Including Students with
Severe Disabilities in
Preschool Settings
PA Department of Education 2007
Annual Conference: Effective
Interventions: Meeting the Needs of ALL
Students
Wednesday, March 29, 2007
♦ www.udel.edu/cds/conferences.htlm
♦ www.udel.edu/cds/conferences.htlm
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What We’ll Cover This Afternoon
♦ The Big Picture in Inclusion
♦ Early Intervention, Early Childhood Education, and
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Inclusion Goals
Good, best, and recommended practices in early
childhood inclusion
Benefits of inclusion
Necessary components of inclusion
Teams
Professionalism and Collaboration
Planning and Strategies for Children with Severe
Disabilities
Quality inclusive early care and education
An example
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My Office
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But enough about me…
What about you?
But, REALLY—what about you?
♦ Three things to
find out about your
group:
– Where are you
from?
– How long have you
been involved in
early childhood
education?
– What do you like
about EI/HS?
♦ Groups of six (AGH!)
♦ Someone to lead
♦ Someone to record
information
♦ Someone to watch the time
and hold the group to the
time
♦ Use whatever tools you can
fashion
♦ One “participant-observer”
who watches and will
comment on the process
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Oh, and one last thing…
♦Pay attention
to how you
are
responding
to this
process
But, REALLY—what about you?
♦ Three things to
find out about your
group:
♦ Six groups (AGH!)
♦ Someone to lead
♦ Someone to record information
♦ Someone to watch the time and
– Where are you
hold the group to the time
from?
– How long have you ♦ Use whatever tools you can
fashion
been working in
♦ One “participant-observer” who
early
watches and will comment on
intervention/Head
Start?
the process
– What do you like
about EI/HS?
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So, some questions about this…
♦ What were the answers to your questions?
♦ Did you want to do a good job at these
tasks?
♦ What was your response? Energized?
Frustrated? Bored? Asking, why in the
world are we doing this?
♦ So—why in the world DID we do this?
♦ You know the story…
– even if our work is solitary, we still work in
teams and we need to function as members
of a team
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Croatia
♦ Mission: To close
institutions and
provide communitybased supports and
services to children
and adults with
disabilities; the
inclusion of persons
with disabilities in
general society with
control of their
services ensures
they are equal
citizens with equal
rights.
U.S.
♦ Mission: The
Dubai
♦ Mission: The social
advancement of
services to children
and adults with
disabilities by
ensuring the stability
of service providers
to be able to address
the unexpected costs
of business related to
transportation, fuel,
and other expenses ♦
and the increased
wages of persons
caring for individuals
with disabilities.
inclusion of all
children and adults
with disabilities by
promoting
comprehensive,
quality communitybased services as an
alternative to
institutionalization.
All children and
adults with
disabilities will live
with the full rights of
citizens and with full
respect for their
equal rights.
Early Intervention, Early
Childhood Education, and
Inclusion Goals
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Early Intervention, Early Childhood
Education, and Inclusion Goals
♦ to support families in achieving their own goals for
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their children
to promote child engagement, independence, and
mastery
to promote development in key domains
to build and support children’s social competence
to promote generalized use of skills
to provide and prepare for normalized life
experiences
to prevent the emergence of future problems or
disabilities
What is your vision? What would
you add to these goals?
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Roots of Early Intervention and
Inclusion in the United States
♦ Special Education
(Behavioral analysis and
therapeutic services)
♦ Compensatory Education
(e.g., Head Start)
♦ Early Childhood
Education (traditional
preschool,
developmentally
appropriate practice,
child-centered curricula)
Shared Values/Principles/Foundations of
Early Intervention/Preschool Education
 Family-centered services
 Normalization and services in natural
environments
 Variety of service delivery models
 Diversity of children and families served
 Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary service
models
 Functional and developmental programming
strategies
 Individualized programming
 Blending of philosophical perspectives
(developmental, behavioral,
ecological/functional)
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History of early intervention:
 1799-Wild boy of Aveyron
 1840s-Seguin and Schools for Students with
mental retardation
 Early 1900s-Settlement House Movement
 1950s-Isolated public school programs
 1958-Samuel Kirk publishes Early Education
of the Mentally Retarded
 1961-James McVicker Hunt publishes
Intelligence and Experience
 1965-War on Poverty begins
 1965-First Head Start programs
Early Intervention Law
 Public Law 90-538 (1968)
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Handicapped Children’s Early
Education Assistance Act
Public Law 92-142 (1972) Head
Start Disabilities Requirement
Public Law 94-142 (1975) Education
for All Handicapped Act
Public Law 99-457 (1986)
Amendments to EHA and
Infant/Toddler/Family Program
Public Law 101-476 (1990), New
EHA Title: Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (I.D.E.A.)
