reasonable
outgrowth of the main building in order
to be acceptable to the Metropolitan
District Commission, which owns the land.
ii
iii
iv
indoor dining area 1300 sq. ft.
kitchen area is 400 sq. ft.
provide space for lavatories, coat checking,
and waiting
v
vi
one or two levels may be used
a 'roll-out' outdoor light lunch area for
Charles river goers is required for temperate
months, which should have an informal
105
'picnic' atmosphere and a pleasant
microclimate
vii
the indoor dining area will serve light
luncheon for river goers and workers in the
surrounding offices between noon and 3 pm,
and formal dinners at night between 6pm and
10 pm, six days a week
viii
conferences in the center will be catered
by the restaurant
ix
space should not be taken from the
interior of the main building
x
xi
existing parking should be utilized
the dining area should undergo 5 air changes
per hour during service
xii
air conditioners/chillers should be avoided
Other features of the program required that the
restaurant be as exciting a place as its surroundings, while
remaining sympathetic to the site (the moat surrounding an
outdoor theater built onto and into a man-made berm, and the
river).
Any extra heat should be used in the existing building.
A schedule of kitchen appliances which produced close
to 170,000 BTU's per hour was given, and this heat was to
be recovered and used as necessary.
106
THE
'INTUITIVE'APPROACH
When one is asked to design a 'passive', energy
conserving building the immediate reaction is to start
thinking in terms of southern exposure, earth berms,
underground structures, and building mass.
However, there
were features of this problem (the site, and aspects of the
building's function) which were completely imimical to this
approach.
The view was to the north, which meant that
northern glazing was unavoidable.
The view to the south,
of an arterial roadway, factories, and offices, was so
unprepossessing that minimal south glazing was desirable.
The water table was two feet below grade.
The site
was completely flat, except for a berm which contained the
storage for an 'active' solar heating system already serving
the Herter Center.
So underground building was impossible
(even if the view were not important).
Moreover, the main
building was a simple (some might say boring) example of
1950's, International Style, structural rationalism.
If
energy conservation had not been an issue any addition
would have called for a strictly formal approach based on
aesthetic principles, unless one were simply to continue
the original structure.
107
First:
for cooling purposes an extension was needed
beyond the north edge of the Center.
the area requested in the program.
This fitted in with
The quarter circle was
not big enough, even with the two floors needed to bring
the addition to the height of the original building.
was it formally effective.
Nor
Without the breeze catching
extension to the north it did not end the original structure
with any finality.
It was very much a minor addition which
needed this sort of exaggeration to have the effect that
was necessary.
The glass roof had to be sloped to get rid of rain
and snow, but against the strong statement of the long
roof of the Herter Center with its striking reflective,
black solar collectors, this slope contributed to the
weaker statement of addition rather than to the stronger
statement of end.
A decision was made to surround the
perimeter of the roof with a reflective glass fascia.
This served the purposes of concealing the 'weak' slope,
continuing the statement of the collectors, contributing
to an apparent volumetric enlargement still needed to
balance the 'weight' of the original, and at the same
time provided a support for shading devices which would
be needed in the hotter months.
Aside from this, the
metal structure needed to support this fascia could be
108
But, in spite of the conservation constraint, formal
issues could not be ignored.
The sort of addition which
used the vocabulary of the obviously energy efficient
building would have been an impossibly inconsistent, add-on
attachment to the main building.
For all these reasons the
first cut was not made on the basis of energy efficiency,
but on the basis of form.
There was one other reason; a
feeling that it was about time to see how much a 'formal'
designer could get away with when constrained by energy
efficiency.
It was decided to go to an extreme in the
first cut, to break one of the major rules of energy
conscious design, and work with glass alone.
It would be
possible to work back from this if it were necessary,
using solid walls and roof if heat loss or heat gain
demanded it.
Starting with an initial form of a quarter circle,
with a diameter equal to the width of the original
building, a flat, glass-roofed structure was added to its
east end (to minimize the effect of late afternoon sun.
This form was then adjusted as constraints of taste,
energy efficiency, and function demanded.
109
constructed of the same components which were used to
define the bays of the Center, thus tying the addition
aesthetically to the old building.
Even the profligate
use of glass repeated, in another way, the large glass
surface of the original.
The location of the parking lot, and a decision to
keep service roads to a minimum, called for service and
client entrances to be on the south side, close to the
entrance to the Center.
This fitted into the constraint
of the northern view, but necessitated some planting to
separate visually the Center and service entrances.
Site planting was used for the same purpose, to
keep the outdoor service area separate from the
restaurant, at the same time serving to direct breezes
into the wind scoop extension.
Finally, some
formal manipulation of the perimeter
wall served to express the functional separation of a
possible bar area, and of the entrance area.
The relatively
isolated nature of the site reduced the impact of those
broader aspects of function referred to in the previous
chapter to the
sorts of constraints outlined above.
110
ENERGY CONSERVATION AS A DESIQN CONSTPAINT IN THIS DESIGN
The decision to work with an all glass structure was
made, to some extent, for reasons outlined in the section
An Intuitive Approach, but what really generated the idea
was a knowledge of the properties of Heat Mirror, and a
feeling that this material could be used to give the energy
conscious designer a freedom that many such designer believe
no longer exists.
A glass building would have normally been unthinkable.
But Heat Mirror, a treated glass with the ability to reflect
heat, transforms the properties of a building membrane.
Once
light has entered a building glazed with this material, and
has been transformed into heat on striking a non-reflective
surface, this glass prevents it from re-radiating to the
outside.
In fact, double glazing with this material is, as
far as heat retention is concerned, equivalent to a regular
2 1/2" stud wall with 1" of Fiberglas insulation.
It has the
added advantage of letting the sunlight in, and acts as an
effective collector, whereas the stud wall acts only as a
heat retainer.
111
Heat storage was handled
tiles
by the use of eutectic salt
(Sol-Ar-Tiles) which were spread throughout the building,
on floors and ceiling.
They have nine times the heat capacity
of concrete, and store the heat as phase change energy.
In
this way interior temperatures tend to stay close to 72 0 F, if
an
ideal balance between glazing and tiles is possible,
without the need for mechanical control.
This building was
allowed to drop to 45 0F before sunrise in winter, as no one
is expected to use the main area until 11 am.,
by which
time solar gain will lift the interior temperature to 65 0F.
on an average January day. In this way the building acts as
a completely 'passive' system, trapping light, and storing
it in the location in which it is needed.
Additional heat was available from people and lights, as
well as from recycled kitchen heat.
A simple heat exchange
system can return 65% of the heat exhausted from the kitchen,
and can be stored in eutectic salt pads distributed between
the joists of the upper level platform, and in the floor of
the lower level.
There is enough heat available from this
source that in the worst month, January, sun, people, lights,
and kitchen heat can supply 113% of the requirements for an
average day.
Thus, the back-up system does not have to cover
catastrophic gaps, and an efficient fireplace would do the job,
particularly because it could be integrated with the storage
system so that the fire's heat could be released slowly, at
a comfortable temperature.
112
In the warmer months the building can be kept comfortable
by three methods.
First:
it can be opened up completely
to catch breezes from any direction, and it has been
calculated that a three mile per hour wind would be enough to
keep the interior comfortably ventilated.
Second:
the
metal structure which supports the fascia, and which
enlarges the volume of the building and 'ties' the addition
to the main building, also acts as a support for shading
devices, which would be needed on the east and west in high
summer.
Finally:
cafe fans can provide all the air movement
needed for comfort an a still day.
As the roof is of mirrored glass on the upper surface it
transmits less than 15% of the incident radiation.
It thus
provides a view out at the same time as it shades the
interior.
Shade, wind, and fans provide all the 'cooling'
necessary, because heat build-up can be avoided completely
by opening up the perimeter walls.
113
ROUTINE & 'PASSIVE' DESIGN RELATED
Before outlining what is essentially the calculative
process of 'passive' design it is important to understand
that design depends on a holistic, and definitely non-linear
approach to problem solving.
The design of a 'passive'
building is not a matter of going through a process similar
to the one described above, and then following it with the
'passive' cut.
Ideally (although in reality time constraints
have their effect),
after each 'intuitive' decision a 'passive'
evaluation would be made as outlined in the next section.
This is not possible because the volume of calculation would
be enormous.
Thus, what usually happens is that at some stage the
design is evaluated on the basis of the
'passive' design
method and, if the energy efficiency of the building leaves
something to be desired, one makes changes by synthesizing,
'all at once', a number of decisions based on one or more of
the Vitruvian triad, and others based on a knowledge of
materials and an awareness (or feeling) for the effects these
will have on efficiency.
Then the calculation process is
repeated, followed by 'intuitive' changes, then recalculation,
until the desired level of efficiency is reached.
114
(The whole yearly calculation is not made at every stage.
March is usually chosen as a representative month, acceptable
in the case of a building with southern orientation.
This
short-cut was made in the case of the example in this chapter
in spite of the fact that the orientation was definitely not
south, and also in spite of the fact that the contribution
from the sun in March was always.above the seasonal
contribution.
But once the difference was known it was
possible to allow for it in subsequent calculations.)
The bulky set of calculations in Appendix 2 is the result
of the penultimate design.
Certain minor changes were made
after this using 'intuitive' approaches, but with an awareness
that these changes would have minimal
effects on efficiency.
115
(probably positive)
A
'PASSIVE'
DESIGN METHOD
The modified 'passive'
is
design method presented here
an abstraction of a more holistic
This method,
however,
although total
temperature.
of impacts,
deals only with thermal comfort,
comfort is
It
is
a
design approach.
not simply a function of
complicated interaction
among which are light
levels,
of a number
glare,
color,
and texture.
The method of measuring solar gain used in
design is
this
a modification of one developed by Timothy
Johnson (Department of Architecture, MIT),
primarily for
buildings which depend on south facing glazing for
solar collection.
The purpose of this modification is
to
enable one to account for multiple glazing, orientations,
dependent on a series of corrections
(each of which could
be further refined).
It
depends
on the use of programs
for
the Texas
Instruments' TI-59 programmable calculator, programs
developed by Tim Johnson,
Hale, and Jim Rosen
and by Cris Benton,
Stephen
(students in the Department of
Architecture at MIT).
116
& is
SUMMARY:
This method is
essentially a measurement of the solar
gain on an average day in
each month,
overheating on clear days in
critical
with checks for
months.
Clear day radiation is
i
to evaluate overheating,
calculated
and to develop transmission
factors for the glazing system.
ii
critical
Overheating is
months,
calculated for
when solar gains could be rendered
useless by the necessity to ventilate if
storage is
not designed into the building.
iii
radiation
sufficient
Corrections
figures,
are made
to account for
to reflected ground
radiation
through glazing which does not face south.
reflected
It
is
an
important correction with other orientations because,
if
it
is
not made,
iv
solar gain will be overstated.
Average
daily radiation is
calculated
to find the amount of useable solar gain one might
expect in
an average year.
v
finally
Contributions from solar gain are
compared to heat needs to evaluate
efficiency of the design.
117
the thermal
DETAIL:
i
Clear Day Radiation
Using Cris Benton's
the clear
is
day beam
calculated
in
& Transmission Factors.
'Solar Angles
(i.e.,
direct)
two forms;
outside of the glass,
& Radiation'
program,
and diffuse
radiation
and radiation
radiation
incident
finally
on the
transmitted.
Transission factors are developed by dividing
transmitted radiation by incident radiation.
example 1
TRANSMITTED
CLEAR DAY RADIATION
ORIENTATION
ANGLE
TRANS
BEAM,
INCID
0
731.5
1216.9
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
673.3
428.1
315.8
94.4
2.2
183.0
1110.3
690.1
528.5
199.6
13.3
1248.1
FACTOR
.601
.606
.620
.598
.473
.165
.147
& TRANSMISSION
ADIFFUSEa
TRANS
144.5
"
INCID
FACTOR
237.6
"t
.608
"
if
it
if
"I
"
"V
25.6
*
Transmitted
Incident
#Transmission Factor
118
FACTORS
174.1
.147
ii
Actual Ground Reflected Radiation.
This refinement is
Rosen's
'Average
performed by using data from Jim
Daily Radiation'
program.
The calculation proceeds as follows:
a.
select
the orientation
with highest
beam radiation
b.
find ratio between beam & diffuse at
this
orientation
example 2
Ratio of Beam to Diffuse
Radiation Ratio
Highest Average Day Beam
Average Day Diffuse
645.2
222.8
868.0
Totals
.743
.257
1.000
apply these ratios to the radiation
c.
reflected from ground to break it
into beam &
diffuse components
example
3
Beam & Diffuse Components
(at
highest
Beam orientation)
]3eflected
Beam co-mponent
Diffuse component
d.
radiation
calculate
at
'beam
factors'
each orientation
119
106.7
Ratio Radiation
x
.743
=
.257
1.000
=
79. 3
27.4
106.7
to relate
to the level
beam
at
the orientation where it is highest
example
4
'Beam Factors'
Orientation
Angle
0
-35
-90
-105
e.
Beam
Radiation
Beam
Factor
645.2
619.4
430.1
309,2
1.000
.960
.667
.479
apply these factors to the beam components
found in
(c.)
to find the actual beam component
at each orientation
example 5
Beam Component of Ground Reflected Radiation
Orientation
Angle
Beam
Be am
Factor
Component
79.3
0
-35
-90
-105
f.
Highest
Beam
1.000
.960
.667
.479
Component
at Angle
79.3
76.1
52.9
38.0
add this to the diffuse component found in
(c.)
(the same at each orientation) to get actual
reflected radiation at each orientation
example 6
Actual Reflected Radiation
Orientation
Angle
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
120
(from ground)
Beam
Component
Diffuse
Component
Actual
Reflected
79.3
76.1
52.9
38.0
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
106.7
103.5
80.3
65.4
27.4
27.4
iii
Overheating in Critical Months
Overheating is dependent on
(among other things) the
area of south facing glass and the mass of the heat
storage medium.
In this building there is little
south facing glass, which can be taken into account
by the use of a rough correcting factor outlined below;
a.
using 'Solar Angles & Radiation' figures
calculate the total clear day radiation
collected by the whole building,
(i.e., by
multiplying transmitted radiation at each
orientation by the glass area and summing
the results)
b.
to find the area of south facing glass
which would provide the same amount of radiation,
divide the non-south radiation by the radiation
per sq. ft. on south facing glass
example 7
Equivalent 'South' Glazing
Total Clear Day Transmitted
Radiation 1,281,616 BTU
481,800
- Radiation from South Glass
799,816
BTU/SQ. FT. on South glass
876
Non-south Equivalent (799,816/876)= 913 Sq.
550
+ Real South Glass
Equivalent 'South' Glazing
121
1463
Ft.
Stephen Hale's 'Niles" program uses this figure to
calculate the equilibrium temperature of the building,
and the amplitude
(or temperature swing) for both
radiative and convective connections between the
solar gain and the storage location.
A rough estimation of the unventilated noon
temperature can be made by adding 2/3 of the amplitude
to the equilibrium temperature (since the program
assumes that temperature peaks at 3.00 pm.).
If this figure is too high, design changes are then
made (eg., reduce glazing, increase storage, change
form, etc.).
(In this design fans go on at noon, and ventilation
removes any additional heat build-up in winter.
In
summer, the cafe fans and the open window-walls
ensure that the interior temperature will be slightly
above the exterior temperature, a situation offset
by the cooling sensation of the passage of air.)
122
iv
Average Daily Radiation Transmitted
Take average daily radiation corrected for reflected
radiation from step ii. for each orientation.
Multiply this figure by the transmission factors
from step i.
This figure is the
amount of
radiation per sq. ft. transmitted at each orientation.
This figure is multiplied by the glass area at the
particular orientation.
The results of this
multiplication are then summed to give a total daily
transmitted radiation figure for the whole building.
When this total is multiplied by the days in the month
a total heat gain for the month is available.
(This complete calculation is given in the following
example.)
123
example 8
Average Daily Radiation Transmitted
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
INCIDENT TRANSMIS TRANSMITTED GLASS TOTAL RAD'N
RADIATION FACTOR RADIATION
AREA TRANSMITTED
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
645.2
228.8
106.7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
619.4
228.8
103.5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
430.1
228.8
80.3
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
309.2
228.8
65.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
228.8
27.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOTAL
228.8
27.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
578.5
444.3
0.7
.601
.608
.608
.606
.608
.608
.620
.608
.608
.598
.608
.608
.473
.608
.608
.165
.608
.608
.147
.147
.147
TOTAL
387.8
139.1
64.9
591.8
550
325,490
408.8
139.1
62.9
610.8
330
201,564
266.7
139.1
48.8
454.6
105
47,733
184.9
139.1
39.8
363.8
280
101,864
139.1
16.7
155.8
280
43,624
139.1
16.7
155.8
910
141,778
85.1
65.3
0.1
150.5
905
136,202
998,255
Average Monthly Radiation Transmitted
(Total heat gain)
998,255 x 31 = 30,945,905 BTU/MARCH
124a
V.
Monthly & Seasonal Heating Fractions
The 'Bin Data' method is used to calculate
these percentages.
This method is a refinement of the
normal 'Degree Day' method, which assumes that all
buildings reach a balance with the external environment
at 65 0F.
This is not true;.the balance point is a
function of the resistence of the building's skin to
heat loss, the temperature of the interior, and the
internal gains from people, lights, etc..
As the balance point is lowered
better insulation,
thermostat levels),
(because of
higher internal gains,
or lower
the impact of the external
environment is also lowered.
That is;
the 'degree
day' figure is modified to show a lower value than
that which would have resulted from the assumption
that the balance point is always 650F.
Tim Johnson's 'Bin Data' program uses this
method to calculate the monthly heat load.
