DEMONSTRATION ACTIVITIES & AGRODIVERSITY: WHAT PLEC
AMAZONIA LEARNED IN FIVE YEARS
A FINAL REPORT
Submitted to the People, Land Use and Environmental Change Program (PLEC),
United Nations University (UNU)
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)
Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
Prepared by
Miguel Pinedo-Vasquez1, David G. McGrath2 and Tereza Ximenes3
March, 2002
1
Center for Environmental Research and Conservation (CERC), Columbia University
2
Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia, Belém, PA
3
Nucleo de Altos Estudos Amazonicos (NAEA), Universidade Federal de Para
Table of Contents
Page
Executive Summary ……………………………………………………………..
5
I. Project Personnel and Funding ………………………………………………. 7
A. The PLEC-Amazonia Team …………………………………………. 7
.
B. Leveraging GEF funds ……………………………………………….
8
II. Várzea Environments and Site Selection …………………………………… 8
III. Identifying, understanding, and evaluating locally-developed
production and conservation patterns …………………………………. 12
IV. Expert farmers and demonstrations……………………………………….. 18
V. Evaluation of Demonstration Activities ……………………………………. 19
VI. Demonstration and other capacity building activities ……………………. 23
VII. Agrobiodiversity in a dynamic landscape ………………………………… 25
VIII. Impacts of demonstration activities ………………………………………. 30
A) Impacts on biodiversity levels ……………………………………….. 30
B) Impacts of Household Income ……………………………………….. 33
C) Impacts on Behavior …………………………………………………. 37
List of Tables
Table 1: Communities and institutions of team members
Table 2: Team Members
Table 3: Promising production and conservation practices
Table 4: Systems and techniques demonstrated and promoted by expert farmers
Table 5: Number of conservation practices demonstrated
Table 6: Number of expert farmers, demonstration sites and demonstrated
production systems and conservation practices.
Table 7: Number of demonstration activities and farmers participants
Table 8: Systems and techniques demonstrated by expert farmers and modified by
participant farmers
Table 9: Number of people trained in the last five years
Table 10: Number of participants in training courses (A) and Number training
sessions per social group (B)
Table 11: Changes in agrobiodiversity, number and size of fields.
Table 12: Average species per one ha of managed and unmanaged fallows and
forests
Table 13: Biodiversity indicators per land use stages in ribeirinho’s landholdings.
All individuals greater than or equal to 2.5 cm were inventoried.
Table 14: Increase in levels of biodiverstiy in the landholdings of 72 ribeirinhos that
participated in demonstration activities.
Table 15: Changes in number and area of protected areas from 1998 to 2001/02
Table 16: Changes in adult population of endangered and over-exploited species
from 1998 to 2001/02
List of Figures
Fig. 1: Maps of Study Areas
Fig. 2: Variation in species richness among housegardens (2a) and Fallows (2b)
Fig. 3: Avg. number of tree species per ha found in managed and unmanaged young
and mature forests.
Fig. 4: Average annual income (US$) from harvesting fruits, construction materials
and other products
Fig. 5: Avg. annual income of 34 household that participated in demonstration
activities where expert farmers demonstrate the banana emcapoeirada
system.
Fig. 6: Avg. tons of banana produced using the banana emcapoeirada system in
Amapá.
Fig. 7: Changes in area of fields, managed fallows and forests in the landholdings
Fig. 8: Families that adapted the enriquecimento de capoeira system after
participating in demonstration activities
Executive Summary
Over the last five years, the PLEC project in Amazonia worked with a diverse and
experienced group of scientists, farmers, students, technicians, and policymakers. The
project identified smallholder Amazonian farmers, locally known as ribeirinhos or
caboclos, to be developers and practitioners of a rich set of management systems,
technologies and practices that incorporate and even enhance biological diversity as part
of production. The project also identified several practices and forms of local
organization that were directed toward conservation on a local scale. The project
identified and monitored processes that are producing changes in the natural and social
landscape and sought to understand how ribeirinhos are responding to such changes. We
identified agrodiversity and conservation practices that are important resources in
ribeirinho response to changes in their natural and social landscape. The resultant
agrobiodiversity and other forms of biological diversity found in the landholdings of
ribeirinhos are reflections of this technological diversity and these conservation practices.