Public Law 105-17 (1997), I.D.E.A.
reauthorization
I.D.E.I.A. (2004)
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Evidence of E.I. Effectiveness
♦ Skeels and Dye, 1939
♦ Model programs and Head Start
♦ Infant Health and Development Program
(1990)
♦ E.I. studies, clinical and statistical
significance
♦ Parental reports and satisfaction
♦ Family outcomes vs. child outcomes
National and Local Issues
in EI and Inclusion
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Old Recommend Practices in Early
Intervention
♦ Special education orientation
♦ Traditional assessment
♦ Academic orientation
♦ 1:1 instruction
♦ focus on skills and products
♦ Mass trial instruction
♦ Highly structured
♦ Adult initiated
♦ Isolate therapy
♦ Classroom teacher role
♦ Segregation
New Recommended Practices in
Early Intervention
♦ Blending of Special Education, Head
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Start and Early Childhood strategies
Naturalistic assessment
Play-based orientation
Individualized, small group
instruction/therapy
Focus on interactions and process
Activity-based intervention
Lightly structured
Child initiated, adult supported
Integrated therapy
Collaborative/consultative roles
Inclusion
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Early Care and Education Childbased Inclusive Early Services
♦ Natural context of services for children and
families
♦ Opportunities for physical, communication, and
social skill building
♦ With qualified teachers and aids, opportunities for
cognitive skill building (specific skills such as
literacy, numeracy, and prediction)
♦ Reduction in trips families need to make to
acquire services for their children
Inclusion/Integration Benefits
♦ For children with
disabilities
– Increase in
language/communication
skills
– Increase in social skills
– Increase in families’
satisfaction with
programming
– Increase in family contacts
in the community
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Inclusion/Integration Benefits
♦ For children without
disabilities
– Increase in language
skills and
communication
abilities
– Increase in social skills
– Increase in tolerance of
differences among
individuals
Sherita
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Necessary Components for Strong
Inclusive Partnerships
♦ Low staff:child ratios;
♦ small group sizes;
♦ associate or bachelor level
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trained teachers;
low turn-over;
well-educated directors and
administrators
Engaged, responsive interactions
between teachers and children
Planned, purposeful, goaloriented activities that emerge
from children’s interests,
activities, and backgrounds
Challenges to Early Care and
Education Services for Children with
Severe Disabilities
♦ Skills and training of ALL staff
♦ Turn-over of ALL staff
♦ Resistance of staff program staff
♦ Resistance of families of children without disabilities
♦ Resistance of physicians and other rehabilitation
providers
♦ Wide variation in overall quality of child care
programs
♦ Lack of monitoring of child care program quality
♦ AND THE BIGGEST BARRIER: Our own attitude
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Quality Profile of Center-Based Programs
Serving 3 to 5-year-olds in Delaware
38.6%
N=64
48.2%
N=80
26.5%
N=44
42.8%
N=71
37.6%
N=62
9.7%
N=16
59.4%
N=98
43.9%
N=72
45.5%
N=60
34.8%
N=57
42.4%
N=56
21.3%
N=35
12.1%
N=16
47.9%
N=79
42.4%
N=70
20.0%
N=33
13.3%
N=22
30.7%
N=51
20.0%
N=33
42.4%
N=70
20.6%
N=34
Figure Legend