The
solar contribution to this load can be divided by the
load itself to give a Net Solar Fraction.' This does
not, however, account for the contribution from
124b
people and lights, which can be corrected by adding
this contribution to the load as the denominator in
the division to give a Gross Solar Fraction.
example 9
Solar Fractions
March load (from 'Bin Data' program) 32.7 mill BTU's
NET Solar Fraction:
GROSS Solar Fraction:
124c
30.9/32.7
=
94.7%
30.9/(32.7 + 6.4#) = 79.2%
DESIGN PRESENTATION
The following conceptual drawings and tables are for
presentation before the detailed design stage is begun.
The interaction of the constraints outlined earlier
would be continued, refined by structural detailing which
would be likely to affect form.
It is, therefore, possible
that demands of structure could affect the energy efficiency
of the building
everything else).
(as well as the interplay of function with
If so, recalculation, followed by more
changes, wolul continue, with a final calculation after all
the details had been resolved.
125
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CONCLUSION
The program for this building called for energy
conserving features, and the final design was able to
achieve a Net Solar Fraction of 68%, and a Gross
Solar Fraction of 62%, for the entire heating season.
Net Fraction ranged from 45% in December to 100%
in
April, May, and October.
By using recycled Xitchen heat
(from two sequential
heat exchangers) practically 100% of the heating needs for
an average heating season is possible, meaning that the
backup system does not have to be a major mechanical
addition, but can be an efficient fireplace.
This sort of efficiency is only possible to design for
when the designer has a capability to work with technical
information.
But the integration of technology with other
aspects of the design process is only possible when the
'technician' is trained in design.
These two aspects of
design are integral, and 'passive' technology cannot be
handled as a 'second step' which is the responsibility of
the 'passive expert'.
It is the responsibility of the
architect/designer.
134
It is hard to say what the design for this building
would have been like if the constraint of energy efficiency
had not been the governing constraint, active from the
beginning of the design process.
What is important is
that this observation can only be made because a 'passive'
design method was used.
It is most unlikely that one would have chosen such a
perverse material as glass.
The major problem would not have
been heat loss, which would have been handled routinely by
replacing the heat mechanically.
been more of a constraint.
Summer cooling would have
Because in non-energy conscious
design summer comfort was treated as a function of temperature
alone, ventilation would not have been considered.
would have meant a sealed structure.
This
In an all glass building,
without the benefit of the heat capacity of Sol-Ar-Tiles air
conditioning would have been needed even in the heating season,
and would have been prohibitively expensive.
About all that can be said about a design which was not
governed by the energy constraint is that it would have been
considerably different.
Without an awareness of the
135
existence of materials like Heat Mirror and Sol-Ar-Tiles,
and without the ability to calculate the effect of using them,
it would have been quite impossible to take the responsibility
for the comfort of the users.
Even if materials other than
glass had been used and heat storage had been real mass, the
ability to calculate heat balance would have been necessary.
The design which resulted, while it would have been
possible, given certain formal predilections on the part of
the designer, would have been ridiculous because it would
have demanded an exhorbitant expenditure on the installation
and operation of an HVAC system, which (of course) would
have been designed by a mechanical engineer.
136
CHAPTER 5
ELIMINATING OBSTACLES TO 'PASSIVE'
SOIAR ENERGY
INIDUCTION
The first task in this chapter is
(having set forth the nature
of the institutional arena in Chapters 1 and 2,
and the general nature
of architectural design in Chapter 3) to define the institutional
nature of the architectural profession. Whether it is organizational
(formal or informal), whether it is non-organizational (collectivity
or social order), what its functional/ccmpliance typology is, has a
particular,
impact on the methods which can be used efficiently to
accelerate the integration of 'passive'
design into the routine of the
profession.
The second task deals with those elements which make 'passive'
design possible, yet do not fit in with the campetence or disposition
of most architects because they have been socialized into a role
defined by different actions. These elements must be incorporated
into the perception of the architect' s role. By making use of the
understanding of the institutional structure of the profession an
evaluation of illustrative types of innovation acceleration programs
for 'passive' solar energy will be made. Recomnendations for their
alteration
(where necessary),
and for their incorporation
(where
appropriate) into a procedure which will ensure an acceleration of
their acceptance by architects will complete this second task.
137
THE ARCHITECT'S ROLE AND
'PASSIVE' DESIGN
'Passive' solar energy systems face a plethora of
social barriers which continue to act as a felted mesh
blocking the pathway to acceptance.
Getting rid of one
barrier is, because of this interactive relationship between
it and others, difficult.
is that, if
But the other side of this coin
one obstacle is effectively removed, there is a
consequent weakening of the relationship between others.
It
is not, therefore, a matter of removing all of them one by
one.
As each falls,
those that are left nave less power to
prevent change than they did when they lent strength to, and
gained it from, others.
'Passive'
faces a particularly
important obstacle to
acceptance right at the beginning of the pipeline, and when
constriction occurs at this point there are no other outlets
through which the flow of information can pass. 'Active'
would have encountered the same barrier if it had been
dependent on architects for its meaning/function
attribution.
But, because it was capable of being
routinized at the level of a regular inter-professional
138
interaction, the flow of information, when it could not be
handled by an architect, passed through the mechanical
engineer.
The fact that 'passive'
solution,
is
a uniquely architectural
which can only be dealt with by the integration of
human comfort into the definition of utilitas,
is
not (as
can be seen from the previous chapter) inconsequential for
the designer who accepts this responsibility.
It is not
that those of us who do accept it become 'functional
rationalists'.
In fact, in the design process for the
restaurant, I made a point of trying to slaughter one sacred
cow,
the belief that energy conscious design is
always
obviously energy conscious design.
The design process may well have started with a
'first cut' through venustas for this reason, but that
aspect of utilitas which had to do with comfort was
omnipresent from then on, and was rendered meaningful (..
integrated with firmitas and venustas) by means of an
involvement with mathematics through Jhaq use Qf -a st
computer
programs,
a method of involvement which is
of
not part
of the perception of the necessarily 'correct actions' which
define architect.
Fellow architects, who watched the
process from the position of 'real architects', were often
139
cynical about 'number crunching', or sarcastic about
'passive' as a passing fad.
My TI-59 programmable
calculator became so much a symbol of my 'incorrect actions'
that I began to keep it out of sight, and at this point
became aware of the socializing to which I had been subject.
Not only is the technical process difficult to learn, its
command is part of a set of actions which indicate
'non-architect', rather than 'architect-plus-somethingelse'.
In a few cases some were ready to admit to an
inadequacy insofar as command over technical information was
concerned, which they agreed was unfortunate because they
were interested in 'passive'.
But the very process of
watching someone involved in a process which appeared to be
so difficult, or distasteful, or both, was enough to
discourage further interest.
There is no way around the technical aspect of
passive design.,
In most parts of the country winter is
harsh enough to necessitate fairly rigorous calculation if
the comfort of a building's occupants is to be maintained.
It is not simply a matter of doing all the right things as
far as conservation is concerned, putting in windows to gain
sunlight, and some storage facilities, and then relying on a
146
back-up system.
The size of the back-up system is
on the success of the 'passive
this system.
design',
as is
dependent
the type of
The question of whether a mechanical engineer
will be needed depends on the size of the building, but even
if one is, the 'passive' aspect of the design will be
totally out of his control.
Thus, if 'passive' solar energy is considered to be
a workable alternative energy source for a reduced
dependence on regular energy supplies, it must be integrated
into the routine of 'architecture' before it can be
integrated into the routine of society.
Dependence on peer
pressure has created very few architects who are capable of
'passive' design beyond the 'rules of thumb' level, many of
whom are still morally committed to c-onservation
.
While
most change has to follow this path at its beginning, before
it can be truly integrated it must move beyond it.
If energy~ conscious design can find its place at all
levels of society it will have to be routinized by
architects who are concerned with form, or with broadly
defined function.
If these individuals continue to perceive
conservation as being inimical to their major concerns it
will be rejected.
For these architects 'passive' must be
seen as something that does not override these interests,
141
and it must be seen as part of those actions which, if
performed, contribute to the perception of the performer as
an architect (rather than not-contribute to a perception of
him as a non-architect).
142
INSTITUTIONAL THEORY SUMMARIZED
It will help at this stage to summarize some of the
more important features of the chapter on institutional
analysis and institutional theory.
An institution is an abstract social entity which is
perceived to manifest shared meaning structures, and in
relation to which the meaning structures of those who do,
or do not, share them are assessed.
The institutional arena (all those entities which are
institutions) comprises certain groups of individuals who
form organizations and others forming entities which are
not organized
(non-organizations).
Organizations can have a formal structure, where
those in a power position (higher order participants) have
the ability to direct subordinates
to perform certain actions.
(lower order participants)
The subordinates, however,
also learn from their peers certain correct actions for
their own interaction.
transferral interact.
These two forms of information
When the organization is formal
there is a hierarchy imposed by the higher order
participants, and accepted by all.
143
In an informal
organization the hierarchical quality exists, but it is
an expression of an evaluation by all participants, and
not imposed.
Membership in organizations can also be
institutionalized, so that the qualities expected of a
member become abstracted into a set of values, or a
meaning or function, against which others can be assessed.
Non-organizations can be either collectivities
(an
institutional entity with participants characterized by a
a common quality or interest) or social orders
(a societal
disposition withoutspecified members, but which exists
because
of individuals' disposition to contribute to, or
participate in,
it).
Both collectivities and social orders have no
hierarchical structure.
In certain cases participants
need not even be aware of participation.
Individuals or persons can be institutions when
certain aspects of their personalities are abstracted by
others, and they become entities which manifest values,
or meaning and function, to those others.
144
Collectivities and social orders are not organized
bodies, and do not, therefore, have a hierarchy accepted
This does not mean, however,
by all their participants.
that there are no higher order participants.
But, in
spite of this fact, the imposition of directives which is
possible in an organization is not possible elsewhere.
What does happen is that certain individuals become
accepted
(through the process of iterative perception)
as embodying
the common interest or condition of the
participants in a collectivity, or the disposition of
participants in a social order.
In this way, without the
superior/subordinate relationship which is essential to
organizations, non-organizations can have higher order
participants.
Institutions, therefore, can be treated as being
analogous to organizations.
They are basically groupings
of 'line' personnel because almost all participants are
active at the interface between the institution and the
environment.
There is, if any, only the most minimal
staff, or bureaucratic, support.
Because of the freedom of participation in
non-organizations, it is impossible for any participant
to exert coercion.
Individuals may reject the values
145
implied by the institution, but unless they are forced to
accept membership in it as an organization, they do not
have to participate institutionally.
Thus non-organizational institutions tend to be
'line' entities in which lower order participants tend to
comply with the 'imperative' implied in the example of
the higher order participant on a normative/moral basis,
or
(at times) on a remunerative/calculative basis.
146
'ARCHITECTURE' AS AN INSTITUTION
The architectural profession is recognizable at all
levels of the institutional arena, except that of the
informal organization.
organizations (Qg.
It expresses itself through formal
the American Institute of Architects, the
architectural firm), collectivities (gg.
architects,
architecture students), and through the members of formal
organizations and persons who belong to collectivities.
It
is even recognizable as a contributor to social orders such
'beauty', _c..
as 'good taste',
It exists, institutionally, at four levels of
perception, those of:
i
observer
ii
student
iii
teacher
iv
practicing architect.
Insofar as the observer does not have a high level
of either involvement or commitment he may be considered an
outsider, and his perception of the role of architect has
only a minimal impact on the perception of insiders.
147
(Although the perception of the student is formed as an
observer, through a process of iteration in which the others
take part, his involvement in the process is limited to one
which contributes almost nothing to the perception of
insiders.)
'Architects', for the purposes of this study,
includes students, teachers, and practicing architects.
Students and teachers, however, not only have a perception
of the 'correct actions' necessary for the role of
architects.
They also have a perception of their own roles
which are (in their relation to one another) more formally
delineated than that of the architect 2er se.
While there are certain formal organizations which
represent the profession (g.
the A.I.A.), and others which
regulate it (eg. state licencing boards) they have minimal
control over the individual architect compared to the
control which really formal organizations like trades unions
have over their members.
Practicing architects are not
participants in a formal organization. Although there are
certain regulated activities which architects are expected
to perform (or not perform), regulation has its impact at
the frontiers of architectural experience, and barely
impinges perceptually on one's conception of role.
148
The architectural profession, inspite of the various
formal organizations to which each architect belongs, is a
collectivity, an indistinct entity with members
characterized by a condition or quality of collective focus.
There is, of course, a fairly distinct division between
But, if
registered architects and the rest of the world.
the group 'architects' includes recent graduates and
students, as well as teachers, this distinction begins to
break down. The absence of organizational qualities which
this implies leads one to infer a minimal influence
of
higher order participants, in a group which is almost all
line (supported by a relatively invisible staff in
organizations like the A.I.A.)
An institutional view of the profession in this way,
as a non-organization, and a collectivity, has certain
implications on the choice of methods one might employ to
accelerate the integration of an innovation like
design by the members of the profession.
the architect in
'passive'
The involvement of
the profession is more akin to a normative/
moral relationship among participants, with a certain amount
of remuneration/calculation, although this latter quality is
more descriptive of the relationship between principals and
employees in an architectural firm. If the profession were a
149
formal organization one could concentrate on gaining
the support of the leading representatives of the
organization.
The imperatives of these higher order
participants would react iteratively with
peer
pressure from below, until a congruence of purposes
which was close to the intentions of the leaders was
attained.
In non-organizations. however, although there is
an unmistakeable influence of the imperative, the
imperative is subordinate to peer pres-ure.
Aside from
this, in non-organizations the compliance structure, insofar
as higher order participants do exist, is almost purely
normative /moral, or remunerative/calculative.
The absence
of formal or informal organizational qualities implies a
minimal influence of these higher order participants,
because the entity is almost all 'line' (supported by a
relatively invisible 'staff', in organizations like the
AIA.
A collectivity, however, does have some higher
order participants.
They may be viewed by other
participants as only 'first among equals', but this does not
150
mean that they are without influence, or that peer pressure
is the only mechanic of change.
There are leaders in the
profession, although these leaders will be different for
each architect.
They are not necessarily the 'stars' of the
profession either, because if one defined one's role in
terms of the most successful one would (unless one were one
of them) be definitionally incapable of performing all of
these actions.
The influence of higher order participants is, at
the same time, part of the process of the actual 'creation'
of higher order participants.
To explain: if those who are
architects perform actions which are seen to be performed,
then these actions, by virtue of the visible position of the
performer, become 'correct actions'.
visibility,
And, by virtue of this
the performer becomes a higher order
participant.
The superior/subordinate
relationship is
defineable at many levels at once in a non-organization. The
explicit definition of who is a higher order participant in
a collectivity such as a nation-wide group of professionals
is impossible.
For example, one's employer is a superior,
but if one perceives oneself as a better designer, then he
is a subordinate, and an architect renowned for his school
designs may be of no importance to a hospital designer.
15]
By being raised to a position of visibility any
architects become higher order participants, and if this
visibility includes an ability to incorporate a
responsibility for human comfort into utilitas
(and the
attendant technical command) then these qualities become, in
some way, part of those which are correct for any architect.
In effect that means that if 'passive' solar energy
is important enough to those whose function it is to limit
national expenditure on energy (and conservation gets much
of its validity economically, not morally), then a program
directed at exhibiting architects who have the ability to
design in this way will contribute considerably to the
elimination of a major professional barrier to the
integration of
'passive' solar energy into the routine of
design.
152
REFINEMENT OF PROGRAMS
Unfortunately, many of the programs which have been
been presented to the profession have not differentiated
between the methods of promoting
'passive'.
'active' and promoting
(This is not an attempt to suggest that one is
better than the other.
In fact, any approach which
considers both as having a place in design improves one's
ability to limit the impacts of the constraints of the
physical environment.) The point is that, because these two
approaches are so completely different in their impact on
the profession, and because the impact of the profession on
each is so completely different, it is most unlikely that a
program which will remove barriers to the routinization of
'active' solar energy will have the same effect for
'passive'.
Aside from this, many of the programs have been
directed at the effect they would have on those outside the
profession, as demonstration projects to the market using
the developer as the ganglion synthesizing all the obstacles
to routinization.
As far as the design professionals are
concerned, most of these programs have been directed at
153
professionals who are already able to design solar, and have
been sermons to the converted.
Any program directed at routinizing 'passive' design
into the vocabulary of the architectural profession should
do the following:
i
ii
define
'passive' design
demonstrate and reinforce the point that
capability in 'passive' design can
contribute to professional fulfillment,
and is not inimical to structural,
functional, or aesthetic design approaches
iii
contribute to the education of students
and to the re-education of practitioners.
i
Definition
The architectural profession as a collectivity tends
towards a normative/moral relationship among its
participants.
Therefore, because normative/moral
interaction depends entirely upon the clarity of definition,
definition is vital.
There is no superior to rule on the
154
correctness of actions.
Thus, the entire discussion in
Chapter 3 in which 'active' and 'passive' were distinguished
in terms of their meanings insofar as they bear on
professional activities, implies that for the redefinition
of role publicity is important.
The recent emphasis on
'passive' in architectural journals has been particularly
effective here.
Many of the demonstrations programs which have taken
place have been directed at the exhibition of 'solar'
technology without differentiating between 'active',
'passive', and 'hybrid'.
The National Solar Heating and
Cooling Demonstration Program (SHAC) has, for example,
distributed grants to developers and professionals on the
basis of the cost of the solar energy system.
In the recent 'passive' cycle this has raised the
problem of delineating exactly what is part of the normal
process of design, and what is part of the 'passive' system.