Since the beginning of the project, PLEC-Amazonia has been working with
selected expert farmers, individuals from NGOs, rural extension agencies, local
universities, rural unions and environmental agencies. A combination of household
surveys following farmers in their daily activities and other in-field activities have helped
the PLEC-Amazonia team to identify a group of exceptional “expert farmers”, i.e., those
who use biodiversity-enhancing and economically-rewarding production and
management technologies. Team members identified, selected and built partnerships with
44 expert farmers in the three varzea sites. Expert farmers work closely with the team
composed of 8 field assistants, 7 researchers and 29 students. A total of 136 agricultural,
agroforestry and forest management systems and 36 conservation practices that are
economically rewarding and biologically friendly were identified. From this total 19
systems and 13 conservation practices were demonstrated by expert farmers. Results of
more than five years of work showed that PLEC’s demonstration method of “farmers
learning from expert farmers” is an effective and realistic approach to furthering the
conservation of biodiversity while enhancing the livelihoods of rural Amazonians.
PLEC-Amazonia emerged in a time when Brazilian society was taking important
measures for implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity. PLEC-Amazonia is
one of the many projects implemented by governmental and non-governmental agencies
that aim to find solutions to the complex problem of biodiversity erosion. While most
GEF projects are working in protected areas, PLEC-Amazonia is entirely working outside
conventional protected areas. For more than five years, PLEC-Amazonia has tested its
demonstration methods in ribeirinho communities located in three Amazonian floodplain
sites: Amapá, Santarém and Ilha Marajo.
The processes of exchange of knowledge between expert farmers and participant
farmers have been thoroughly documented by members of the team. Agroforestry
systems, such as “banana emcapoeirada” that allows farmers to produce bananas despite
the ravages of moko disease, is one of several production systems that help farmers, not
only to increase biodiversity in their fields, but also to solve problems of disease and
pests. Forest management systems that enrich fallows with timbers, fruits and other
valuable species have also been demonstrated by expert farmers. Conservation practices,
such as the restoration of riparian forests by farm families in Amapá sites, have greatly
increased local populations of shrimp and fish and increased household incomes.
Similarly, the establishment of lake reserves near the city of Santarém has improved
environments and livelihoods. The conversion of degraded pastures and agricultural lands
into palm forests on Marajo Island has led to increased production of “acai” fruits and
other important economic products. These in turn have boosted household incomes.
PLEC-Amazonia has also made major advances in quantifying agrobiodiversity, fish
diversity and other forms of biological diversity found in the landholdings of farmers as
well as in village lake and forest reserves. Technological diversity is an important and
valuable resource for rural Brazilian society in its quest to achieve sustainable
development and successfully implement the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity
signed in 1992.
I. Project Personnel and Funding
A. The PLEC-Amazonia Team. Many PLEC-Amazonia team members have spent
most of their lives looking for ways to promote the enhanced well-being of rural
Amazonians while also ensuring that biodiversity and environmental services are
conserved for future generations. An important characteristic of the PLEC-Amazonia
team is its composition. PLEC-Amazonia is composed of Amazonians, non-Amazonian
Brazilians and other nationalities, specialists in anthropology, ecology, agronomy,
geography, forestry and sociology. Several of its members, (including the head of the
cluster) are the sons and daughters of rural Amazonians. All members of this
international, inter-disciplinary team have previously worked in other related projects in
several floodplain regions. Included as integral members of the team are the large
number of local farmers, or ribeirinhos, and leaders of ribeirinho organizations. The
diversity of the team (see Table 1) has helped it to implement PLEC’s complex agenda,
including its demonstration activities over the five years of the project.
Table 1: Communities and institutions of team members
Communities
Brazilian Institutions
Non-Brazilian Institutions
IPAM
WHRC
Foz de Mazagao
NAEA-UFPA
CERC-COLUMBIA
Ajudante
IEPA
NYBG
Carbao
EMBERAPA-AMAPA
Mazagao Velho
RURAPE
Lontra Pedreira
I BAMA
Ipixuna Miranda
SEMA
Amapá:
Santo Antonio
Santarem:
Aracampina
Sao José
Sao Miguel
Ilha Marajo:
Jabuti
Retiro Grande
While the number of researchers and field assistants in the team changed little over the
period of GEF funding, the number of expert farmers, students and technicians involved
increased substantially (Table 2). The third year of the project saw an especially large
expansion of the expert farmer and student members of the team. This increase reflected
and made possible a significant expansion of the number of demonstration activities at
the three sites.