= rating of “poor”
= rating of “mediocre”
= rating of “good”
Quality Profile of Center-Based Programs
Serving Infants and Toddlers in Delaware
21.3%
N=24
8.8%
N=10
20.4%
N=23
53.1%
N=60
25.7%
N=29
70.8%
N=80
33.6%
N=38
8.0%
N=9
47.8%
N=54
23.9%
N=27
29.6%
N=29
32.7%
N=37
46.0%
N=52
38.1%
N=43
50.4%
N=57
50.0%
N=49
33.6%
N=38
46.0%
N=52
14.2%
N=16
25.7%
N=29
20.4%
N=20
Figure Legend
= rating of “poor”
= rating of “mediocre”
= rating of “good”
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Quality Profile of Head Start Programs in Delaware
Designed to Serve Children in Poverty and with
Disabilities
62.2%
N=51
36.6%
N=30
1.2%
N=1
52.4%
N=43
34.1%
N=28
43.9%
N=36
18.3%
N=15
50.0%
N=41
75.6%
N=62
6.1%
N=5
6.1%
N=5
13.4%
N=11
68.3%
N=56
65.9%
N=54
69.1%
N=38
17.1%
N=14
31.7%
N=26
29.1%
N=16
14.6%
N=12
2.4%
N=2
1.8%
N=1
Figure Legend
= rating of “poor”
= rating of “mediocre”
= rating of “good”
LaKwanda
♦ Undetermined
diagnosis
♦ Polydactyl
♦ Tracheostyomy
♦ Gastrostomy
♦ Respiratory distress
disorder
♦ Grade IV intercranial
ventricular
hemorrhage at birth
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Teams:
Models, Approaches and Key
Elements
Early Intervention Teamwork
♦ It is a MAJOR
assumption of early
intervention that NO
ONE person,
discipline, program,
or agency can
provide the support
necessary for a
family with a young
child with a
disability.
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Team Characteristics
♦ Overall team goals
♦ Decision making
abilities
♦ Level of sensitivity ♦ Participation of
members
♦ Openness of
♦ Implementation of
communication
decisions
♦ Handling of conflict
♦ Responsibility to get
♦ Valuing of members
work accomplished
♦ Evaluation of self
♦ Source of control
and team
♦ Level of cohesion
Essential TEAM
Components
♦ All members share the same goals
and purposes for working together
♦ The team functions by consensus
decision making
♦ The team consistently carries out
decisions jointly made
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Interdisciplinary Teams
♦ Multiple professionals
and family members
working toward
common goals
♦ Separately assess
children
♦ Jointly discuss results
and develop plans for
intervention
♦ Individually write own
sections of reports
OT
Assessment
PT
Educ.
SLP
Discuss Results and Set Goals
OT
PT
Educ.
SLP
Child
Report Report
Report Report
Complete Report
Transdisciplinary....
♦ “across disciplines”
♦ studying, learning,
working, sharing,
providing within one’s
own discipline and
other disciplines with
which one has had
exposure and
knowledge
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Transdisciplinary Approach
♦ a team approach to assessing and
delivering services
♦ team members are willing to both
teach others about their own skills
and to learn and take on the roles
from other disciplines;
♦ team members continuously
communicate their expertise to others
so that team members from other
disciplines can use that knowledge.
Characteristics of
Transdisciplinary Intervention
♦ One primary provider works with family
members
♦ Consultation occurs with other professionals as
needed
♦ Co-intervention (treatment, teaching) occurs in
order to share information and teach skills to
both each other and the family
♦ Family members are also primary team
members
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Transdisciplinary Approach
♦ A team approach
based on sharing of
information and skills
across disciplines in
order to better serve
the young child and
her family.