The ideal passive system (so ideal as to be unattainable)
would not only not be separable from the rest of the design,
it would be so integral to the whole design that it would
not cost any more.
This is an unreachable perfection, but
the point is that the approach which the SHAC program has
used is counter-productive.
For a developer to get the
155
maximum financial benefit from the SHAC grants (as the
program is presently constituted) it is better to have the
most expensive system possible.
Perhaps a better method of getting this aspect of
definition of 'passive' across would be to grant those
selected a sum approaching the maximum amount given for a
building of the size and type submitted, stating explicitly
that the difference between the grant and the actual cost of
the 'passive' system is a premium for efficient design.
One
of the criteria for selection, stated as such, should be
this sort of economic evaluation of the synthesis of the
Vitruvian triad, energy efficiency, and cost, so that the
designer can Lndeedsnakhe clefttn
of 'passive'
as a process
of integration,and not as a process of addition.
ii
Demonstration and Reinforcement:
In highly line organizations the power of the
imperative, in the form of directives issued by superiors,
supported by staff personnel, is non-existent, T40
demonstration becomes an important mechanism for the
dissemination of information on 'correct actions'.
The creation of a position which is analogical to that of
156
the higher order participant is dependent on the visibility
of people who perform these 'correct actions' well.
People
who can exhibit what these actions are, and how they are
done, provide the role models necessary for peers to begin
to perform new actions deemed appropriate in a collectivity.
Demonstration programs ensure the visibility of these
role models, and of actions the correctnes of which one wishes
to reinforce.
There is, however, a need for some iteration between
two different design positions at this point.
Energy
conscious design cannor, and should not, be supported on the
basis of energy efficiency alone.
It is, for this reason,
time for selection committees in programs such as SHAC to
consider venustas and utilitas explicitly, and to require
good design as much as they require energy efficiency.
Many of the designs selected so far have been outstanding,
but many have left 'non-solar' architects convinced that
solar design does not help define 'good architect'.
Designs presented in programs developed in conjunction
with the AIA are usually aesthetically more successful than
those presented by DOE and HUD alone.
(Compare the early
SHAC Project Data Summaries with that from the third cycle.)
157
Evaluation on the basis of energy efficiency alone,
while easier because it can be based on quantifiable data,
is counter productive because it dismisses the very challenge
that can attract architects, the action that defines their role.
Not to consider design is to suggest to any architect
that his special capability is unimportant to good 'passive'
design.
iii
Education of Students and Practitioners:
The essence of a collectivity is the process of
socialization.
The acceptance of a normative/moral context
is the result of one's involvement in this process.
The
acceptance of norms is a matter of belief, acquired only by
an ability to know the meaning structures of the institution.
In the architectural profession this is, to a large extent,
accomplished through education.
Education is explicitly a
socialization process, specially so with architecture and
its master-apprentice-studio tradition of teaching.
158
a. Students
As the education of students is in the hands of the
teachers of the profession, an important gap to be filled is
the incorporation of energy conscious principles into design
education.
One may assume that one of the effects of the
previous two points will provide enough redefinition of role
for students to expect to learn these principles.
There is, currently, a program sponsored by the
Department
of Energy,
Research Corporation
and presented
jointly by the A.I.A.
and the Association
of Collegiate
Schools of Architecture, which is directed at this problem.
It "is designed to serve as a gathering place for
architectural educators who wish to involve themselves in
aspects of energy and design". (Appendix 3.)
The program,
the annual Summer Institute on Energy and Design, is to be
held, this year,at M.I.T. from 12 to 17 August.,
and will be
held each year at a different school.
An expansion of this program (because there is a
selection process) could be directed at the varying levels
of technical qualification, increasing the number of
educators capable of integrating
teaching methods.
159
'passive' design into their
b.
Practitioners
A similar program should be directed at design
professionals.
These people are becoming increasingly aware
of the place of
'passive' in the role of the architect, a
situation which would be improved by the implementation of
the first two points of the suggested program.
However, the
technical command necessary cannot be learned from articles
in professional journals, which for many is all the
information available right now.
Even though these articles
are contributing much to the process of redefinition of
role, they are only touching the surface when it comes to
the process of re-education.
A program making use of the increasing number of
educators capable of teaching the elements of energy
conscious design should be held in architectural
schools throughout the country to train professionals.
And
as the 'Summer Institute' program continues the number of
teachers available will increase.
Ideally these 'institutes' for the re-education of
professionals should be held in more than one school
160
each
year.
The success of any program of redefinition
(illustrated by the increasing
interest in the articles in
the AIA Journal on 'passive'),
and demonstration and
reinforcement will increase the number of professionals who
want re-education.
Professional
'institutes' could be held in every
school where there is no full-time summer semester, at a
frequency which would depend on the rate of success of those
aspects of the program
which are directed at integrating
energy conscious design into a new perception of the role of
the architect.
161
CONCLUSION
There is a certain peripatetic quality to this study
which was inevitable.
The broad scale of the analysis
of the theory of organizations and institutions defined a
field far broader, in every dimension, than the
architectural profession.
Yet, the building industry, of
which the profession is but one part, presents a mesh of
institutional barriers to any innovation which can only be
understood within the context of the whole institutional
arena.
It is obvious that there are many barriers to an
innovation like 'passive' solar energy, and this work was a
search for one of them.
There was no attempt to use
institutional theory to support a previously developed
hypothesis.
Rather, the feeling that there was one
particularly important problem at the beginning of the
pipeline seemed to call for an understanding of the total
environment into which 'passive' was being introduced.
It boiled down to this:
Things get done primarily
because someindividuals want them to be done, but cannot
162
get done until those who are to do them are prepared to do
them.
Any change in the routine of an institution has to be
evaluated by its participants, and will not be integrated
into this routine until these participants find no dichotomy
between the change and the actions which have so far been
enough to ensure their continued participation.
When an institution like the architectural
profession is confronted with more change in its environment
than its participants have been used to, they are forced to
a re-evaluation of the meaning or function of the
institution.
They must either conform to a new set of
determinants, or accept the fact that their meaning or
function is of less importance to society.
Architects, of course, rejected the second option,
and have coped with the impact of technology on their
professional role by slowly redefining the function of the
profession.
As building scale increased, and new materials
became available, members of the profession relinquished
responsibility for firmitas.
As the 'fine tuning' of the
internal environment became easier and easier through a
command of technology, which was part of the set of 'correct
actions' of other professional roles, they relinquished this
responsibility too.
163
They extended their responsibility to include the
sort of buildings which had previously been the work of
anonymous builders, and in this way placed a new importance
on the sculptural and 'formal' contributions to the art of
the culture which these buildings made.
To a large extent this is the raison d'etre of the
profession.
But the importance of the 'grand statement' is
diminishing in a society beginning to see value in the
preservation of what is, rather than in a rejection of
older values, a rejection natural in a period when an
apparently unlimited supply of energy promised a better
model world each year, and devalued the world that was.
The
experience of limited growth over the last few years has
meant that the meaning/function of many institutions has not
atrophied at the pace of the 1950's and 1960's.
Many architects, however, continue to defend the
profession from this atrophy, and do so in terms of its
artictic and stylistic contributions.
Art and style are,
however, to a large extent overt expressions of a synthesis
of the functions of an artifact.
To defend a profession
which has given up its function as it relinquished the
responsibilities outlined above, on the basis of its
164
stylistic contribution alone,
is
like trying to defend an
institution like aristocracy on the basis of its undoubted
contribution to the world's vestigial elegance.
Style and elegance are important, but to have any
value they must be expressions of a relationship between
stylish and elegant people and the world beyond them.
The
inconsequentiality of the relationship of those who are only
'stylish' with the rest of us does not quite exemplify the
relationship of the profession to the rest of the world, but
there is
some similarity there.
Architectural
elegance,
style,
charm,
wit,
&c.
is
not the only reason for the importance of the profession.
It is, certainly, an important contribution, but it is
even more contributory when,
in
contrast to the contrived
expression of structure or .function in the case of the
'rationalist', it is a spontaneous (almost involuntary)
expression of the synthesis of the numerous functions of the
building. The hard technological involvement called for from
the architect in the case of 'passive' design is not
inimical to the artistic expression which is important to
him.
Indeed, it makes this expression even more valuable.
The problem of introducing this technological
165
involvement into the set of 'correct actions' which define
the role of the architect is not insurmountable.
been overcome, to some extent, already.
It has
The acceleration of
the acceptance of these actions into the routine of the
profession is not a major institutional problem, for
existing programs will have to suffer only minor
modifications before serving the purpose of making real
energy conscious design the responsibility of the
architectural profession again.
166
REFERENCES
1.
2.
ETZIONI, A., A Comparitive Analysis of Complex
Free Press, 1971, p. xi.
Organizations, New York:
The Nerves of Government, New York:
DEUTSCH, C.,
Free Press, 1966, p. 77.
3.
ibid., p. 129.
4.
ibid., p. 146.
5.
LAWRENCE, P.
& LORSCH, J.,
Developing
Organizations, Reading, Mass.:
Publishing Co., 1969, p. 2.
Addison-Wesley
6.
ibid., p. 3.
7.
"Bids Rigged; Two companies cop a plea", TIME,
December 25, 1978, p. 59.
8.
"Do Organizations Act?", ETHICS,
HAWORTH, L.,
vol. 70, 1959,
9.
ibid.,
p. 60.
10.
ibid., p. 60.
11.
ibid., p. 61.
12.
ibid., p. 63.
13.
ibid., p. 63.
14.
ibid., p. 60.
15.
pp. 59-63.
DARWIN, C.,
The Origin Of Species, New York:
Mentor Books, 1958, p. 139.
167
16.
MARCH, J.
& SIMON, H.,
Organizations, New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1958.
op. cit.,
17.
ETZIONI, A.,
18.
ibid., p. xi.
19.
ibid., p. 3.
20.
ibid., p. 3.
21.
ibid., p. 4.
22.
ibid., pp. 9-10.
23.
ibid., p. 12.
24.
ibid.,
25.
NUTT-POWELL, T.,
p.
21.
p. 14.
et al.,
Toward a Theory of
Institutional Analysis, Energy Laboratory Report
(MIT-EL-78-020), p.5.
26.
ibid., pp. 3-4.
27.
ibid., p. 20.
28.
ibid., p. 21.
29.
Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.
30.
DEUTSCH, C.,
31.
WEBER, M., The Theory of Social & Economic
Organization, New York: Free Press, 1964, p. 93.
32.
op. cit.,
HAVELOCK, R.G.,
Ann Arbor:
p.
37.
Planning for Innovation,
The University of Michigan, 1971,
p. 10-30.
-3.
ibid., p. 10-33.
34.
ibid.,
p. 10-31.
168
35.
"Ruth Hill became an Indian to write epic of
the Sioux", SMITHSONIAN, December, 1978, p. 122.
36.
NUTT- POWELL, T.,
37.
LE CORBUSIER, Towards a New Architecture.,
et al.,
op. cit.,
p.
33.
London:
The Architectural Press, 1970, p. 100.
38.
BACON, E.,
The Design of Cities, New York: Viking,
1974, p. 49.
39.
VENTURI, R., Complexity and Contradiction in
Modern Architecture, New York: Doubleday, 1966, p.
House Form and Culture, Englewood
Prentice Hall,
40.
RAPAPORT, A.,
Cliffs, N.J.:
41.
FURLONG, M., & NUTT-POWELL, T., Institutional
Analysis of Research and Socialization in Housing:
A Preliminary Exploration, MIT Energy Laboratory
Working Paper
17.
(MIT-EL-79-015WP), March, 1979, p. 20.
169
ADDITIONAL
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BANHAM, R.,
The Architecture of the Well Tempered
Environment, London, The Architectural
Press, 1973.
CLARK, W.,
Energy for Survival,
Garden City, N.Y.:
Anchor Press, 1975.
COLLINS, P.,
Changing Ideals in Modern Architecture
1750-1950, London: Faber & Faber, 1965.
CULLEN, G.,
Townscape, London:
The Architectural Press,
1968.
DUFFIE, J.A. & BECKMAN, W.A., Solar Energy Thermal
Processes, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1974.
GIEDION, S.,
Space, Time, & Architecture, Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1963.
GIVONI, B.,
Man, Climate, & Architecture, London:
Applied Science Publishers, 1976
GRIFFIN, C.W.,
Energy Conservation in Buildings,
Washington: The Construction Specification
Institute, 1974.
HABRAKEN, N.J.,
Supports, New York: Praeger, 1972.
JENCKS, C., Architecture 2000, New York: Praeger, 1973.
Le Corbusier & the Tragic View of Architecture,
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973.
Modern Movements
in
Architecture,
England, Penguin, 1973.
170
Hammondsworth,
KOPAY, D,
& YOUNG,P.D., The David Kopay Story,New York:
Bantam, 1977.
LE CORBUSIER, Towards a New Architecture, London: The
Architecture Press, 1970.
Design With Nature, Garden City, N.Y.:
MC.HARG, I.,
Doubleday, 1969.
The City in History, New York:
MUMFORD, L.,
Harcourt,
Brace & World, 1961.
Roots of Contemporary American Culture,
New York: Dover, 1972.
Technics & Human Development, New York:
Harvest, 1966.
Design with Climate, Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1966.
OLGYAY, V.,
PEVSNER, N.,
An Outline of European Architecture,
Hammondsworth, England: Penguin, 1968.
ROETHLISBERGER, F.J. & DICKSON, W.J., Management and
the Worker.Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 1975.
Architecture Without Architects, Garden
RUDOFSKY, B.,
City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964.
SILVERMAN, D.,
The Theory of Organizations, New York:
Basic Books,
STEADMAN, P.,
1971.
Energy, Environment, & Building, London:
Cambridge University Press, 1975.
TOYNBEE, A.J., A Study of History, New York: Dell, 1965.
WILLS, G.,
Confessions of a Conservative, New York:
Doubleday, 1979.
WRIGHT, F.L.,
ZALTMAN, G.,
The Natural House, New York:
DUNCAN, R.,
& HOLBEK, J.,
Horizon, 1954.
Innovations &
Organizations, New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1973.
171
APPENDIX l1
MODIFIED 'PASSIVE' DESIGN METHOD
172
MODIFIED DIRECT GAIN PASSIVE DESIGN METHOD.
(FOR MULTIPLE ORIENTATIONS)
1.
A.
B.
Use 'Solar angles and Radiation' program to
determine, at various angles of orientation:
i clear day beam radiation,
transmitted (CBT) and incident
(CBI)
ii clear day diffuse radiation,
transmitted (CDT) and incident
(CDI)
Calculate transmission factors:
i beam transmission factor (BTF)
= CBT/CBI
ii diffuse transmission factor (DTF)
= CDT/CDI
2.
Use 'Average Daily Radiation' program to
determine:
i average beam radiation BR(Av)
ii average diffuse radiation DR(Av)
iii average reflected radiation RK(Av)
3.
Calculate correct reflected radiation;
i at orientation where beam
radiation is highest, find ratio
of BR(Av) to DR(Av), such that
BR(Av) + DR(Av) = 1.000
ii at same orientation separate
RR(Av) into beam component
[RR(Av)B] and diffuse component
[RR(Av)D], using 3.i ratios such
that [RR(Av)B] and [RR(Av)D] =
RR(Av)
iii find factors, BRF, relating BR(Av)
at any orientation to BR(Av) at
orientation where BR(Av) is
highest
iv find correct reflected radiation,
RR(C) at each orientation by:
a. multiplying [RR(Av)B] by
BRF
b. add to RR(Av)D
4.
Find total average transmitted radiation
173
from:
i BR(Av) x BTF = actual beam
radiation (BRA)
ii DR(Av) x DTF = actual diffuse
radiation (DRA)
iii RR(C) x DTF = actual reflected
radiation (RRA)
iv BRA + DRA + RRA = average
transmitted radiation per sq. ft.
at any particular orientation
v multiply each total by glass area
vi sum the radiation transmitted at
each orientation to get monthly
average day transmitted radiation
for entire building (MR)
vii MR x days in month = monthly gain
(MG)
5.
Use 'Bin Data' program to find monthly
heating load (ML)
6.
Use 'Niles" program to calculate overheating
during critical months (i.e. at turn of
heating season)
7.
A.
B.
Calculate Net and Gross Monthly Heating
Fractions:
i Net fraction = MG/ML
ii Gross fraction = MG/(ML + Internal
Gains)
Calculate Net and Gross Seasonal Heating
Fractions:
i Net fraction =
Sum of MG(Nov.-May)/ML(Nov.-May)
ii Gross fraction =
Sum of MG(Nov.-May)/
[MR+Int Gain](Nov.-May)
174
APPENDIX 2
CALCULATIONS
175
1.
WINDOW,
WALL,
AND
SLAB AREA
WINDOWS:
ORIENTATION
00
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165*
ROOF
WALLS:
TOTAL
AREA
611
366
115
313
313
1 008
1 004
550
330
105
280
280
910
905
180
SLAB:
1527
SOLID ROOF:
180
2. 'U' VALUES
WINDOWS:
.275
WALLS:
.067
SLABO
.090
SOLID ROOF:
.050
ROOF ORIENTATION: SLOPE
AZIMUTH
OSLAB:
15 0
-350
8' CONCRETE, 2" FIBERGLASS
176
GLASS
AREA
3. 'UxA' VALUES
1097.7
WINDOWS:
12.1
WALLS:
ROOF:
5.4
SLAB:
137,4
4. VOLUME
30,312
FT.
5. INFILTRATION
272.81 BTU/HR.
2728.10
.5 AIR CHANGES/HR.
5.0 AIR CHANGES/HR.
1091
AVERAGE
2
6. INTERNAL GAINS (FROM RESTAURANT OPERATION --
PEOPLE:
LIGHTS:
TOTAL:
8 HRS)
8000
614
8614
BTU/HR.