Table 2: Team Members
Members
1988
1999
2000
2001/02
Researchers
7
8
8
7
Technicians (field assistants)
5
7
8
8
Students
7
9
24
29
Expert farmers
2
8
36
44
B. Leveraging GEF funds. Although GEF-PLEC funds have funded core project
activities, approximately 75% of the funds used for implementing PLEC demonstration
activities came from other funding sources. Many members of the team found resources
in their home institutions as well as funds from governmental and private sources in
Brazil and abroad. The availability of money from non-GEF sources greatly help teamed
members to devote time to PLEC activities without encountering undue difficulties in
their home institutions.
III. Varzea Environment and Site Selection:
PLEC-Amazonia worked and continues working in 234 ribeirinho communities
located in three sites of the varzea floodplain ( see Fig. 1). Approximately 55,000 farmers
were directly or indirectly affected by PLEC-Amazonia work in the three varzea sites.
PLEC-Amazonia decided to focus its work on varzea environments because
historically most of the rural population lived on or near the whitewater floodplains of the
Amazon. The varzea provides fish and other critical biological resources to rural and
urban Amazonians. Unfortunately, the expansion of buffalo ranching, uncontrolled and
destructive timber extraction and other modern unsustainable practices are accelerating
the depletion of varzea resources and producing massive migration of ribeirinhos to
shanty towns on the periphery of Amazonian cities.
Fig. 1: Maps of Study Areas
The steady loss of population is allowing large-scale cattle ranchers to expand
their operations and convert biodiversity-rich varzea habitats to pastures. As a direct
impact of changes in land use several important habitats for plant and animal species
have been destroyed, and species such as the giant pirarucu fish have become
endangered.
Varzea environments are the most dynamic in Amazonia; their natural and social
landscapes are constantly changing. The three PLEC sites are located in areas with very
different patterns. Landscape configuration, the functioning of the landscapes and
ecosystems and the existing biodiversity are controlled by annual floods in Santarém,
tidal floods in the estuarine area of Amapá, and rain-induced floods in Marajo.
Differences in the kind, frequency and duration of floods produce clearly
differentiated landscapes, ecosystems and biological diversity in the Santarem, Amapa
and Marajo sites. For instance, the landscape of Santarém is characterized by wide and
shallow lakes. Most of these lakes are totally connected to the main river during flood
season and totally disconnected during the dry season. In contrast, the Marajo landscape
features no lakes but rather small streams and swamp areas during the dry season, while
during the rain season the entire site is flooded. In the estuarine varzea areas of Amapá
there are very few and very small lakes, but the landscape is composed of several
different kinds of riverine environments and ecosystems. Some of the most common
ecosystems are permanently flooded savannas known locally as “campos alagados”.
Swamp savannas are very critical environments in the Amapá estuarine varzea because
they serve as reproduction and resting grounds for fish, birds, turtles and other wildlife.
However, this biologically-rich environment is threatened by the expansion of buffalo
ranches.
In the Santarém region, the flood pulse is an important natural driving variable
that defines landscape, ecosystem and species diversity. Seasonal variation on the varzea
is driven by the twin rhythms of the flood and precipitation regimes. The combination of
these patterns results in two distinct seasons, referred to locally as verão (summer), the
dry season when water levels are falling, and inverno (winter), the rainy season when
water levels are rising. The relatively slow rise and fall have contributed to the evolution
of a floodplain flora and fauna adapted to take advantage of both terrestrial and aquatic
phases. Many plant species, for example, produce fruits and nuts during the flood season,
and many species of fish, birds and wildlife have adapted to take advantage of these
resources. Despite the similarity in flood and rain regimes among the three sites, each
demonstrates unique and important environmental conditions and ecological processes.
The interaction between the annual flood and precipitation regimes is critical to
ribeirinhos in selecting and scheduling their activities. Farmers in all three sites seek to
cultivate most crops during the period when river levels are low and rains are relatively
light. Production of annual crops is limited largely to the six months between June and
December. The relative importance, as noted above, of tidal, seasonal, and rain-induced
flooding in the three sites varies greatly.
While ribeirinhos cope well remarkably with the complexities of floods – even
Santarem’s 8-meter changes in water level -- it is variations in the timing and intensity of
floods and rains that make farming in varzea environments a very risky activity. In
Santarém, for example, in years when unexpected rises in the river level (locally known
as “repiquetes”) occur during low river level season, agricultural fields can be severely
affected and production lost. In low flood years with repiquetes, the production of beans
and other annual crops tends to be very low, while the production of cassava and
plantains is higher than in years when floods are very high.
Farmers in the Amapá site are affected by periodic but unpredictable high tides
known locally as “lançantes”. These produce floods that cover even the high levees of
the estuarine varzea. In years with lançantes farmers tend to lose their annual crops and
the production of fruits in agroforestry plots and managed forests is greatly reduced.