♦ Characteristics
– Information
Sharing
– Skill sharing and
development
– Role release and
role sharing
– Consultative model
of service
Levels of Transdisciplinary
Services
♦ Role/discipline
instruction
♦ Role modeling
♦ Role sharing
♦ Role release
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–
–
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Swapping
Enrichment
Extension
support
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Transdisciplinary Role Release
♦ When one team member from
one discipline teaches another
team member from another
discipline to conduct some of
his or her services
♦ Team members share skills and
learn from one another
♦ Role release can occur at the
information level, the skill
level, or the performance level
Transdisciplinary Teams
♦ Parents and caregivers are team members
♦ Members are from at least two disciplines
♦ Members function as a team; decisions are made jointly
♦ Members share their perceptions of a child’s abilities
♦ Consensus is formed regarding a child’s abilities,
concerns, and possible methods of intervention
♦ Consensus is formed regarding the services necessary to
address desired goals and outcomes
♦ Members participate in “role-release”
♦ Members learn different perspectives of the child through
the perceptions of their fellow team members
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Transdisciplinary Organizational
Structure
♦ No “departments” (e.g., OT department,
speech department) are used in the
transdisciplinary model
♦ Programs are organized by teams with
multiple disciplines represented on each team
♦ Changes in approaches, interventions, and
strategies are decided by all team members
♦ Teams are responsible for their budgeting,
resource management, and outcomes
Integrated, Cross-Domain Goals
and Objectives
♦ Objectives are decided upon by the child’s
function, not necessarily by developmental
level
♦ Objectives should result in the child having
more independence when they are achieved
♦ Objectives should allow the child to
participate in natural environments
♦ Objectives should address skills across
multiple domains of development
♦ Objectives are usually taught in context
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Practices to Avoid for
Transdisciplinary Teams
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More than one primary service provider
IFSPs and IEPs that have “PT outcomes,” “speech outcomes”
Team members missing team meetings
Team members who are reluctant to share information and
reluctant to teach colleagues skills about their own discipline
Team members who are reluctant to learn about other
disciplines
Planning or making changes to an intervention plan without the
other team members, including the family
Lack of time spent with fellow team members to discuss
children’s progress and response to interventions
Lack of time spent with the family; including time to teach
how to be active members of the team
Possible Drawbacks of
Transdisciplinary Teams
♦ The approach is initially time intensive
♦ Team development takes months;
♦ Replacement of team members takes
time to integrate the new members to
the process
♦ Some professionals are reluctant to
acquire new skills/roles
♦ Questions about legal liability of
teaching others and implementing
services not formally trained for
♦ Administrative budgeting questions
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Barriers to Effective Teamwork
♦ Role expectations
♦ Discomfort with
conflict
♦ Lack of negotiation
skills
♦ Territoriality
♦ Insecurity
Professionalism:
Communication, Collaboration,
and Consultation
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Team Characteristics
♦ Overall team goals
♦ Decision making
♦ Level of cohesion
abilities
♦ Participation of
members
♦ Implementation of
decisions
♦ Responsibility to get
work accomplished
♦ Source of control
♦ Level of sensitivity
♦ Openness of
communication
♦ Handling of conflict
♦ Valuing of members
♦ Evaluation of self and
team
Primary Teamwork Behaviors
♦ Communication---with team members,
other staff, administrators, children,
families, and other agencies.
♦ Cooperation--with team members,
other staff, administrators, children,
families, and other agencies.
♦ Consistency--with team members,
other staff, administrators, children,
families, and other agencies.
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Teamwork Basic Guidelines
♦ Guideline 1: Staff of a program should be organized into
teams serving discrete groups of children and their
families. Each team should include all staff members who
regularly provide services to that particular group
♦ Guideline 2: The total number of adults who serve each
group of children and their families should be kept to a
minimum. If possible, each staff member should serve on
only one team.
♦ Guideline 3: Teams should be the organizational unit
within a program; not departments.
♦ Guideline 4: Teams should be the basic administrative
unit for both personnel management and program
budgeting.
The Team Meeting
♦ A proposal:
– Team meetings are held regularly and are
the number one priority of the team.
– They are missed for no reason other than
severe illness or personal emergency of the
most significant nature.
– Permission to miss a team meeting must
come from the team and can only occur in
advance.
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Activity-Based Early
Intervention: Scheduling
Teaching in Natural Routines
Program Planning for Young Children
With Severe Disabilities
Philosophical
Foundations
Determining
Staff to work
on Objectives
Planning
Activities to
Enhance Obj.
Early
Intervention
Principles
Establishing
Goals and
Objectives
Embedding
Objectives in
Routines
Determining
Program
Routines
Collecting Data
on Children’s
Objectives
Adapting and
updating
Objectives
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Naturalistic Curriculum
♦Curriculum that is based on the
– individual needs of the child
– the environments within which the child
spends times; and
– the priorities of the child’s family
Steps to Develop a Naturalistic
Curriculum
1) Conduct an ecological
assessment
2) Establish priorities for
goals
3) Determine present
levels of performance
4) Identify instructional
objectives
5) Develop instructional
plans
6) Develop an
instructional schedule
7) Provide instruction
8) Evaluate skills learned
and monitor for
retention and
generalization
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To develop a program plan for a
child with a disability, you need to
know:
♦ where the child spends time and what the
demands are of those settings
♦ the priorities of the child’s family for her
skill development and behavior
♦ the developmental level of the child and
what developmental sequences are expected
as she progresses.