3435
BTU/ HR,
7. SLAB LOSS
177
8. EFFECTIVE "INTERNAL GAINS"1
8. EFFECTIVE "INTERNAL GAINS"
INTERNAL GAINS:
LESS SLAB LOSS:
8614
3435
5180
BTU/HR.
9. EFFECTIVE "UxA"
UxA - WINDOWS:
WALLS:
ROOF:
1097.7
12.1
5.4
1115.2
PLUS INFILTRATION:
1115.2
272.8
0.5 AIR CHANGES
1388.0 BTU/ HR .
1115.2
2728,1
5.0 AIR CHANGES
3843.2 BTU/HR
1115,2
1091 .2
AVERAGE
2206.4 BTU/HR,
10. EFFECTIVE "UxA" EXPRESSED AS
0F
"INTERNAL GAINS"/"UxA"
6. 20
2. 2
3. 9
0.5 AIR CHANGES
5.0 AIR CHANGES
AVERAGE
178
11.
KITCHEN CONTRIBUTION
APPLIANCES:
OVEN/RANGE
DISH WASHER
60,000
27,312
FREEZER/FRIDGE
COFFEE MAKER
5,121
12,362
BROILER
FOOD WARMER
60,000
3,414
168,480 BTU/HR
1,347,840 BTU/8 HR. DAY
BTU/MONTH
12.
OCTOBER
27,158,975
NOVEMBER
DECEMBER
26,282,880
27,158.975
JANUARY
27,158,975
FEBRUARY
24,530,688
MARCH
APRIL
27,158,975
26,282,880
MAY
27,158,975
MONTHLY SOLAR GAIN
SEE FOLLOWING PAGES
179
JANUARY
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORTIT ATITON
TNSOL.ATITON
TRANS
0
897.4
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
700.8
226.8
120.5
2.6
58.0
BEAM
INC
TRANS
FACTOR
.653
1125 .4 .623
373 .8 .607
211 .1
.571
15 .9 ,.164
139.9
1373 .5
521.9
230.1
It
II
I
Vi
II
II
II
WI
it
15.1
.111
DIFFUSE
FACTOR
INC
102.6
.608
if
if
if
it
I
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
INSOLATION
695.5
116.9
RATIO
.856
812.4
1.000
REFLECTED (AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
108.2
BEAM COMPONENT:
18.2
DIFFUSE COMPONENT:
126.4
TOTAL REFLECTED:
REFLECTED
BEAM/
ORIEFNT ATITON
QRTFNTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
HIGHEST BEAM
EAM
HIGHES
BEAM
108.2
89.4
36.2
15.8
1.000
.826
.335
.146
180
DIFFUSE
18.2
18.2
18.2
18.2
18.2
18.2
TOTAL
126 .4
107 .6
54 .4
34 .0
18 .2
18 .2
E. JANUARY MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN JANUARY:
54.4
21,710.4
904.6
47,901,815
F. NET JANUARY SOLAR FRACTION:
22,137,875/47,901,815
= 46.2%
G. GROSS JANUARY SOLAR FRACTION:
*
22,137,875/(47,901,815
+
6,408,816)
MONTHLY INTERNAL GAINS
181
=41.8
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
INCID.
RAD.
TRANS.
FACTOR
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
695.5
116.9
126.4
.653
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
574.5
116.9
107.6
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
233.1
116.9
54.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
T 0T
101.6
116.9
34.0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
116.9
18.2
BEAM
DIFF
R EFL
TOT
116.9
18.2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
229.2
233.1
.8
.623
.608
.608
. 607
. 608
. 608
.571
.608
.608
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
454.2
71.1
76.9
602.2
550
331,210
357.9
71.1
65,4
494.4
330
163,152
141.5
71.1
33.1
245.7
105
25,798
58.0
71.1
21.0
150.1
280
42,028
71.1
11. 1
82.2
280
23,016
71.1
11.1
82.2
910
74,802
.608
.608
.608
.608
.111
.147
.147
25.4
34.3
59.8
905
54,-11
714,125
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
714,125 x 31 = 22,137,875 BTU/JANUARY
182
FEBRUARY
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORIENTATION
INSOLATION
TRANS
0
913 .9
743 .3
323 .0
202 .7
-35
-90
-105
-135
1A5.
ROOF
32 .5
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
TRANS
DIFFUSE
INC
FACTOR
1412.4
1181.8
521.4
347.3
74.9
.647
.629
.619
.584
.434
147.6
i
if
if
i
i
18.9
242.8
I
if
if
"f
"f
128.5
.608
"o
i
it
i
i
.147
-
-
114.6
859.7
.133
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
0
RATIO
.818
_lia2
1 .000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
99.6
COMPONENT:
22.2
REFLECTED:
ORIENTATION
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
INSOLATION
723.4
161.0
884.4
BEAM /
HIGHEST BEAM
REFLECTED
BEAM
1.000
.700
99.6
85.3
.363
44.2
25.8
.212
183
DIFFUSE
22.2
22.2
22.2
22.2
22.2
22.2
TOTAL
121.8
107.5
66.4
48.0
22.2
22.2
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED
TRANSMITTED
RADIATION
DAILY
TRANS.
TRANS.
ORIENT
INCID.
RAD.
FACTOR
RAD.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
723 .4
161 .0
121 .8
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
619.3
161.0
107.5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
321 .2
161 .0
66 .4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
187.2
161 .0
48.0
.629
.608
.608
.619
.608
.608
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
468.0
97.9
74.1
640.0
550
352,000
389.5
97.9
65.4
552.8
330
182,424
105
35,396
280
66,192
114.4
280
31,192
97.9
13,5
114.4
910
104,104
950
87,332
858,640
198.8
97.9
40.4
337.1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
161 .0
22.2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
161 .0
22 .2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
.647
.608
.608
GLASS
AREA
369.9
321.0
0.8
.584
.608
.608
.608
.608
.608
.608
.133
.147
.146
109.3
97.9
236
97 .9
49.2
47.2
.1
96.5
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
858,640 x 28 = 24,041 ,920 BTU/FEBRUARY
184
E. FEBRUARY MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN FEBRUARY:
54.4
18,805.4
783.6
41,492,322
F. NET FEBRUARY SOLAR FRACTION:
24,041,920/41, 492,322 = 57.9%
G. GROSS FEBRUARY SOLAR FRACTION:
24,041,920/( 41,492,322 + 5,788,608) = 50.8%
185
MARCH
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
INWSOLAT ION
ORIT TATITON
DIFFUSE
BEAM
TRANS
731.5
0
673.3
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
428.1
315.8
94.4
2.2
183.0
B. CALCULATING
INC
FACTOR
1216.9
1110.3
690.1
528.5
199.6
13.3
1248.1
.601
.606
.620
.598
.473
.165
.147
144.5
"
i
i
T
i
25.6
INC
FACTOR
237.6
"s
",
it
i
i
174.1
.608
.147
REFLETED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
TRANS
INSOLATION
645.2
2228.
868.0
RATIO
.743
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
79.3
27.4
COMPONENT:
REFLECTED:
106.7
BEAM/
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
BEAM
HIGHEST BEAM
1.000
.960
.667
79.3
.479
38.0
76.1
52.9
186
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
27.4
TOTAL
106.7
103.5
80.3
65.4
27.4
27 .4
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
INCID.
RAD
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
645 .2
228 .8
106 .7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
619.4
228.8
103.5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
430.1
228.8
80.3
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
309.2
228.8
65.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
228.8
27.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
228.8
27.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
578.5
444.3
.7
TRANS.
FACTOR
.601
.608
.608
.606
.608
.608
.620
.608
.608
TRANS.
RAD.
.608
.608
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
387.8
139.1
64.9
591 .8
550
325,490
408.8
139.1
_62 it
610.8
330
201,564
105
47 ,733
I9A
363.8
280
101 ,864
139.1
16.7
155.8
280
139.1
16.7
155.8
910
85.1
65.3
,1
150.5
905
266.7
139.1
48.8
454.6
.598
GLASS
AREA
184.9
139.1
.473
.608
.608
.165
.608
.608
.147
.147
.147
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
998,255 x 31 = 30,945,905 BTU/MARCH
187
43,624
141 ,778
136,20Q
998,255
E. MARCH MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN MARCH:
54.4
14,802.8
616.8
32,660,806
F. NET MARCH SOLAR FRACTION:
30,945,905/32,660,806 = 94.7%
G. GROSS MARCH SOLAR FRACTION:
30,945,905/(32,660,806
+ 6,408,816)
188
= 79.2%
APRIL
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
INSOLATION
ATITON
ORIEFNT
ORIENT TIO
TRANS
421.3
536.1
472.8
395.5
197.2
33.7
242.9
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
807.5
.522
887.4
.604
.619
764.3
645.4
.613
.569
346.8
.432
7.8.0
.154
1577.0
TRAN
192.1
DIFFUSE
INC
316.0
I
FACTOR
.608
WV
"V
"I
"I
11
37.3
253.7
i
.1147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
INSOLATION
500.9
RATIO
.635
,365
788.5
1,.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
86.1
COMPONENT:
49.4
COMPONENT:
REFLECTED:
135.5
ORIENTATION
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
REFLECTED
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
71.6
86.1
.832
1.000
.971
.813
.191
83.4
70.0
16.4
189
DIFFUSE
49.4
49.4
49.4
49.4
49.4
49.4
TOTAL
121.0
135.5
133.0
119.4
65.8
49.4
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
416 .5
287 .6
121 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
500 .9
287 .6
135 .5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
486 .5
287 .6
133 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
407.0
287.6
119.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
95.6
287.6
65.8
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
287.6
49.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
751 .8
573.3
.9
TRANS.
FACTOR
.522
.608
.608
.604
.608
.608
.619
.608
.608
.613
.608
.608
.569
.608
.608
.432
.608
.608
TRANS.
RAD.
217.4
174.9
73.6
465.9
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
550
256,245
559.8
330
184,734
301.1
174.9
80.9
556.9
105
58,474
249.5
174.9
72.6
497.0
280
139,160
54.4
174.9
40.0
269.3
280
75,404
910
186,459
905
181,1l
1 ,081 ,657
302.5
174.9
82,4
174.9
30,0
204.9
.154
.147
.147
GLASS
AREA
115.8
84.3
.1
200.2
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
1,081,657 x 30 = 32,449,710 BTU/APRIL
190
E. APRIL MONTHLY LOAD:
54.4
7,249.0
302.0
15,994,259
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN APRIL:
F. NET APRIL SOLAR FRACTION:
32,449,710/15,994,259 = 202.9%
G. GROSS APRIL SOLAR FRACTION:
32,449,710/(15,994,259
+
191
6,202,080)= 144.8%
MAY
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
INSOLATION
ORIENTATION
TRANS
BEAM
INC
212.9 514.9
375.9 697.8
496.8
801.5
442.4 722.3
268.4 466.2
170.6
71.2
275.5 1790.4
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
FACTOR
.413
.539
.620
.612
.576
.417
.154
TRANS
231.5
DIFFUSE
FACTOR
INC
380.7
.608
it
I,
if
it
ft
If
if
ft
is
it
ft
it
If
48.5
it
330.0
. 1
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
INSOLATION
643.8
326s-2
970.7
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
.331
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
117.3
59,6
COMPONENT:
REFLECTED:
176.9
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
RATIO
.663
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
.498
.748
1.000
.919
.494
BEAM
58.5
87.7
117.3
107.8
58.0
192
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
59.6
59.6
59.6
59.6
59.6
59.6
TOTAL
118.1
147.3
176.9
167.4
117.6
59.6
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS.
FACTOR
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
320.9
326.9
118.1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
481 .3
326 .9
147 .3
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
643.8
326.9
176.9
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
591 .7
326.9
167.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
318.2
326.9
117.6
.576
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
326.9.
59.6
.417
.608
.608
1098.7
651.7
1.1
. 1514
. 147
. 147
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
.413
.608
.608
.539
.608
.608
.620
.608
.608
.612
.608
.608
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
132.5
198.8
71.8
403.1
550
221,705
259.4
198.8
89,6
547.8
330
180,774
705.6
105
74,088
362.1
198.8
101.8
662.7
2 80
185,,556
453.6
280
127,008
198.8
36.2
235.0
910
213,850
169.2
95.8
6.2
265.2
905
399.2
198.8
107.6
183.3
198.8
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
1,242,987 x 31 = 38,532,597 BTU 'S/MAY
193
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
240,006
1,242,987
E. MAY MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN MAY:
54.4
2,338.0
97.4
5,158,621
F. NET MAY SOLAR FRACTION:
38,532,597/5,158,621
= 747.0%
G. GROSS MAY SOLAR FRACTION:
38,532,597/(5,158,621 + 6,1408,816) = 331.9%
194
JUNE
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORIENTATION
INSOLATION
BEAM
TRANS INC
155.4
311.3
493.7
451.1
290.0
89.0
283.9
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
402.7
606.9
789.8
732.2
500.8
214.6
1853.8
DIFFUSE
TRANS INC
FACTOR
.386
.513
.625
.616
248.3
.579
if
.415
.153
408.4
.608
if
if
it
to
it
it
it
54.0
FACTOR
367.1
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
INSOLATION
651.1
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
998.7
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
(AT HIGHEST BEAM OR IENTATION)
12 1.5
COMPONENT:
COMPONENT:
6 4.9
18 5.4
REFLECTED:
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
RATIO
.652
1.148
1.000
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
44.5
75.6
121.5
116.2
75.5
.366
.622
1.000
.956
.622
195
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
64.9
64.9
64.9
64.9
64.9
64.9
TOTAL
109.4
140.5
186.4
181.1
140.4
64.9
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
C.
AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS.
FACTOR
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
238.3
.386
347.6
109.4
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
405.0
347.6
140.5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
651.1
347.6
186.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
622.6
347.6
181 .1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
404.7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
347.6
140.4
347.6
64.9
1162.2
692.9
1.2
.513
.608
.608
.625
.608
.608
.616
.608
.608
.579
.608
.608
.415
.608
.608
. 153
. 147
. 147
TRANS.
RAD.
92.0
211.3
66.5
369.8
GLASS
AREA
550
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
203,390
207.8
211.3
85,4
504.5
330
166,485
406.9
211.3
113.3
731 .5
105
76,807
383.5
211.3
110,1
704.9
280
197,372
249.3
211.3
_8-1._4
546.0
280
152,880
211.3
39.5
250.8
910
228,228
905
253,310
1,280,672
'
177.8
101.9
,2
279.9
196
JULY
A. TRANSMITED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
INSOLATION
ORIERNT ATITON
BEAM
TRANS
0
201 .3
368 .6
479 .4
418 .3
257 .9
71 .0
270 .0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
DIFFUSE
INC
FACTOR
489.3
658.0
763.8
694.7
450.3
161.8
1759.6
.416
.560
.628
.602
.573
.439
.154
TRANS
239.0
",
INC
FACTOR
393.1
.608
"
"I
"
"I
"
"I
"
"
52.6
i"
357.8
It
"I
",
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
INSOLATION
RATIO
670.8
337.6
.665
.335
1008.4
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
123.8
COMPONENT:
62.3
REFLECTED:
186.1
REFLECTED
BEAM/
ORIENTATION
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
BEAM
HIGHEST BEAM
.423
.698
1 .000
.968
.583
52.3
86.4
123.8
1 19.9
72.1
197
DIFFUSE
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.3
62.3
TOTAL
1 14.6
148.7
186.1
182.2
1 34.4
62.3
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
TRANS.
FACTOR
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
283.5
.417
.607
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
454.6
337.6
148.7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
670 .8
337 .6
186 .1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
630.4
337.6
182.2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
379.3
337.6
134.4
. 573
. 608
. 608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
337.6
62.3
.439
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
1173.7
673.1
1.2
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
337.6
114.6
.560
.608
.608
.628
.608
.608
.602
.608
.608
.154
.147
.147
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
118.2
205.3
69.7
393.2
550
216,260
254.6
205.3
_904
550.3
330
181 ,599
421.3
205.2
113,1
739.7
105
77,688
397.5
205.3
j10.8
695.6
280
194,768
217.3
205.3
8_1.7
504.3
280
141 ,204
243.2
910
221 ,312
180.7
98.9
.2
279.8
905
205.3
37a
253,219
1,286,030
198
AUGUST
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORIENTATION
INSOLATION
TRANS
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
390.4
498.8
444.3
361.1
187.3
33.0
232.9
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
744.4
.524
824.0
717.2
608.0
329.6
76.1
1512.8
.605
.619
.594
.568
.434
.154
TRANS
205.2
i
i
i
i"
i
44.3
DIFFUSE
INC
FACTOR
337.5
I
"
.608
I
I.
"
i
I
301.1
.1)47
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
INSOLATION
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVARAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
RATIO
.65 3
342
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEA M COMPONENT)
COMPONENT:
103.8
54.0
COMPONENT:
REFLECTED:
157.8
ORIENTATION
0
581.8
302.8
884.6
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
.689
71.5
93.9
.905
1.000
.873
103.8
90.6
34.2
.329
199
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
54.0
54.0
54.0
54.0
54.0
54.0
TOTAL
125.5
148.0
157.8
144.6
88.2
54.0
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
ORIENT.
INCID.
RAD.
TRANS.
FACTOR
0
400.9
302.8
125.5
.524
.608
.608
-35
-90
-105
-135
526.8
302.8
148.0
581 .8
302.8
157.8
507.7
302.8
144.6
191 .6
302.8
88.2
-165
302.8
54.0
ROOF
938.8
603.8
1.0
.605
.608
.608
.619
.608
.608
.594
.608
.608
.568
.608
.608
.434
.608
.608
.154
.147
.147
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
210.1
184.1
76.3
470.5
550
258,775
318.7
184.1
90.0
408.7
330
134,871
360.1
184.1
95.9
640.1
105
67,210
573.6
280
160,608
108.8
184.1
53.6
346.5
280
97,020
184.1
32.8
216.9
910
301.6
184.1
_l.