However, during such years shrimp and fish tend to be abundant and these products
constitute the main source of household income. In addition, in years when lançantes
take place farmers tend to extract more timber from their landholdings. Farmers in Ilha
Marajó also expect to lose their annual crops in years when rains are too early or too late.
However, they expect during these years to greatly improve the production of palm fruits
and other agroforestry crops.
These “trade-offs” show how important biodiversity and “agrodiversity” are in
the household economies of ribeirinhos, especially during unusual or unexpected
environmental and economic conditions. In all three sites, the diversity of resource use
patterns and conservation practices helps ribeirinhos cope with economic uncertainty and
extreme changes in flood and rain patterns.
PLEC-Amazonia found that ribeirinhos not only have a large and complex toolbox of management technologies, they keep developing new technologies and using new
strategies to produce in a highly risky environment. Riberinho production, management
systems and techniques, as well as conservation practices, are not only directed toward
short-term economic production but also to maintainance of a wide resource base that
allows them to survive. Agrodiversity helps ribeirinhos to “produce to conserve and
conserve to produce” in the complex and dynamic environment of the varzea floodplain.
The existing agrobiodiversity and other forms of biodiversity found in local landholdings
cannot be appreciated without understanding the diversity and sophisticated knowledge
and practice that local villagers apply to their reproduction and management. PLEC’s
demonstration activities have used and built upon this wealth of knowledge and
experience.
III. Identifying, understanding, and evaluating locally-developed production and
conservation patterns.
PLEC-Amazonia has built its demonstration activities upon a solid base of
knowledge obtained through surveys and inventories. Initial characterizations of the sites
were done through household surveys, inventories of biodiversity and land surveys
carried out in all sites. Standard methods of landscape ecology were used for
understanding patterns of land cover change and variation of biodiversity in space and
time. In addition, PLEC members spent time collecting historical and geographic
information from local archives. Long interviews and field observations were conducted
to understand how ribeirinhos respond to changes and how such changes influence
existing biological, cultural and technological diversity. Participant observation methods
were employed to record, understand, and evaluate biodiversity-rich production and
conservation practices used by ribeirinhos in the three sites.
Through household surveys and extensive interviews and observation, the PLECAmazonia team identified and recorded in the database a number of agricultural,
agroforestry, and forest management technologies developed and used by ribeirinhos in
the three sites. From a sample of 325 households that were surveyed, we identified a total
of 136 production and management systems that are biodiversity friendly and
economically attractive. The team also identified a total of 36 conservation practices that
were effectively employed by ribeirinho households at the three sites (Table 3).
Table 3: Promising production and conservation practices
Household Surveys
1998 (130)
1999 (115)
2000 (60)
2001/02 (20)
Number of recorded production and
management systems and techniques
72
43
9
12
Number of recorded
conservation practices
11
16
5
4
PLEC-Amazonia identified and documented many riberinho technologies and
conservation practices during the household surveys that employed or encouraged high
levels of biodiversity as solutions to production problems. After evaluation and
discussion, the team then selected 19 such practices to promote through demonstration
activities (Table 4).
Table 4: Systems and techniques demonstrated and promoted by expert farmers
Production technologies and practices demonstrated
1998
1999
2000
2001/02
1. Banana Encapoeirada - Agroforestry System
X
X
X
X
2. Madeira em capoeiras - forest management system
X
X
X
X
3. Afastamento - forest management system
X
X
X
X
4. Crescimento de solos - agriculture system
X
X
X
X
5. Mudas em paxubas - agriculture system
X
X
X
6. Jogo de semente na mata - a system of managing natural
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
regeneration in forests and fallows
7. Guarda sementes em chimbo - a system for storing seeds
8. Mandioca na varzea - an agriculture system for the
production of less flood tolerant crops
9. Afastamento - a forest management technique
10. Sameamento de semente - an agroforestry technique
11. Producao de mudas em roças - a technique for the
production of seedlings in-fields
12. Legumens em hortas - a multi-croping system for the
production of vegetables
13. Coleta da flor de açai - an agroforestry technique
14. Transplante de mudas da mata no quintal - a enrichement
agroforestry and forest systems
15. Como usar tucupi para controlar formigas de fogo - a
X
X
X
X
X
X
technique for controlling pests using cassava juges
16. Enraicemento de buriti para formacao de solos - a system
for building soils
17. Copas para producao de melancias - an agriculture system
for the production of water melon
18. Inga com cipo - an agroforestry system for the production
X
X
of maracuja and other fruits
19. Limpa arvore - a forest management technique for
managing individual trees
X
All these demonstrated systems were selected because they provide important
sources of income for sample families and help them to maintain high levels of
agrobiodiversity in their landholdings. In the first year we focused on four systems as
way of testing patterns of exchange of knowledge among farmers. We also were
gradually testing the “farmers learning form expert farmers” dissemination method that
later was used within the whole PLEC project. The positive response from farmers
allowed us to select other systems as part of the demonstration activities. Over the five
years PLEC-Amazonia more than quadrupled the number of systems and techniques that
are being demonstrated (Table 4).