Assessment Process to Determine
Programming Outcomes/Goals
Setting
Demands
Family
Priorities
Child’s
Skills
Outcomes/Goals
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Activity-Based Intervention
Approach
Routine, planned, child-initiated activities
(normal early childhood programming)
 Embedded intervention targets (children’s
goals and objectives)
 Logical antecedent & consequences
(normal cues/directions and rewards)
 Generative/functional skills
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Embedding Objectives
♦ The strategy of
incorporating a child’s
skill/behavior objectives
within the daily program
routine
♦ Embedding identifies
when and where a child’s
objectives can be
addressed and who will be
responsible for addressing
them
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Steps to Embed Objectives
within the Program Routine
1. Identify the routines of the day (general activities and
schedule).
2. Review each child’s objectives
3. Identify when, during the routines of the day, each child's’
objectives can be addressed
4. Determine what activities can be planned during the
identified routines to foster the acquisition of the
objectives
5. Determine what teaching strategies are necessary to foster
the acquisition of the objectives
6. Assign staff to assist children in their acquisition of skills
Organizing the Day to Meet
Children’s Individual Objectives
♦ Ensure that everyone on staff
knows the daily schedule
♦ Ensure that everyone knows the
children’s objectives
♦ Ensure that everyone knows at
what times during the schedule
there are opportunities for staff
to assist children to meet their
objectives
♦ Plan activities within your
schedule that will help children
to meet their objectives
8:30 Arrival
8:40 Breakfast
9:10 Morning Circle
9:30 Centers
10:30 Story Circle
10:50 Outside
11:30 Clean-up
11:45 Lunch
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Team Ideas that Can Help
♦ Post staff schedules
♦ Decide which staff are
responsible for which
children or activities
♦ Post children’s
objectives so everyone
is aware of them
♦ Post a schedule that
shows what objectives
can be worked on during
which activities
Adapting Materials
♦ Brighten, make more
reflective
♦ Increase texture
♦ Decrease texture
♦ Add handles, knobs,
Velcro
♦ Increase size
♦ Add an auditory
component
♦ Simplify
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Adapting Planned Activities for Young
Children with Severe Disabilities
♦ Review the child’s (children’s) objectives
♦ Determine which of the objectives might possibly
be met during the activity
♦ Pinpoint what changes or adaptations need to be
made to address the child’s objective
♦ Determine what combination of MATERIALS,
EQUIPMENT, PROCEDURES, STAFF
BEHAVIORS, or PEER BEHAVIORS will need
to be adapted to address acquisition of the
objective(s)
Obligations of the IFSP & IEP




That all services will be
provided
That classroom and family
activities will be conducted
that promote the acquisition
of the stated objectives
That professional effort will
be made to assist the child in
meeting the stated objectives
That children’s progress will
be documented
We
promise...
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Activity-Based Intervention
Approach




Routine, planned, child-initiated activities
(normal early childhood programming)
Embedded intervention targets (children’s
goals and objectives)
Logical antecedent & consequences
(normal cues/directions and rewards)
Generative/functional skills
Embedding Objectives
♦ The strategy of
incorporating a child’s
skill/behavior objectives
within the daily program
routine
♦ Embedding identifies
when and where a child’s
objectives can be
addressed and who will be
responsible for addressing
them
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What IS a quality Early Care
and Education Program?
♦ Plan and implement curriculum specifically to
develop children’s social, emotional, cognitive,
physical, and language abilities
♦ Staff have responsive, interpersonal relationships
with the children they serve
– They listen
– They get down to the child’s level
– They respond to both verbal and non-verbal
interactions
– They initiate and continue interactions with children
– They expand children’s communications
– They place child-teacher interactions above all else
except the health and safety of children
What IS a quality Early Care
and Education Program? (cont.)
♦ Child-teacher ratios allow for quality program
planning and interaction:
– Infants: 1 teacher to three infants
– Toddlers: 1 teacher to four toddlers
– Preschoolers: 1 teacher to eight preschoolers
– Kindergarten/1st grade: 1 teacher to 12 children
– School-age: 1 teacher to 15 children
♦ Highly trained and experienced teachers
♦ A program structure that supports teachers as they
plan and implement curriculum
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What IS a quality Early Care
and Education Program? (cont.)