197,397
144.6
88.8
L1
233.5
905
211,317
1,127
200
,198
SEPTEMBER
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
INSOLATION
ORIENTATION
DIFFUSE
BEAM
TRANS
682.6
654.0
389.6
288.7
84.8
1 .7
173.3
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
INC
FACTOR
1135.1
1034.4
635.6
480.5
179.6
10.4
1164.4
.601
.632
.613
.601
.472
.163
.149
TRANS
151.9
"1
i
i
i
it
30.8
INC
249.9
"f
i"
"f
it
it
209.3
FACTOR
.608
i
it
i
t
i
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
INSOLATION
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
246.1
898.2
RATIO
.726
_21-4
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEA M ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
92.1
COMPONENT:
3 4.7
REFLECTED:
126.8
ORIENTATION
0
652.1
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
.959
88.3
1.000
92.1
72.6
55.8
.789
.605
201
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
34.7
34.7
34.7
34.7
34.7
34.7
TOTAL
123.0
126.8
107.3
90.5
34.7
34.7
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS.
FACTOR
TRANS.
RAD.
.601
.608
.608
375.9
149.6
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
625 .4
246 .1
123 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
652.1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
514.3
107.3
. 613
. 608
. 608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
395.0
246.1
90.5
.601
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
246.1
34.7
. 472
. 608
. 608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
246 .1
34 .7
.163
.608
.608
732.6
490.7
.8
.149
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
126.8
246.1
.632
.608
.608
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
74.8
600.3
246.1
GLASS
AREA
550
330,165
638.8
330
210,804
315.3
149.6
65,2
530.1
105
55,660
497 .0
280
139,160
149.6
21.1
170.7
280
47,796
149.6
21.1
170.7
910
155,337
412.1
149.6
77.1
237.4
149.6
109.2
72.1
.1
181 .4
905
164, 167
1,103,089
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
1,103,089 x 30 = 33,092,670 BTU/SEPTEMBER
202
E. SEPTEMBER MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN SEPTEMBER:
54.4
1,330.5
55.4
2,935,520
F. NET SEPTEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
33,092,670/2,935,520 = 1127.3%
G. GROSS SEPTEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
33,092,670/(2,935,520
+
6,202,080)= 355.8%
203
OCTOBER
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORIENTATION
INSOLATION
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
855.6
698.8
304.8
187.5
25.7
1344.2
1125.8
513.5
341 .7
75.5
.637
.621
.594
.549
.340
109.8
828.6
.133
TRANS
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS
110.4
It
i
t
I
"t
149.2
DIFFUSE
FACTOR
INC
181.6
"1
"o
i
i
i"
149.2
.608
i
"1
I
I"
i"
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
INSOLATION
784.1
183.9
968.0
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:72.7
COMPONENT:
17.0
REFLECTED:
89.7
BEAM/
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
RATIO
.810
_1.0
1.000
REFLECTED
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
1.000
.880
.502
.317
72.7
64.0
36.5
23.0
-135
-165
204
DIFFUSE
17.0
17.0
17.0
17.0
17.0
17.0
TOTAL
89.7
81 .0
53.5
40.0
17.0
17.0
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
D.
INCID.
RAD.
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
784 .1
183 .9
89 .7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
689 .8
183 .9
81 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
393.4
183.9
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
248 .3
183 .9
40 .0
53.5
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
183 .9
17 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
183 .9
17 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
478.4
366.6
.6
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
TRANS.
FACTOR
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
.637
.608
.608
499.5
111.8
54.5
665.8
550
366,190
428.4
111.8
49.2
589.4
330
194,502
233.7
111.8
32.a
378.0
105
39,690
136.3
111 .8
24.-3
272.4
280
76,272
111 .8
10,3
122.1
280
34,188
111.8
10.3
122.1
910
111,111
63.6
53.9
.1
117.6
905
106,428
928,381
.621
.608
.608
.594
.608
.608
. 340
. 068
. 608
.340
.608
.608
.608
.608
.133
.147
.147
MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
R DIA ION:
928,381 x 31 = 28,779,811
205
BTU/OCTOBER
E. OCTOBER MONTHLY LOAD:
54.4
4,493.2
187.2
9,913,868
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN OCTOBER:
F. NET OCTOBER SOLAR FRACTION:
28,779,811/
9,913,868 = 290.3%
G. GROSS OCTOBER SOLAR FRACTION:
28,779,811/(9,913,868
+
206
6,1408,816) = 100.2%
NOVEMBER
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
TNSOLATION
ORIET TATITON
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
861.7
684.2
195.7
95.8
2.8
1316.0
1076.8
350.5
194.2
13.6
.655
.634
.558
.493
.206
53.4
514.9
.104
TRANS
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS
75.1
it
i
I
DIFFUSE
FACTOR
INC
123.5
"1
It
"I
"?
if
I
15.5
.608
i
"I
"I
105.3
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
INSOLATION
626.6
132.
759.5
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
RATIO
.825
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
44.2
COMPONENT:
9.4
COMPONENT:
53.6
REFLECTED:
ORIENTATION
ORIENTATION
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
44.2
36.6
15.9
7.6
1.000
.829
.359
.172
207
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
9.4
TOTAL
53.6
46.0
25.3
17.0
9.4
9.4
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
TRANS.
FACTOR
BEAM
DIFF
REFL,
TOT
626 .6
132 .9
53 .6
.655
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
519 .4
132 .9
46 .0
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
225 .0
132 .9
25 .3
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
1 07 .7
1 32 .9
17 .0
ORIENT.
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
132 .9
9 .4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
132.9
9.4
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
231.0
264.9
.3
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
1410.4
80.8
32.6
523.8
.634
.608
.608
550
288,090
80.8
28,0
438.1
330
144,573
125.6
80.8
15,4
221 .8
105
23,289
53.1
80.8
10,3
144.2
280
40,376
5.7
86.5
280
24 ,220
80.8
5.7
86.5
910
78,715
905
56s924
656 ,187
329.3
.558
.608
.608
.493
.608
.608
-1
.206
.608
.608
80.8
.608
.608
.104
.147
.147
24.0
38.9
62.9
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
656,187 x 30 = 19,685,610
208
BTU/NOVEMBER
E. NOVEMBER MONTHLY LOAD:
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN NOVEMBER:
54.4
9,596.6
399.9
21,174,035
F. NET NOVEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
19,685,610/21,174,035
= 93.0%
G. GROSS NOVEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
19,685,610/(21,174,035 + 6,202,080)
209
71.4%
DECEMBER
A. TRANSMITTED CLEAR DAY RADIATION:
ORIENTATION
I NSOL.ATION
TRANS
838.6
662.5
167.8
75.7
0
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
BEAM
INC
FACTOR
1280.3
1039.1
294.0
147.6
.655
.638
.571
.513
84.8
.2
-
38.8
TRANS
401.6
.097
DIFFUSE
INC
FACTOR
139.4
it
it
It
I
13.0
88.6
.068
",
it
.147
B. CALCULATING REFLECTED RADIATION:
HIGHEST AVERAGE DAY BEAM:
AVERAGE DAY DIFFUSE:
REFLECTED
BEAM
DIFFUSE
TOTAL
0
RATIO
.869
1.000
(AT HIGHEST BEAM ORIENTATION)
COMPONENT:
63.5
COMPONENT:
q.6
REFLECTED:
73.1
ORIENTATION
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
INSOLATION
681.6
102.7.
784.3
BEAM/
HIGHEST BEAM
BEAM
BEAM
63.5
52.1
19.6
7.6
1.000
.820
.309
.119
210
REFLECTED
DIFFUSE
DIF USE
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
9.6
TOTAL
TOT L
73.1
61.7
29.2
17.2
9.6
9.6
C. AVERAGE DAILY RADIATION TRANSMITTED:
INCID.
RAD.
ORIENT.
O
-35
-90
-105
-135
-165
ROOF
TRANS.
FACTOR
.655
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
681 .6
102 .7
73 .1
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
559.1
102.7
61.7
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
210.7
102.7
29.2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
81 .1
102.7
17.2
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
102.7
9.6
BEAM
DIFF
REFL
TOT
102 .7
9 .6
.608
.608
BEAM
DIFF
REFL,
TOT
195.6
204.7
.5
.097
.147
.147
.638
.608
.608
TRANS.
RAD.
GLASS
AREA
TOT. RAD.
TRANS.
446.4
62.4
44,4
553.2
550
304,260
356.7
62.4
37.5
456.6
330
150,678
120.3
62.4
17.8
190.5
105
20,002
41 .6
62.4
10.5
114.5
280
32,060
280
19,096
910
62,062
905
44,526
632,684
. 571
. 608
. 608
.513
.608
.608
.608
.608
62.4
68.2
62.4
68.2
19.0
30.1
,1
49.2
D. MONTHLY AVERAGE TRANSMITTED RADIATION:
632,684 x 31 = 19,613,204
211
BTU/DECEMBER
E. DECEMBER MONTHLY LOAD:
54 .4
19,784 .2
824 .3
43 ,651 ,912
BALANCE POINT:
DEGREE HOURS:
DEGREE DAYS:
BTU'S NEEDED IN DECEMBER:
F. NET DECEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
19,613,204/43,651 ,912
= 44.9 %
G. GROSS DECEMBER SOLAR FRACTION:
19,613,204/(943,651,912
+
212
6,408,816) = 39.2 %
13,
CALCULATION OF 'SOUTH' GLAZING
MARCH:
TOT. CLEAR DAY TRANSMITTED RAD.
LESS RAD. FORM SOUTH FACING GLASS
1 ,281 ,616
481,80
799,816
TO FIND EQUIV. AREA OF NON-SOUTH GLASS
DIVIDE BY RAD./SQ. FT. ON SOUTH GLASS
799,816/876.0 =
PLUS AREA OF SOUTH GLASS
913
550
1463 SQ. FT
NOVEMBER:
TOT. CLEAR DAY TRANSMITTED RAD.
LESS RAD. FROM SOUTH FACING GLASS
966 ,8C7
1524_0
451 ,567
TO FIND EQUIV AREA OF NON-SOUTH GLASS
DIVIDE BY RAD./SQ. FT. oON SOUTH GLASS
451,567/936.9 =
PLUS AREA OF SOUTH GLASS
482
550
1032 SQ.
FT
(FIGURES USED IN STEPHEN HALE'S PROGRAM FOR CALCULATING
OVERHEATING)
213
14,
OVERHEATING
MARCH:
0
NOON TEMPERATURE UNVENTILATED
2.00 P.M. UNVENTILATED
82.7 F.
83.0
NOVEMBER:
0
NOON TEMPERATURE UNVENTILATED
2.00 P.M. UNVENTILATED
79.4 F.
81 .0
(VENTILATED, THE TEMPERATURE IS THE SAME AS OUTDOORS)
214
APPENDIX 3
SUMMER INSTITUTE OUTLINE
215
The Summer Institute
will be enough free time for participants to enjoy the Boston metropolitan
area, which is especially rich in architecture of various periods.
The United States Department of Energy is sponsoring the 1979 Summer
Institute on Energy and Design,
The Program
presented jointly by the AIA Research
Colof
Association
the
and
Corporation
The 1979 Summer Institute is designed
legiate Schools of Architecture. The
to serve as a gathering-place for archisecond annual Summer Institute will
tectural educators who wish to involve
take place at the Massachusetts Instithemselves in aspects of energy and
Masin
Cambridge,
tute of Technology
design. Its program flows from a series
sachusetts, from 12 to 17 August
of objectives which are as follows:
1979. Its major goal is to encourage
* to explore methods of design inthejudicious use of energy in buildings
struction which would facilitate
knowlof
through the strengthening
the incorporation of energy conedge and concern about the relationscious principles into the architecships between energy and design in
tural education process;
professional schools of architecture.
to give faculty an awareness of
bcontri
can
The Summer Institute
existing resources and their use;
ute to the achievement of this natio nal
* to encourage the application of
goal by demonstrating that application
this knowledge to each school's
of design principles to the practical
curriculum, and to provide faculty
i
n
problems of energy conservation
with the opportunity to develop
buildings isvaluable, and that design
teaching methods and strategies;
responsive to the environment and to
and
the
enriches
resources
energy
natural
to identify useful design resources
*
rtant
quality of architecture. It is impo
which are currently unavailable.
that architecture faculty become inDuring the course of the Institute,
volved in working with these i Jeas,
of very specific energy-related
series
a
congy
ener
of
incorporation
since the
be considered in the context
will
topics
scious principles into design education
of architectural education.
will ultimately enhance the level of enSeveral of the areas to be investiergy awareness in the future design
are daylighting, earth-sheltered
gated
proitute
Inst
Summer
profession. The
structures, recently-developed building
vides such an opportunity for 40 faculty
materials, energy analysis techniques,
members from U.S. school s of archiand life-cycle costing. Types of activities
tecture.
at the Institute will include lectures and
at
held
be
vill
This year's Institute
presentations by experts in these fields,
MIT in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Atdesign studio activities, opportunities
tending faculty will be p rovided with
for hands-on experimentation with varhousing on campus in AcCormick
ious tools and resources for energy
beautiful
a
ith
Dormitory, a building w
conscious design, and organized field
roof terrace overlooking the Charles
trips in the Boston-Cambridge area.
River and the Boston skyline. ParticiThe particular talents and skills of
pants will have exclus ive use of
participant are crucial to this proeach
Institute.
the
ring
McCormick Dorm du
cess of investigation and synthesis, and
University classroom s and studio space
are among the most important rewill also be provide d. In addition, there
216
I.
sources at the Institute. Various recognized authorities in fields related to energy and design will also be present, to
contribute to activities at the Institute.
Eligibility and Selection
Criteria
tion of three qualifications: capability
(skills and knowledge), the ability to effect subsequent changes within the institution, and commitment to the successful fulfillment of Summer Institute
goals and program objectives.
Application Guidelines
Applications are invited from all United
Each application should consist of the
States professional degree-granting
following items:
schools of architecture. Any faculty
An application form, to be
member who holds an appointment,
completed by each individual applicant.
either full- or part-time, on a faculty of
A summary sheet, to be comfor
adarchitecture is eligible to apply
pleted for each team.
mission to the Summer Institute by folA current curriculum vitae for
lowing the application guidelines. Prefeach applicant (not to exceed one
erence will be given to those faculty
page each).
members who apply in two-person
A brief statement of purpose
teams. However, interested faculty who
by each applicant, describing his or
apply individually will receive considher reasons and specific qualificateam
on
emphasis
The
well.
eration as
tions for attendance at the Institute.
participation is based on the conviction
A letter of endorsement, to be
that a team can effectively influence the
completed by the department head
form of a curriculum within a school of
or chairman for each applicant and
application
architecture. Each team
included with the application.
should represent a combination of faculty expertise, specifically in the areas of
Forty participants will be selected from
design studio instruction and technical
the applications received. They will be
support courses. This particular combiexpected to undertake preparatory work
nation is derived from the idea that the
of approximately 20-25 hours prior to the
integration of technical information and
Summer Institute.
skills into the design process can faciliInterested faculty are encouraged
tate the incorporation of energy con-to submit applications as soon as posscious principles into design education.
sible. The deadline for receipt of appliPreference will also be given to applications is 4 May 1979. All applicants
reprenot
were
schools
whose
cants
will be notified of selections by 15
sented at the 1978 Summer Institute on
May 1979.
Energy Conscious Design. No participant who attended last year is eligible
Applications should be sent to:
for consideration this year. There is no
restriction on the number of applications that will be considered from ar ly
1979 Summer Institute on Energy
and Design
single school; more than one desigi n1
Association of Collegiate Schools
wHo
apply.
may
team from a school
of Architecture
ever, it is expected that only one te,am
1735 New York Avenue, N.W.
per school will be accepted.
Washington, D.C. 20006
Participant selection will be Ibased
(202) 387-7602
a
pplicathe
in
upon the demonstration
217
APPENDIX 4
TR-59 PROGRAMS
218
Temperature Swing Program
219
T.S.P.
©
INSULAIO/
TEMPERATURE
SWING PROGRAM
radiative
convective
This program predicts maximum and minimum temperatures for indirect and
direct passive solar heating with an error of ± 15%.
temperature swinqs.
The product is two sets of
The' first, is typical of a configuration where the heat trans-
fer of solar energy to storage mass is dominated' by convective exchange.
i-se where transfer is dominated by radiative exchange (see Figures).
tions
The second,
Program limita-
include ability to model only south facing solar glazing, and only concrete
or plaster as a storage medium.
7
The method is based on equations established
by P.W.B. Niles of California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, California.
METHOD
Step
0
Execute program on T.l.59 with printer.
Step
1
Read sides 1,2,3
of data card into calculator
partitioning)
Step
2
Input the following information:.
c Stephen Hale, Architect; Cambridg,, Mass., 1979.
(559.49)
STO
Location
00
01
Description
Average hourly internal gains
Indoor design temp. to be
OF
maintained
It
02
Outdoor temp. (average over a
F
24 hr. period)
I'
03
Units
BTUH
House loss total minus losses
through south glazing
ditto
it
(U x A
04
total
- U x A)
south glazing
BTUH/oF
Average daily insolation
received inside bldg. divided
by 24 hrs./per sq. ft. of glass
(after transmission)
BTUH/ft
05
"U" value of south glazing
BTUH/ft2
06
Outdoor temp. swing/2 over
1%)
N:
-OF
OF
selected 24 hr. period
"
07
Ratio of storage surface area
divided by south glass area
"
08
Surface conductance of storage
heavy wt.