While it is difficult to differentiate production from conservation activities in
ribeirinho societies, PLEC-Amazonia identified some specific conservation practices that
concentrated more on resource protection than use. We defined conservation practices as
all strategies and management operations used by ribeirinhos for the establishment of
household, village or inter-village protected areas or conservation rules regulating access
to and use of resources, particularly resources that are over-exploited or endangered.
During the last five years PLEC-Amazonia has demonstrated only 13 of the 36 specific
documented conservation practices (Table 5).
Table 5: Number of conservation practices demonstrated
Conservation practices demonstrated
1998
1999
2000
2001/02
1. Toma conta de Ninhais: a conservation practice for the
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
conservation of habitat for resident and migratory birds
2. Moradia de bichos: a conservation practice for the
establishment of household reserves
3. Restoração de capims nos lagos, a conservation practice
for the restoration of meadows in lakes
4. Proteção de tabluleiros, a conservation practice for the
conservation of beaches as nesting grounds of turtles
5. Acordos de pesca, a conservation practices for regulating
fishing rights in the communities
6. Proteção de fruteiras nos lagos, a conservation practices
for the enrichment of lake vegetation with fruit species
7. Proteção dos corpos d’água na seca, a conservation
practices for protecting vegetation in streams and lakes
during dry season
8. Recuperação da mata ciliar, a conservation practices for
the conservation and management of ripiaram forests for
the production of shrimp and fish
9. Control de timbó, a conservation practice that prohibit
the uses of toxic resins for fishing
10. Proteção de filhos de tatarugas, a conservation practices
X
X
X
X
X
X
for the reintroduction of the endanger giant river turtles
in lakes
11. Proteção de buritizal, a conservation practice for the
conservation of palm forests
12. Deixa arvores mães, a conservation practice for
protecting seed trees of endangered species in the
landholdings and forest
13. Proteção dos campos alagados, a conservation practice
for protecting permanently flooded savannas from the
X
expansion of buffalo ranches
PLEC-Amazonia integrated only four conservation practices into its demonstration
activities at the beginning of the project. The difficulty of monitoring the actual
integration of conservation practices and the suspicions that were created among farmers
when specific conservation actions were promoted are some of the reasons why the team
decided to include few of them as demonstration practices. Currently, most of the 13
demonstrated conservation practices are part of the conservation activities implemented
by NGOs and government agencies in the varzeas of Amapa, Santarem and Ilha Marajo.
IV. Expert farmers and demonstrations.
In Amazonia, efforts to modify production and management technologies among
smallholders can be traced back to the arrival of the first Europeans. A predominant
philosophy guiding past and current extension programs is that farmers must be taught
how to farm properly. PLEC-Amazonia began with a different premise. We started by
questioning ribeirinhos on how they learn and adapt production and management
techniques to their own environments and needs. The great majority told us that they
learn by interacting among themselves. PLEC-Amazonia built upon these existing
patterns and facilitated a “farmers learning from expert farmers” approach to
dissemination of conservationist production practices. PLEC-Amazonia’s demonstration
initiative was built upon such existing practices with the goal of disseminating riberinho
technologies as well as village and inter-village level conservation practices.
All our demonstration activities are conducted following a model of selecting
expert farmers to act as instructors and their fields, fallows, house gardens and forests are
used as demonstration sites. PLEC-Amazonia has experienced a steady increase in the
number of selected expert farmers, demonstration sites and the techniques and
conservation practices demonstrated (Table 6).
Table 6: Number of expert farmers, demonstration sites and demonstrated
production systems and conservation practices.
Components Methodology
Expert Farmers
1998
12
1999
16
2000
36
2001/02
44
Demonstration sites
18
36
78
85
Production systems demonstrated
4
9
16
19
Conservation practices demonstrated
4
6
12
13
Expert farmers were selected after an extended process of selection. They
included both men and women and included not only experts in agricultural production,
but also agroforesters, forest managers, fish and shrimp producers and especially those
who can integrate many production types and products in diverse and complex systems.