♦ Opportunities for teachers to continue their education
♦ Supervision of teachers that provides them with on-going
feedback, opportunities to self-critique, and resources to
improve their teaching
♦ Management practices that oversee all operations of the
program (fiscal, service, family interactions) and provide
the support for staff to improve their skills
♦ Management that removes staff that do not perform to
quality levels
♦ flexibility of programs to meet individual needs of children
♦ inclusion of children of all abilities, including those with
specific disabilities
What IS a quality Early Care
and Education Program? (cont.)
♦ Excellent family-program relations
♦ Incorporation of families’ cultures, backgrounds,
and preferences
♦ Appropriate materials and equipment to address
children’s needs
♦ Preventative environments and interactions that
promote positive behavior
♦ Safe and healthy environments
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Some possible strategies to
increase quality
♦ Provide concentrated, on-going, targeted
continuing education for staff that includes:
– Child development information
– Curriculum assessment, development, implementation,
and evaluation skills
– Emergent curriculum knowledge and skills
– Specific training in language, literacy and cognitive
development
– Move staff toward AT LEAST an associates degree in
early childhood education (not another field)
♦ Hire teachers with at least an associates degree
AND knowledge and experience with children (no
one under 21 years of age)
Some possible strategies to
increase quality (cont.)
♦ Individualized teacher staff development plans to
enhance their knowledge and skills
♦ Resources for workshops, conferences and other
training opportunities
♦ Provide time for planning and curriculum
development and expect that teachers will develop
plans; review those plans
♦ Reduce teacher-child ratios (see above)
♦ Provide rich, flexible, age-appropriate materials
and equipment for teaching staff
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Some possible strategies to
increase quality (cont.)
♦ Program management that is highly
knowledgeable about child development,
emergent curriculum, individualization of
instruction, and supervision
♦ Management structures that provide on-going
feedback to staff including observations that occur
weekly with feedback
♦ Management staff that know and use reflective
supervision
♦ An organization that does not tolerate low quality
service, poor consumer interactions and
responsiveness and/or interactions that do not
promote children’s development
Some possible strategies to
increase quality (cont.)
♦ Full integration of families’ cultures,
backgrounds, and preferences in program
implementation
♦ Inclusion of services to all levels of child
ability and background
♦ Programs that put in place pro-active
positive behavior management strategies
♦ Development of high quality familyprogram communications; development of a
home-visiting program
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Ensuring High Quality Inclusive
Services
♦ Meaningful partnerships with
children’s families and
specialists
♦ Teachers with associate or
bachelor degrees in early care
and education and significant
knowledge of child
development and curriculum
development and
implementation
♦ Programs that embrace and
incorporate the cultures and
communities of the children
they serve
Ensuring High Quality Child Care
and Early Intervention (continued)
♦ Program directors with advanced
expertise and experience in early
care and education, including the
ability to manage and lead
♦ Excellent capacity to address
language, literacy, and numeracy
components of children’s
development
♦ Excellent capacity to address socialemotional components of children’s
development
♦ On-going training and development
for teachers and administrators that
focus on special needs
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University of Delaware Early
Learning Center
♦ Child care center for 225 children birth to 12
years of age
♦ 20% children with disabilities
♦ 40% children living in poverty
♦ provides state of the art, evidence-based,
education, prevention, and intervention services
♦ Currently conducts 18 research studies within
the Center focusing on neurological
development; PT, OT, and speech treatments
strategies, and a host of other topics
♦ Currently provides training to over 2,000
undergraduate and graduate students through
clinical and research experiences each semester
♦ Currently provides training and technical
assistance early care and education providers
throughout the state
University of Delaware Early
Learning Center Examples
♦ 4 year old with Down
syndrome
♦ 28 month old toddler with
spastic diplegic cerebral
palsy and blindness
♦ 10 month old infant with
visual impairment, mild
cerebral palsy and a 40%
cognitive delay
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Contact Information
Karen Rucker, Director
University of Delaware Early
Learning Center
489 Wyoming Avenue
Newark, DE 19716 USA
krucker@udel.edu
+1 302 831 6205
Michael Gamel-McCormick,
Director
Center for Disabilities
Studies
166 Graham Hall
University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716 USA
mgm@udel.edu
+1 302 831 6500
www.udel.edu/cds
♦ www.udel.edu/cds/conferences.htlm
♦ www.udel.edu/cds/conferences.htlm
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