09
conc.,
plaster = 1
-oF
Period of daily temp.
hrs.
swing = constant 24,
10
BTUH/ft2
Storage mass heat capacity per
thickness
foot)
specified
(fraction of a
(conc.= 29.4)
BTU/F 2
-
OF
(Temp. Swinq Prog..-
continued)
Location
Enter only if known -
11
Units
Description
Ft 2
area
of south glazing
Step
3
12
House loss total (UAttotal )
13
Storage mass area
Pres.s:
LBL A
Use if
not known..........
BTUH/*F
Ft"
south glass area is
..... Program
LBL
_T
Use if
area is known. This
gives the area of south glass req'd.
bypasses the glass
to achieve thermal equilibrium with
area computation.
environmental conditions given in storage
-
locations 01-05. Continue to press LBL
until results close in on' one number for square
footage of South glass. Then, go for Step 4.
Step
4
glass
Press:
R/S
Gives *F temp swing/g
when storage
is dominated by convective coupling,
.J1"
I
Then gives OF temp swing/z when storage
is dominated by radiative coupling,
Gives equilibrium temperature and resulting
indoor air temperature for the two types of coupling.1
(Temp. Swing Prog. -
continued)
EXAMPLE
0.
Data based on measured data from M.I.T. Solar Demonstration Bldg. 5,
Cambridge, Mass. Building is a direct gain system dominated by radiative coupling.
1.
Min. = 304
Ambient air temps
Max = 50
20*/2 = 100
Swing/2
2.
Tyndoor swing
3.
House loss
630-764 = 134
69.50 ave. temp.
= 240 BTUH/*F -
[.18 x 180 SF
=
32.4]
207.6 BTUH/*F
(total
(,J
4.
Average solar insolatio n
=
-
south glass loss)
175 BTU/SF @ n6on ~ 33 BTU/hr
(over 24 hours)
Ugas=
5.
. 18
glass
6.
Effective storage surface area = 400 SF
7.
Ratio of mass to glass
=
400/180 =
8.
Storage surface conductance
=
1.0 BTUH/SF
9.
Storage mass heat capacity
10.
11.
Given:
22.5
south glass area
=
180 SF
internal gains
=
1563 BTUH
2.22
*
(Temp. Swing Prog. - continued)
List Data
Enter Data
Press
B
Results
since
glass area is
known
Compare with
Entry(2) in
Example
Program Listing (printer version)
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#--'. G
T
T
O
Average Daily Radiation Program
228
TITLE
Average Daily Radiation
PAGE
Jim Rosen
PROGRAMMER
OF
T ProgrammOble
_
DATEJan. 23, 1979
Program Record
Printer
any
Partitioning (Op 17) 17,1.9 2,91 Library Module.
0
Yes
Cards
2
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
Given a data base, this program calculates the average daily insolation
for a surface of any orientation. This daily radiation is broken down
into its beam, diffuse, and reflected components, in order to facilitate
determining the quantity transmitted through a glazing system.
This program follows the method outlined by S.A. Klein in the enclosed
article. The necessary data is all entered with the user defined labels.
To re-run the program, only those data values that change need be reentered. After entering the new data, press C' to run the program.
I-
PROCEDURE
STEP
USER INSTRUCTIONS
ENTER
3
PRESS
17
OP
DISPLAY
719.29
2
Partition calculator
Read card sides 1, 2, 3, & 4
3
Enter tilt (900 =vertical)(s)
tilt
A
tilt
4
Enter azimuth angle (-east,+west)(y azimuth
B
azimuth
5
Enter ground reflectance (O<p<l)
C
gr. refl.
1
*6
0
1,2,3,4
gr. refl.
Enter monthly average daily total
H
D
KT
E
-H
radiation on horizontal surface.
(metric or english units),
*7
(H)
Enter fraction of extraterrestrial
K
radiation transmitted through the
atmosphere, (KT)
8
Enter latitude, ($)
latitude
eclinatiot
A'
latitude
B'
declination
*9
Enter declination, (6)
10
Run program
C'
10
NON-PRINTER VERSION ONLY:
Riinprogram
C'
11
Rn pogra
12
Run program
13
Run p ro gramt
0,values
I
found
USER DEFINED KEYS
difuse ai.
R
in
DATA REGISTERS (['NV
M )
21
B azimuth
22 KT
23 latitude
24 ground reflect
25 tilt
26 azimuth
27 declination
EKT
A'
latitude
a-declination
c-run program
---
~flcY4
appendix
Atilt
cground reflect.
og
beam radiat.i
Jim Rosen
172 Fayerweather St.
Cambridge, MA 02138
(617) 661-3275
229
sa
rnk
daatxL
Cd
dAl
1
43.
o.
TILT
NAM5
fAONr)14
AND NMvOER
. ENragp
AZIM 1
REFL
AVE
%EXT,
LFAT
DECLI
0.,2
6412.
0. 485
43
-20.
10047. 3
/AN
IJda-
BEAM
DIFF I
2117.3
REFL'
TDTL
172.3
12336. 8
2& FES
AVE
9224.
0. 496
-12. 95
p
out
TEXT
DECL
MARCI*
1
13992.
-
0. 543
2, 42
13554.
4049.
375.
17979.
5
3,
9
7
JAN
RVE
%EXT:
DECL
.
LA T
LAiT
DECL
BEAM
DIFF
9224.
0. 496
-12. 95
AVE
.E XT
DECL
8
2
8
7
REFL
TOTL
BERAM
DI1FF
REFL
TOTL
3.
13 992.2
MARCH1
FAVE
0. 543
%EX T
-2. 42
DECL
4049. 3
3 75.. 9
1 7815. 1
.A.;ca1on of
Vol. 19 pF--
AVE
BEA M-
BEA M1
DIFF
REFL
TOTL
lnso'afon. o2 i-td
REFL
9803. 8
230
From: 1<ei
TILT
AZI M
2117.-3
172. 3
:093. 3
1 1031.
2971.
247.
1 4250.
BEAM
11271.5
2971.2 .DIFF
REFL;
247. 8
TOTL
14490. 5
3
1.
43.
15.
0.2.
6 412.
0. 485
43.
-20. 92
Surfcs
Aero e
oe
D IFF
REFL
TOTL
DECLINATION
(recommended values)
Month
Value (degrees)
1
January
-20.92
2
February
-12.95
3
March
-2.42
4
April
9,41
5
May
18.79
6
June
23.09
7
July
21.18
8
August
13.45
9
September
2.22
-9.6
10
October
11
November
-18.91
12
December
-23.05
231
4930.2
AJOE-:T~t
Table A-4
Radiation
and Other vata for 80 Locations in the United State*
2
(Yg Monthly averase daily total radiation on a hortzontal surface, Btu/day-fI ; Ktithe fraction of the extra terrestrial radiation transmitted through the atmosphere; tev.raae davttee ambtent temperatura. *)
Jan
Fob
Mar
May
Apr
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sap
Oct
NOW
Dec
ALASKA
Annette Is..............
..
Lat 55*02'N ............
K
El. 110 It..............
to
236.2
0.427
35.8
428.4
0.415
37.5
083.4
0.492
39.7
1357.2
0.507
44.4
1634.7
0.484
51.0
1638.7
0.441
56.2
1632.1
0.454
58.6
1269.4
0.427
59.8
962
0.449
54.8
454.6
0.347
48.2
220.3
0.304
41.9
152
0.361
37.4
Barrow....................
Lat. 71*20'N ...........
K
El. 22 ft..........
....
Co
13.3
-13.2
143.2
0.776
-15.9
713.3
0.773
-12.7
1491.5
0.726
2.1
1883
0.553
20.5
2055.3
0.533
35.4
1602.2
0.448
41.6
953.5
0.377
40.0
428.4
0.315
31.7
152.4
0.35
18.6
22.9
2.6
-8.6
1
Kt
to
142.4
0.536
9.2
4048
0.557
11.6
1052.4
0.704
14.2
1662.3
0.675
29.4
1711.8
0.519
42.7
1698.1
0.458
55.5
1401.8
0.398
56.9
938.7
0.336
54.8
755
0.406
47.4
430.6
0.432
33.7
164.9
0.3;9
19.0
83
J.459
.4
Kt
66
0.639
-7.0
283.4
0.556
0.3
860.5
0.674
13.0
1481.2
0.647
32.2
1806.2
0.546
50.5
1970.8
0.529
62.4
1702.9
0.485
63.8
1247.6
0.463
58.3
699,6
0.419
47.1
323.8
0.416
29.6
104.1
0.47
5.5
20.3
0.458
-6.6
Estanuska..................
Lat.61*30N..............
t
91. 180 ft..............
to
119.2
0.513
13.9
345
0.503
21.0
27.4
1327.6
0.545
38.6
1628.4
0.494
50.3
1727.6
0.466
57.6
1526.9
0.434
60.1
1169
0.419
58.1
737.3
0.401
50.2
373.8
0.390
37.7
142.8
0.372
22.9
56.4
0.36/
13.9
ALERTA
Eduonton................ .
Lat.53*35'4 ............
El. 2219 ft.............
331.7
0.529
10.4
652.4
0.585
14
1165.3
0.624
26.3
1541.7
0.564
42.9
1900.4
0.558
55.4
1914.4
0.514
61.3
1964.9
0.549
66.6
1528
0.506
63.2
1113.3
0.506
54.2
704.4
0.504
44.1
413.6
0.510
26.7
245
0.492
14.0
704.4
0.424
44.6
974.2
0.458
48.5
1335.8
0.496
56.0
1669.4
0.513
65.8
1960.1
0.545
73.1
2091.5
0.559
76.7
2081.2
0.566
85.1
1938.7
0.574
84.6
1640.6
0.561
78.3
1282.6
0.552
67.9
913.6
0.484
54.7
701.1
0.463
46.7
1126.6 1514.7
0.65
0.691
54.2
58.8
1967.1
0.716
64.7
2388.2
0.728
72.2
2709.6
0.753
80.8
2781.5
0.745
89.2
2450.5
0.667
94.6
7299.6
0.677
92.5
2131.3
.722
67.4
1688.9
0.708
75.8
1290
0.657
63.6
1040.9
0.652
56.7
1171.9
0.648
53.7
1453.8
0.646
57.3
62.3
2434.7
0.738
69.7
- .
78,0
2601.4
0,698
87.0
2292.2
0.625
90.1
2179.7
0.640
07.4
2122.5
0.710
84.0
1640.9
0.672
73.9
1322.1
0.650
62.5
1232.1
0.679
56.1
599.2
0.416
47.6
945
0.490
52.1
1504
0.591
56.8
1959
0.617
63.1
2368.6
0.662
69.6
2619.2
0.697
75.7
2565.6
0.697
2287.8
0.687
79.4
1856.8
0.664
76.7
1234..5
0.598
67.8
795.6
0.477
57
550.5
0.421
48.7
Bethel..................
Lat.60*47'U.............
Z. 125 It ..............
Tairbanks.................
Lat.64*49'N.............
El. 436 ft..............
to
.
Kt
to
-
ARXANSAS
TH
Little Rock.............
Lat.34*44'N ............
11. 265 ft..............
KC
to
ARZ04A
j
Phoenix.................
Lat.33*26'N.............
1. 1112 ft.............
K
to
Tucson.................. .
Lat. 32*07'N............
Kt
E1. 2556 ft,............
to
CALFORNIA
Davis................... ..
Lat. 38*33'H............ .K
El. 51 It...............
j
to
Yj.
Kt
81
to
712.9
0.462
47.3
1116.6
0.551
53.9
1652.8
0.632
59.1
2049.4
0.638
65.6
2409.2
0.672
73.5
2641.7
0.703
80.7
2512.2
0.682
87.5
2300.7
0.686
84.9
1897.8
0.665
78.6
1415.5
0.635
68.7
906.6
0.512
57.3
616.6
0.44
48.9
Kt
to
1148.7
0.716
47.3
1554.2
0.745
53.9
2136.9
0.803
59.1
2594.8
0.8
65.6
2925.4
0.815
73.5
3108.8
0.830
80.7
2908.8
0.790
87.5
2759.4
0.820
84.9
2409.2
0.834
78.6
1819.2
0.795
68.7
3170.1
0.743
57.3
1094.4
0.742
48.9
Angeles, (W10)......
...........
E1. 99 ft...............
]t
it
to
911.8
0.538
57.9
1223.6
0.568
59.2
1640.9
0.602
61.8
1866.8
0.571
64.3
2061.2
0.573
67.6
2259
0.605
70.7
2428A
0.66
75.8
2198.9
0.648
76.1
1891.5
0.643
74.2
1362.3
0.578
69.6
1053.1
0.548
65.4
877.8
0.566
60.2
Los Angeles.(WBAS) .....
Lat. 33*56'N............. .
El. 99 ft...............
11
Freano..................
Lat. 36*46'N............
E1. 331 ft........!.....
layokern................ ..
Lat. 35' 39'N ...........
El. 2440 ft.............
Los
Lot.34*03'N
930.6
0.547
56.2
1284.1
0.596
56.9
1729.5
0.635
59.2
1948
0.595
61.4
2196.7
0.610
64.2
2272.3
0.608
66.7
2413.6
0.657
69.6
2155.3
0.635
70.2
1898.1
0.641
69.1
1372.7
0.574
66.1
1082.3
0.551
62.6
901.1
0.566
58.7
liverside............... ..
Lat. 33*57'N............
Kt
El. 1020 ft.............
to
999.6
0.589
55.3
1335
0.617
57.0
1750.5
0.643
60.6
1943.2
0.594
65.0
2282.3
0.635
69.4
2492.6
0.667
74.0
2443.5
0.665
81.0
2263.8
0.668
81.0
1955.3
0.665
78.5
1509.6
0.639
71.0
1169
0.606
63.1
979.7
0.626
57.2
Santa Maria.............
Lat. 34*54'N............
El. 238 ft..............
1j;
Kt
to
983.8
0.595
54.1
- 1296.3
0.613
55.3
1805.9
0.671
57.6
2067.9
0.636
59.5
2375.6
0.661
61.2
2599.6
0.695
63.5
2540.6
0.690
65.3
2293.3
0.678
65.7
1965.7
0.674
65.9
1566.4
0.676
64.1
1169
0.624
60.8
943.9
0.627
56.1
Li
It
to
848
0.597
26.9
1210.7
0.633
35.0
1622.9
0.643
44.6
2002.2
0.632
55.8
2300.3
0.643
66.3
2645.4
0.704
75.7
2517.7
0.690
82.5
2157.2
0.65
79.6
1957.5
0.705
71.4
1394.8
0.654
58.3
969.7
0.59
42.0
793.4
0.621
31.4
.h
It
to
735
0.541
18.5
1135.4
0.615
23.1
1579.3
0.637
28.5
1876.7
0.597
39.1
1974.9
0.553
48.7
2369.7
0.63
56.6
2103.3
0.572
62.8
1708.5
0.516
61.5
1715.8
0.626
55.5
1212.2
0.553
45.2
775.6
0.494
30.3
660.5
0.542
22.6
t
to
COLORADO
Grand Junction..........
Lat. 39'07'N............
El. 4849 ft.............
Grand Lake............
Lat. 40'15'N..........
El. 8389 ft...........
From:
Applications of Solar Energy for Hearing and Cooling of Sutidings. ASHRAL (171
S
A-103
232
4930.2
Table A-4 (Continued)
Jan
Feb
Nar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sop
Oct
I
Kc
632.4
0.445
38.4
901.5
0.470
39.6
1255
0.496
48.1
1600.4
0.504
57.5
1846.8
0.516
67.7
2080.8
0.553
76.2
1929.9
0.524
79.9
1712.2
0.516
77.9
1446.1
0.520
72.2
Apalachicola............
Lat. 29*45'N ............
E1. 35 ft...............
j
1107
0.577
57.3
1378.2 1654.2 2040.9
0.584
0.576
0.612
59.0
62.9
69.5
2.268.62195.9
0.630
0.594
76.4
81.8
1978.6
0.542
83.1
1912.9
0.558
83.1
Gainesville .............
j
it
to
1036.9
0.535
62.1
1324.7 1635
0.56
0.568
63.1
67.5
1956.4
0.587
72.8
1934.7
0.538
79.4
1960.9
0.531
83.4
1895.6
0.519
83.8
1873.8
0.547
84.1
82
:&
K
to
1292.2
0.604
71.6
1554.6 1828.8
0.616
0.612
72.0
73.8
2020.6
0.600
77.0
2068.6
0.578
79.9
1991.5
0.545
82.9
1992.6
0.552
84.1
1890.8
0.549
88.5
Tampa...................
1
Lat. 27*55*n............ .g
al. 11 ft............... to
1223.6
0.605
64.2
1461.2
0.600
65.7
1771.9
0.606
68.8
2016.2
0.602
74.3
2228
0.620
79.4
2146.5
0.583
83.0
1991.9
0.548
88.0
EORGIA
Atlanta.................
Lat. 33'39'3............
11. 976 ft..............
Ix
848
Kc
0.493
47.2
1080.1
0.496
49.6
1426.9
0.522
55.9
1807
0.551
65.0
2618.1
0.561
73.2
2002.6
0.564
80.9
:
889.6
0.513
68.9
1135.8
0.517
51.0
1450.9
0.528
59.1
1923.6
0.586
66.7
2163.1
0.601
74.6
518.8
0.446
29.5
884.9
0.533
36.5
1280.4 1814.4
0.548
0.594
45.0
53.5
(590) 879
(0.464) 0.496
23.9
30.3
526.2
0 380
31.3
953.1
0.639
33.8
DISTRICT O C01.t:31A
Washington (vC).......
Lat. 38*31'
............
11. 64 ft,..............
to
New
Doe
1083.4
0.506
60.9
763.5
0.464
50.2
594.1
0.460
40.2
1703.3
0.559
1544.6
0.608
73.2
1243.2
0.574
63.7
982.3
0.543
58.55
1615.1
0.529
1312.2
0.515
75.7
1169.7
67.2
919.5
0.508
62.4
83.3
1646.8
0.525
1436.5
0.534
30.2
1321
0.559
75.6
1183.4
0.588
72.6
1345.4
0.537
84.4
1687.8
0.546
82.9
1493.3
0.572
77.2
1328.4
0.590
69.6
1119.5
0.589
65.5
2002.9
0.545
82.4
1898.1
0.559
81.6
1519.2
0.515
77.4
1290.8
0.543
66.5
997.8
0.510
54.8
751.1
0.474
47.7
2176
0.583
81.2
2064.9
0.562
83.0
1961.2
0.578
82.2
1605.9
0.543
78.4
1352.4
0.565
68
1073.8
0.545
57.3
781.5
0.487
49.4
2189.3
0.619
62.1
2376.7
0.631
69.3
2500.3
0.684
79.6
2149.4
0.650
77.2
1717.7
0.656
66.7
1128.4
0.568
56.3
678.6
0.494
42.3
456.8
0.442
33.1
1255.7 1481.5
0.520
0.477
49.7
39.5
1866
0.525
59.2
2041.7
0.542
70.8
1990.8
0.542
"5.6
1836.9
0.559
74.3
1469.4
0.547'
67.2
1015.5
0.506
57.6
(639)
(531)
(0.433) (0.467)
43.0
30.6
797.4
0.424
33.9
1184.1 1481.2
0.472
0.47
43.0
54.1
1828
0.511
64.9
2042
0.541
74.8
2039.5 1832.1
0.554
0.552
79.6
77.4
0.549
1513.3
70.6
1094.4
0.520
59.3
662.4
0.413
44.2
491.1
0.391
33.4
1186.3
0.598
38.7
1565.7
0.606
46.5
1975.6 2126.5
0.618
0.594
57.7
66.7
2459.8
0.655
77.2
200.7
0.652
83.8
2210.7
0.663
82.4
1811.7
0.654
73.7
1421
0.650
61.7
1065.3
0.625
46.5
173.8
0.652
36.8
1834.7
0.575
57.8
76.2
2246.5
0.610
79.8
2064.9
0.619
78.2
1775.6
0.631
72.8
1315.8
0.604
61.2
47.6
681.5
0.513
38.5
1968.6 1910.3
0.538
0.558
84.8
85.0
1678.2
0.553
81.5
1505.5
0.597
73.8
1122.1
0.524
62.6
875.6
0.494
56.9
F.ORIDA
Et
to
Lat. 29*39'N............
El. 165 ft..............
Miami...................
Lat. 25*47'............
31.9 ft................
.o
Grtffin.................
33*15'N............
al. 980 ft..............
Lat.
.t
to
IDAHO
5oise....................i
Lat. 43*34's............
11. 2844 ft............
Kt
to
1..INOIS
Lemon:...................N
Lat. 41*40'N............ K
E1 595 ft............... to
80.6
0.537
INDIANA
Indianapolis...........
Lat. 39*44'9...........
El. 793 ft.............
RANSAS
Dodge City.............
Lat. 37*46'N...........
11. 2592 ft............
1
Kc
to
.. j
Kt
O
.
KEIrUCKY
Lexington..............
Lat. 38*02'V...........
11. 979 ft.............
K,
to
-
-
-
-
-
-
36.5
38.8
47.4
2171.2
0.606
67.5
-
-
LOUlsAMU
Lake Charl............ .
I
Lat. 30*13'N. .......... Kt
1. 12 ft...... ....... to
899.2
0.473
55.3
1145.7 1487.4 1601.8 2080.4
0.492
0.521
0.542
0.578
58.7
63.5
70.9
77.4
Caribou................
Lat. 46*52'%...........
11. 628 ft.............
497
0.504
11.5
861.6
0.579
12.8
1360.1
0.619
24.4
1495.9
0.507
37.3
1779.7 1779.7
0.47-3
0.509
61.6
51.8
1898.1
0.522
67.2
1675.6
0.527
65.0
1254.6
0.506
56.2
793
0.455
44.7
415.5
0.352
31.3
398.9
0.470
16.8
:1
Kt
565.7
0.482
23.7
874.5
0.524
24.5
1329.5
0.569
34.4
1528.4
0.500
44.8
1923.2 2017.3 2095.6
0.544
0.536
0.)72
65.1
55.4
71.1
1799.2
0.554
69.7
1428.8 1035
0.546
0.539
61.9
51.8
591.5
0.431
40.3
507.7
0.491
28.0
1.
Kt
to
488.2
0.601
3.2
835.4
0.636
7.1
1354.2 1641.3
0.661 0.574
21.3
40.5
1904.4
0.550
55.9
0.524
65.3
212-6
0.587
71.9
1761.2
0.517
69.4
1190.4
0.504
58.6
767.5
0.482
45.6
444.6
0.436
25.2
345'
0.503
10.1
K,
t
555.3
0.445
28.3
797
0.458
28.3
1143.9
0.477
36.9
1438
0.464
46.9
1776.4
0.501
58.5
1943.9
0.516
67.2
1881.5
0.513
72.
1622.1 1314
0.495
0.492
70.6
64.2
941
3.472
54.1
592.2
C.'06
43.3
482.3
0..36
31.5
sn5.S
0.410
31.4
0.4260...5
738
1007.1
39.9
1769
0.499
60.4
1864
0.495
69.8
1a60.5 1570.1 1267.5
0.507
0.480
0.477
74.5
73.8
66.8
696.7
0.453
57.4
535.3
0.372
46.6
442.8
31.4
1355
0.438
49.5
Portland...............
Lat. 43*39'9...........
El. 63 ft..............
..
Kg
.t
to
2213.3
0.597
83.4
NANIT05A
WInnipe-...............
Lat. 49*54'N ...........
11. 786 ft.............
MASSACHUSETTS
slue "111..............
Lat. 42*13'N...........
E1. 629 ft.............
Ceaton.................
Lat. 42*22'N.............
K
E1. 29 ft..............
t,
S
A-210
233
1962
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Table A-4 (Continuad)
TEXAS
Mdland'-*******.-*****
Lat. 31*56'1N..........
11.
Jan
Feb
1066.4
0.587
47.9
1345.7
0.596
52.8
Mat
Apr
May
Jun
2036.1
0.617
68.8
2301.1
0.639
77.2
2317.7
0.622
83.9
Jul
Aug
Sep
'Oct
2193
0.643
85.0
1921.8
0.642
78.9
1470.8
0.600
70.3
Nov
Dec
(Concd.)
2554 ft...........
San Antonio...........
Lat. 29*32'n..........
It. 794 ft............
iii
tK
to
I
1784.8
0.638
60.0
2301.8
0.628
85.7
1023.2
1244.3
0.609
56.6
0.611
49.1
Kt
to
1045
0.541
53.7
1299.2
0.550
58.4
1560.1
0.542
65.0
1664.6
0.500
72.2
2024.7
0.563
79.2
2250*
0.62
85.0
2364.2
0.647
87.4
2185.2
0.637
87.8
1844.6
0.603
82.6
1487.4
0.584
74.7
1104.4
0.507
63.3
954.6
0.528
56.5
Nashville.............
Lat. 36*07'..........
E1. 605 ft............
1j
It
to
589.7
0.373
42.6
907
0.440
45.1
1246.8
0.472
52.9
1662.3
0.514
63.0
1997
0.556
71.4
2149.4
0.573
80.1
2079.7
0.565
83.2
1862.7
0.554
81.9
1600.7
0.556
76.6
1223.6
0.540
65.4
823.2
0.454
52.3
614.4
0.426
44.3
Oak idg*-.............
Lat. 36*01'S ..........
31. 905 ft............
:&
I
to
604
0.382
41.9
895.9
0.435
4.2
1241.7
0.471
51.7
1689.6
0.524
61.4
1942.8
0.541
69.8
2066.4
0.551
77.8
1972.3
0.536
80.2
1795.6
0.534
78.8
1559.8
0.542
74.5-
1194.8
0.527
62.7
796.3
0.438
50.4
610
0.422
42.5
Salt Lake City........
Lat. 40*46'..........
31. 4227 ft...........
18
It
t
o
622.1
0.468
29.4
986
0.909
36.2
1301.1
0.529
44.4
1813.3
0.579
53.9
63.1
-
-
71.7
81.3
79.0
1689.3
0.621
68.7
1250.2
0.610
57.0
-
42.5
552.8
0.467
34.0
TENNESSEE
WASHINGTON
Seattle...............
Lat. 47*27'N..........
E1. 386 ft............
Ja
It
to
282.6
0,296
42.1
520.6
0.355
45.0
992.2
0.456
48.9
1507
0.510
54.1
1881.5
0.538
59.8
1909.9
0.:08
64.5
2110.7
0.581
68.4
1688.5
0.533
67.9
1211.8
0.492
63.3
702.2
0.407
56.3
386.3
0.336
48.4
239.5
0.292
44.4
Seattle...............
Let. 47*36'N..........
E1. 14 ft.............
la
It
to
252
0.266
38.9
471.6
0.324
42.9
917.3
0.423
46.9
1375.6
0.468
51.9
1664.9
0.477
58.1
1724
0.459
62.8
1805.1
0.498
67.2
1617
1129.1
0.511 - 0.459
66.7
61.6
638
0.372
54.0
325.5
0.284
45.7
218.1
0.269
41.5
Spokane...............
Lot. 47*40'N..........
11.1968 ft............
It
to
446.1
0.478
26.5
837.6
0.579
31.7
1200
0.556
40.5
1864.6
0.602
49.2
2104.4
0.603
57.9
2226.5
0.593
64.6
2479.7
0.684
73.4
2076
0.656
71.7
1511
0.616
62.7
844.6
0.494
51.5
486.3
0.428
37.4
279
0.345
30.5
1N
It
to
564.6
0.40
21.8
812.2
0.478
24.6
1232.1
0.522
35.3
1455.3
0.474
49.0
1745.4
0.493
61.0
2031.7
0.540
70.9
2046.5
0.559
76.8
1740.2
0.534
74.4
1443.9
0.549
65.6
993
0.510
53.7
555.7
0.396
37.8
495.9
0.467
786.3
0.65
20.2
1146.1
0.672
26.3
1638
0.691
34.7
1988.5
0.647
45.5
2114
0.597
56.0
2492.2
0.662
65.4
2438.4
0.665
2120.6
0.649
72.5
1712.9
0.647
61.4
1301.8
0.666
48.3
S37.3
0.589
33.4
694.8
0.643
23.8
jN
WISCONSIN
Madison..............
Lat. 4308'N..........
1. 866 ft............
25.4
WY0MNG
Lander................
Lat. 42*48'N..........
E1. 5370 ft...........
j
8
x
to
*Original values incorrect.
Values estimated from insolation maps.
S
A-107
236
74.6
Storage Register Assignment
Average Daily Radiation Program
register
number
0
Hd/H
1
2
= min[w ,arcos(-tan($-s)
when azi
=
when azi
A 0: A 2 +1
0: '
5
5
3
w
4
sin 6
5
cos 6
6
37242737: alpha. for TILT
7
13462430: alpha. for AZIM
8
35172127: alpha. for REFL.
9
13421700: alpha. for AVE
x tan6)]
= arcos(-tan$ x tan6)
10
A = cos$/[sinytan s] + sin$/tany
11
B = tan6[cos$/tany-sin$/[sinytan s]]
12
min.
(w.arcos
[ (AB-/A 2 -B2 +1)/A
2
2
2
+ 1])
2
(W ,arcos[(AB+/A -B +1/A + 1])
13
min.
14
16242121: alpha. for BEAM
15
VA2 -B2 +1
16
Rbb
17
61174437: alpha. for %EXT
18
27133700: alpha. for LAT
19
16171527: alpha. for DECL
20
Total radiation
21
T
22
T= the fraction of extraterrestrial radiation transmitted through
the atmosphere
latitude (degrees)
23
=
monthly average daily total radiation on horizontal surface
ground reflection
24
p
25
s
26
y
27
6 = declination (degrees)
28
o
ss
o
sr
29
=
tilt of surface from horizontal
(degrees)
surface azimuth angle (east-,west+)
237
(degrees)
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j
Vol. 19.pp.325-329. Pergamon Press 1977. Printed inGreat Britain
Solar Energy.
REVIEW PAPER
CALCULATION OF MONTHLY AVERAGE
INSOLATION ON TILTED SURFACES
S. A. KLEIN
Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A.
(Received 16 June 1976; in revised form 28 October 1976)
Abstract-Several simplified design procedures for solar energy systems require monthly average meteorological
data. Monthly average daily totals of the solar radiation incident on a horizontal surface are available. However,
radiation data on tilted surfaces, required by the design procedures, are generally not available. A simple method of
estimating the average daily radiation for each calendar month on surfaces facing directly towards the equator has
been presented by Liu and Jordan[l]. This method is verified with experimental measurements and extended to
allow calculation of monthly average radiation on surfaces of a wide range of orientations.
INTRODUCTION
given for each month in Table 1, 4, is the latitude, and
Estimates of the monthly average solar radiation incident.
on surfaces of various orientations are required for solar
energy design procedures, heating load calculations, and
other applications. Monthly averages of the daily solar
radiation incident upon a horizontal surface are available
for many locations. However, radiation data on tilted
surfaces are generally not available.
A simple method of estimating the average daily
radiation for each calendar month on surfaces facing
directly towards the equator has been developcd by Liu
and Jordan(l]. Their method is described here and compared with the work of Page[2] and with additional
experimental measurements. The method is then extended so that it is applicable for surfaces oriented east or
west of south.
ESTIMATION OF AVERAGE DAILY
RADIATION ON SURACES FACIN
DRECTLY TOWARDS THE EQLATOR
The average daily radiation on a horizontal surface, H,
for each calendar month can be expressed by defining
Kr, the fraction of the mean daily extraterrestrial radiation, So.
K1 H
=I/1o
6
= 23.45" sin [360(284 + n)365]
cos w, = -tan
4 tan S.
(5)
Fo can be conveniently estimated from eqn (3) by selecting for each month, the day of the year for which the
daily .extraterrestrial radiation is nearly the same as the
monthly mean value. Using the 16th day of each month
can lead to small errors in Ho, particularly for June and
December. Recommended days for each month are given
in Table 1. Ho is tabulated for each month as a function
of latitude in Table 2. The value of the solar constant
used in the construction of Table 2 is 4871 kJ hr' rn2,
Thekaekara and Drummond [3]], which is approximately 3
per cent lower than the value used by Liu and
Jordan(1, 4] and Page[2].
The average daily radiation on a tilted surface, Fir, can
Table 1. Recommended average day for each
Ho
(m - mi).
r c
Month
11+0.033 cos (360n )
365
x [cos 6 cos 8 sin w, - fw,2-,360) s in 4 sin
month
(2)
where m, and M2 are, respectively, the days of the year
at the start and end of the month and (H1o),, is the extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface on day n
of the year which is given by
(H ). = L L
(4)
W, is the sunset hour angle
(1)
(HO).
8
is the solar declination which can be approximately
expressed
8]
(3)
where I. is the solar constant. n is the day of the year
244
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Day of the year
17
47
75
105
135
162
198
228
258
288
318
344
Date
17
16
16
15
15
11
17
16
15
15
14
10
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
S. A. KLEIN
326
Table 2. Monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation, kJ/m 2
Lat.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
25
30
35
23,902
21.034
18,069
28.115
25.679
23,072
32.848
31,141
29,200
37,111 39,356 40.046
36,436 39,569 40,706
35,497 39,530 41.129
40
45
50
15,403
11.998
8987
20,319
17,448
14.490
27,040
24,677
22.131
34,303
32.869
31.209
39,247
38.737
38,025
55
6082
11.486
19.423
29,345
37,152
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Dec.
Sept.
Oct.
39.6,06 37.832
40.071 37,534
40.Z92 36.976
34,238
32,917
31.343
29.413
27.213
24.820
24,909 22,669
22,161 19,714
19.296 16,687
41,328
41.322
41,147
40.281
40.055
39.644
36,166
35,118
33.851
29,542
27.515
25.283
22.255
19.541
16.705
16,344
13,344
10.342
13,626
10,579
7605
40,863
39,100
32,391
22.863
13,778
7396
4791
be expressed
Nov.
directly towards the equator,
HRT=RH=RKHO
(6)
(6)
where R is defined to be the ratio of the daily aver age
radiation on a tilted surface to that on a horizor tal
surface for each month. R can be estimated by in.
dividually considering the beam, diffuse, and reflec ted
components of the radiation incidence on the tilted s ur.
face. Assuming diffuse and reflected radiation to be
isotropic, Liu and Jordan(1] have proposed that A can be
expressed
cos (4-s) cos 8 sin
cos 4 cos 3 sin
a;+ 7/180w; sin (- s)sin 8
w,+-ll 80&), sin 0 sin8
(8)
where ( is the hour angle which is 15*x(hours from
solar noon), afternoons, positive, mornings negative and
w'. is the sunset hour angle for the tilted surface which is
given by
w.= min[w,, arcos [-tan (0 - s) tan 8]].
R
= (1 -
,/1)Rb + HsH(1 + cos s)12 + p(l
-
(7)
where ft3 is the monthly average daily diffuse radiation,
A, is the ratio of the average beam radiation on the tilted
surface to that on a horizontal surface for each mont h,s
is the tilt of the surface from horizontal, and p is the
ground reflectance. Liu and Jordan[4] suggest tha t p
varies from 0.2 to 0.7 depending upon the extent of sn ow
cover. Rb is a function of the transmittance of the
atmosphere (except during times of equinox) wh ich
depends upon the atmospheric cloudiness, water va por
and particulate concentration. However, Liu and Jor dan
suggest that 14 can be estimated to be the ratio of
extraterrestrial radiation on the tilted surface to that on a
horizontal surface for the month. For surfaces facing
K1
Page has calculated values of Ab for five surface
orientations of several latitudes by integrating the direct
radiation on the tilted and horizontal surface calculated
at hourly intervals for a standard direct radiation curve.
Values of & calculated from eqn (8) are in reasonably
good agreement with the values tabulated by Page as
seen in Table 3. Page's values are slightly more conservative, i.e. closer to unity.
Since measurements of HA, the monthly average daily
diffuse radiation are rarely available, Rs must be estimated from measurements of the average daily total
radiation. A number of investigators have found that the
diffuse radiation fractior, HRJ, is a function of Kr.
Shown in Fig. I are the relationships reported by Liu and
Jordan, and Page which can be expressed
1.390 - 4.027A +5.531 rC- 3.108<T3
1.00 - 1.13K
A,
H
(Liu & Jordan]
(10a)
[Page].
(10b)
Table 3. Comparison of values of F4 from Page [2] and eqn (8)
+= 40*
=3"
Eqn (8)
Jan.
1.61
1.66
Feb.
1.40
1.43
Mar.
1.18
1.20
Apr.
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
0.99
0.89
0.84
0.85
0.94
1.09
1.30
1.53
Dec.
1.67
Page
Vertical
0-s =0
Vertical
6-s=0
Page
(9)
cos s)12
Eqn (8)
Page
Eqn (8)
Page
Eqn (8)
1.49
1.59
2.15
2.26
2.11
2.32
1.06
1.13
1.72
1.79
1.50
1.59
0.64
0.67
1.35
1.38
0.93
0.%
1.00
0.87
0.87
G.84
0.94
1.12
1.35
1.60
0.29
0.13
0.06
0.09
0.21
0.45
0.88
1.33
0.30
0.11
0.05
0.08
0.21
0.50
0.97
1.46
1.07
0.90
0.84
0.85
0.98
1.20
1.57
1.98
1.06
0.88
0.80
0.83
0.98
1.24
1.64
2.12
0.48
0.27
0.19
0.22
0.37
0.69
1.24
1.86
0.48
0.25
0.17
0.21
0.37
0.74
1.36
2.10
1.74
1.61
1.74
2.30
2.42
2.36
2.58
245
327
Calculation of monthly average insolation on tilted surfaces
Page's relationship, which was derived from experimental measurements at 10 stations, tends to agree more
closely with the additional measurements reported by
Choudhury[5], Stanhill[6] and Norris[71. The discrepancy is apparently due, at least in part, to the fact that a
shade ring correction factor was applied to all reported
diffuse radiation measurements except those taken at
Blue Hill, Massachusetts, which Liu and Jordan used to
derive their relationship. Page's relationship probably
results in a more accurate estimate of the diffuse r2diation fraction; however, values of F estimated from eqn
(7) with p = 0.2 tend to agree more closely with experimental measurements when the Liu and Jordan
relationship is used, as shown in the next section.
eqn (7) with p = 0.2 using the diffuse radiation fraction
relationships of Liu and Jordan (eqn 10a) and Page (eqn
10b). In Table 5, similarly calculated values of R are
compared with experimental values for a 38' north-facing
surface at Highett, Victoria, Australia (lat. 37.9*S) for the
years 1966-68[8]. Based on this experimental data, it appears that Liu and Jordan's relationship for the diffuse
radiation fraction (eqn 10a) results in more accurate
values of R than does Page's (eqn 10b). It is possible that
the "underestimated" diffuse radiation fraction arising
from eqn (10a) tends to cancel errors caused by the
conservative assumptions of isotropic diffuse radiation
and a ground reflectance of 0.2.
COMPARISON WITH EXPERDIENTAL RESULTS
RADIATION ON SURFACES ORIENTED
EAST OR WEST OF SOUTH
ESTIMATION OF AVERAGE DAILY
Long-term measurements of the radiation incident on
both tilted and horizontal surfaces are scarce.
Measurements of the radiation incident on a horizontal
and a south-facing vertical surface in Blue Hill, Massachusetts (lat. 42.2*N) for the yr 1952-56 have been
presented by Liu and Jordan. In Table 4 experimental
values of A are compared with values estimated from
Liu and Jordan's method of calculating Rb can be
extended so that it is applicable for surfaces which are
not oriented directly towards the equator by integrating
the rate of extraterrestrial radiation on the surface for
the period during which the sun is both above the
horizon and in front of the surface and then dividing this
0.8
0.P6
WE (2)
eW
0
45
LIU AND JORDAN
-
Fa
0.2-
0
0.1
r
T
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
MONTHLY AVERAGE DAILY TOTAL RADIATION
EXTRATERRESTRIAL DAILY INSOLATION
Fig.
1.0
1. Relationship of fljl to k.
Table 4. Comparison of experimentalt and estimated values of A for a vertical surface facmg
south at Blue Hill, Mass., lat. 4rl3'N
Kr
Experimentalt
(1952-56)
Estimated from
eqns (7) and (10a)
Estimated from
eqns (7) and (10b)
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
0.411
0.445
0.445
1.80
1.38
0.93
1.72
1.31
0.91
1.55
1.22
0.87
Apr.
0.440
0.61
0.62
May
0.481
0.44
0.62
0.47
0.48
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
0.524
0.528
0.485
0.485
0.466
0.421
0.422
0.39
0.42
0.54
0.79
0.41
0.42
0.55
0.79
0.42
0.44
0.55
0.77
1.18
1.11
1.61
1.91
1.72
Month
-
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
1
I
1.23
1.60
1.94
tSource: Liu and Jordan (1962)[1).
246
1.46
S. A.
328
KLEIN
Table 5. Comparison of experimental and estimated values of A for a 38* surface facing
north at Melbourne. Australia, lat. 37.9"S
fi
Month
Kr
Jan.
0.46
0.85
0.88
0.89
Feb.
Mar.
0.46
0.41
0.94
1.10
0.96
1.09
0.%
1.06
Apr.
May
0.40
0.34
1.29
1.37
1.27
1.41
1.21
1.33
June
0.34
1.50
1.54
1.44
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
0.37
0.39
0.38
0.39
0.41
0.42
1.50
1.34
1.15
0.98
0.88
0.84
1.55
1.34
1.14
0.99
0.90
0.86
1.42
1.28
1.10
0.98
0.90
0.87
R, = {[cos s sin 8 sin 01]hr/I180(w,, - W,,]
- [sin 8 cos 0 sin s cos y]r/180[w,. ,,]
+ (cos 6 cos 8 cos s][sin w. - sin w,,]
+ [cos 8 cos y sin 4 sin s][sin w,, - sin w,,]
- (cos 8 sin s sin y][cos w,, - cos w,,)/
{2[cos 6 cos 8 sin &),+ r/180S, sin dosin 8J3
(11)
if y 0O
-min [w,, arcos [(AB +VA
+1l)I(A
2
+ 1)]]
(12)
= min (w,, arcos [(AB - V"A'- B +I)/(A 2 + 1)fl
-B
if Y1 0
,,= -min (,, arcos [(AB - VA-
B- +1)/(A 2 + 1)]]
if Y>0
w,. = min (,,
Estimated from
eqns (7) and (10b)
EXAMPLE
where y is the surface azimuth angle, i.e. the deviation of
the normal to the surface from the local meridan, the
zero point being due south, east negative, and west
positive. w,, and (,, are the sunrise and sunset hour
angles on the tilted surface, given by
a.
Estimated from
eqns (7) and I10a)
An example demonstrating this method of estimating
radiation on tilted surfaces follows.
result by Fl. In this case
a,,=
A
Experimentalt
(1966-68)
(13)
Estimate the monthly averages of daily radiation
incident on a surface tilted 43* from horizontal facing
due south in Madison, Wisconsin (43*N lat.) and compare
them with those incident if the surface were oriented 15*
west of south.
Daily averages value of H, the radiation incident on a
horizontal surface can be found in Ref. [9]. The mean
daily extraterrestrial radiation, fle, for each month can
be determined from eqn (3) (using the days of the year in
Table 1) or from Table 2 with interpolation. The ratio
H/Ho determines Rr for each month which can be used
to calculate H/H from eqn (10a) or (10b); (eqn (10a) is
used in this example.) R is calculated from values of k
for each month for both the south (eqn 8) and the 15*
west of south (eqn 11) surfaces. The average daily
radiation on each of the surfaces is the product of AR
for each month. These results are displayed in Table 6.
arcos ((AB + VA-- B + 1)/(A 2 + 1)]
A = cos 4/[sin y tan s]+ sin 4/tan 7
B = tan S[cos 4/tan y - sin 41[sin - tan sfl.
(14)
(15)
REFERENCES
1. B. Y. H. Uu and R. C. Jordan, Daily insolation on surfaces
tilted toward the equator. Trans. ASHRAE 526-541 (1962).
Table 6. Calculation of daily average radiation on a 43* surface in Madison
H
Month
Kj m 2 day'
R.
A
R
.=0
y=15'
KJ m day-'
R,
/
- =0'
y = 15*
- 1=0*
-t= 15"
KJ m'2 day~'
KJ m 2 day-'
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
6412
9224
13,992
16,527
13,226
18,612
25,762
33,429
0.485
0.4%
0.543
0.494
0.384
0.374
0.337
0.376
2.53
1.95
1.46
1.09
2.47
1.90
1.44
1.09
1.92
1.57
1.28
1.03
1.88
1.54
1.27
1.03
12,300
14.500
18,000
17,100
12,100
14,200
17,800
17,100
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
19,821
23,073
23.241
19,762
16,397
11,277
39,011
41,348
40,136
35.552
28,499
20,684
0.508
0.558
0.579
0.556
0.575
0.545
0.365
.0.325
0.310
0.327
0.313
0.335
0.88
0.80
0.84
0.99
1.77
0.89
0.81
0.85
1.00
1.30
1.73
0.90
0.85
0.87
0.98
1.19
1.49
0.91
0.86
0.88
0.98
1.18
1.47
17,900
19,600
20,300
19,400
19,500
16.800
18,000
19,700
20,400
19,400
19,400
16.500
Nov.
Dec.
6311
5632
14,472
11,785
0.436
0.478
0.428
0.390
2.36
2.75
2.30
2.68
1.75
2.04
1.71
2.00
1!,0/.
11,500
10,800
11,300
1.30
247
Calculation of monthly average insolation on tilted surfaces
2. J. K. Page, The estimation of monthly mean values of daily
total short-wave radiation on vertical and inclined surfaces
from sunshine records for latitudes 40'N-40'S. Proc. UN Conf.
on New Sources of Energy. Paper No. 35/5198 (1961).
3. M. P. Thekaekara and A. J. Drummond. Standard values for
the solar constant and its spectral components. Nat. Phys. Sci.
229(6) (1971).
4. B. Y. H. Liu and R. C. Jordan, The interrelationship and
characteristic distribution of direct, diffuse, and total solar
radiation. Solar Energy 4(3) (1960).
5. N. K. 0. Choudhury, Solar radiation at New Delhi. Solar
Energy 7(2), 44-52 (1963).
248
329
6. G.'Stanhill, Diffuse sky and cloud radiation in Israel. Solar
Energy 10(2), 96-101 (1966).
7. D. J. Norris, Solar radiation on inclined surfaces. Solar Energy
10, 72-77 (1966).
8. J. W. Bannister, Solar Radiation Records. Division of Mech.
Engng, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization. Highett, Victoria. Australia (1966-1969).
9. B. Y. H. Liu and R. C. Jordan, The long-term average
performance of flat-plate solar energy collectors. Solar Energy
7, 53-74 (1963).
Solar Angles & Radiation Program
249
DAILY PROFILE
SQLAR ANGLES& RADIATION
TITLE
PROGRAMMER
Cri s
Partitioning (Op 17) L§t
PAGE
OF
10
DATE 1 May 197A
Penton_
-,
1
fV0-,
TI Progrommoble
ROrogrm
6crd
5
Cards
Printer ye s
t I Library Module
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION
Given base data, calculates solar altitude, solar azimuth, angle of
incidence to a specified plane, hourly quantities of direct, diffuse
and total radiation at same plane, and radiation transmitted through
specified glazing in same plane. Tabular output is optional, graphic
output summarizes daily patterns of each variable. Daily total
incident and transmitted radiation values are listed. Program
prompts input of transmission values and card reading. Calculations
are via ASHRAE procedures.
STEP
PROCEDURE
USER INSTRUCTIONS
ENTER
PRESS
DISPLAY
1
2*
31
4*
Read card sides 1 & 2
0
Enter latitude
latitude sto 0 2
Enter longitude
longituda sto 0 3
Enter atmospheric clearance factor
acf
sto 0 4
sto 0 5
5* Enter eq. of time ( 0 for solar noen )
6*
Enter declination
declin. sto 0 6
sto 0 7
A
Enter A in BTUH/SF
7*
8* Enter B ( air mass correction )
B
sto 0 8
9* Enter C ( dimensionless )
C
sto 0 9
10 Enter ground reflectance as factor
ground
sto 1 0
tilt
sto 1 1
11 Enter wall tilt ( vert. = 90)
sto 1 2
12 Enter wall orientation ( +east, -west )
inv2nd lis
0
13 List input data for ref.
@nd wri te
14 Record data for re-use ( optional ) 4
rst
0
15 Reset
0
2nd st lg
16 For no tabular output
17 Run
0
R/S
18 Reset
0
rst
0
19 Read card sides 3,4,&5 on prompt
R/S
0
20 Run
R/S
21* Enter transmission values on prompt value
0
R/S
22 Run
*
1,2
latitude
longitude
acf
eq. time
declin.
A
B
C
.ground
tilt
orient.
r/s @ 12
4
0
0
1,2,4
prompt
graphs
Note, values for this input may le found in the ap pend x.
Program listings, alpha register listing, s mple o tpu & appendix
follow.
DATA REGISTERS (..iMvl 90 )
USER DEFINED KEYS
A
use
.for sub-
o
2 o normal energy
dir.
E @ plane
S2,
C
2
2
13slong
4
E
LABELS (Op08)
corr.
hour in min.
2
2 3
2'
Fsg ground
Fss sky
sky diffuse
A
Is hour angle
2s grd. diffuse
B
16
altitude
17 azimuth
1s wall sun angl
19 angle incid.
2 6
27
2a
29
C
D
FLAGS
s 197T~S~lureonow
Sn
1
orpred
2
4
x
10]x-E
xx
L-.x]-TOX_
]
XXrnx-xN
-
-
-
-
total diffuse
total E
sum E
counter
0.
a
1
M
t
6
-
K
7
8
9
1o014955-1l
SZ5L\'K
r'AIL~/
--
-.
FLOW
PROEiL-n~
1.
-a
--
ChART
CS-
INfCl C-CF At'.
'IES
'p NcaJ
uwro
'a sr'o
K
251
r~
f
A2DAmf-
VA"
I
~J../5-ALCULA-EE
A.I5.,--NE--m
I
I4.Z
-_._1,_1,t_^
A~S
7'
LWPI
H6312C
H
pM~tsAC-
LY
l1z
ro V
TFAVISPA
?iJ
7mo -IO
A W-%
AI-rAPte
A
CA L.C,
PA-IC'iE__
Sz
........
252
AN
253
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AP,
TITLE
4---
/2A
T-TiOMJ
DATE
PROGRAMMER &ETON
Partitioning (Op 17) 1+
f ,$'
TI Progrommobe
PAGE_ _OF 2
+
I
1 Library Module
Program Re.co
Wn
\ MA'1
-6
t-
Cards_
Printer
INDEX MAP
FOR USE IN SELECTING THE PROPER SUN CHART
100*,-
- -- -r
5'
Solar Radiation Intensity
Table I ....
and Related Data Btuh 'sq ft
-
Fig. 4
-
....
Estimated Atmospheric Clearness Numbers in the
U.S. for Nonindustriol Localities,
2t64
Dale
It
Jan 21
Feb 21
440.1
436.5
Mar 21
Equation
of Time,
minsec
Declnofion,
de
-11:1
--13
-20'
-0.8
7:19
430.0
-
Apr 21 422.8
May21 416.5
June 21 41. 1
+ O:OS
+ 3:32
-
July 21
Aut 21
Sept?21
413.5
417.6
4*24.0
4:11.1
-
437.6
441.0
+13:55
+ 1:32
Oct 21
Nov 21
Dec 21
14-1
0:25
1:.
+ 7:30
+15: W
-
I
A'
Btuh/
s
, Air
Mass.
Ft
390
3
1 0.142
.1
0.1
mensaon
less)
0.5;
0OGG
0
376
0-.15
0.071
+11.6
+20.0
+2;I 3 5
360
350
345
0.1SO
0.1V6
0.203
0.097
0.121
0.134
+20.6
+12.3
0
344
3.
36~5
-10.5
-19.S
-23.45
37
3.,7
391
0.207 0.13
0.
00
0.177 j 0Aj)~'
0.160 0.0,
0.1419
0.142
0.006
0.0.57
.u 60
50
z
40
-
--
0-
30-
-M--M
10
0
20
40
60
80 90
ei ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, DEGREES
The percentage of sunlight transmitted
through very clear glass. The angle of
incidence is the angle between a ray of
sunlight and a line drawn perpendicular
to the plates.
265