Many production practices integrate both terrestrial and aquatic systems, for instance,
expert farmers manage forest stands in order to produce fish.
Most expert farmers were integrated as members of the team and gradually were
incorporated by non-governmental and non-governmental agencies as advisers in their
conservation and development projects. Seven expert farmers are advising the governor
of Amapá on “how to produce to conserve and how to conserve to produce” resources.
Several of the production and management systems as well as conservation practices
demonstrated by expert farmers have been included as part of rural extension programs
by government and non-government agencies in the three sites. In the Santarém site
expert farmers are also advising members of NGOs and government institutions on how
to establish community-based protected areas. Expert farmers from the village of São
Miguel have been consulted by government officials on how to conserve lake resources
and on how to enforce community rules that regulate access and uses of lake resources.
V. Evaluation of Demonstration Activities:
The nature and composition of the PLEC-Amazonia team has played a key role in
the successful implementation and monitoring of demonstration activities. Local
communities have appreciated the inclusion of expert farmers in the team and have
interacted more favourably with other members of the team when expert farmers have
accompanied them. The selection of field assistants from villages has also played a key
role in advancing the exchange of technologies and germplasm during and after
demonstration activities. Also, the participation of local researchers, who have roots in
rural communities, has aided in negotiations and the establishment of partnerships with
the selected expert farmers.
The integration of expert farmers into all phases of demonstration activities
helped us identify several specific approaches. Initially, the team planned to conduct
demonstration activities as part of encontros, which are community or inter-community
meetings where village related problems, including the ones affecting production and
conservation of resources are discussed. The team’s expert farmers suggested that
demonstration activities be conducted using two other forms of social gatherings. The
first, called miutirao, are shared labor groups organized by members of households to
help each other with activities like making fields, planting and other production or
management activities. The second type are visitas, which are typically gatherings of
families or close friends. In all three events expert farmers are the leading figures and are
the ones who invite participants to visit demonstration sites. The dynamic created by
expert farmers greatly help to adverse demonstration activities among in the villages
located in and the neighbouring regions of the three PLEC sites. The numbers of
ribeirinho participants in demonstration activities have increased greatly during the five
years of the project (Table 7).
Table 7: Number of demonstration activities and farmers participants
Demonstration
Activities
Avg.
Number per
year
Avg.
Participants per
year
Avg.
Participants per
event
Econtros
15
975
72
Muitiraos
104
1890
19
Visitas
82
1240
21
Most farmers who participated in demonstration activities have begun testing the
techniques that they learned from the expert farmers and observed in demonstration sites.
PLEC-Amazonia found that ribeirinhos do not copy the production technologies and
conservation practices from the expert farmers. Instead they combine these ideas with
their own and create new and original systems and techniques. PLEC-Amazononia is
also finding that ribeirinhos tend to incorporate learned production and management
technologies only after a long process of experimentation. We found that the trial and
error approach employed by farmers to test technologies and crops is increasing the
diversity of technologies used through the modification of demonstrated techniques and
systems. For instance, during the five years that we demonstrated the four first
production systems, the participant farmers developed multiple new systems based on the
four demonstrated systems and what they learned from the expert farmers from the
Amapá site (Table 8).
Table 8: Systems and techniques demonstrated by expert farmers and modified by
participant farmers
Demonstrated
techniques
1) Banana
emcapoeirada
agroforestry
system
2) Building up
soils above tide
level
3) Enriching
fallows
4) Managing
forests
Objective
Recommended
Main vegetative components
techniques
Managing Sororoca- pariri 1) açai – Banana
Moko
– banana
2) fruteiras-banana
disease in
3) madeira-banana
bananas
4) combinations of the above with banana
Production Keep sediments 1) use of logs rather than fences
of cassava and organic
2) placing palm leaves around the highest
and other
matter from
sections of the field
crops less
eroding during 3) accumulation of soils around tree trunks
tolerant to high tides
4) accumulation of wood residues from
tidal flooding (lançantes) using saw mills
fences
Production Thinning and
1) thinning- planting
of fruits and removal of vines 2) removal of vines – broadcasting seeds
timber
3) thinning –broadcasting seeds
4) combining all above
Production Removal of vines 1) gaps – broadcasting seed
of fruits,
and formation of 2) removal of vines – transplanting
timber and gaps (clareras) seedlings along trails
medicinals
3) gap formation – managing of seed
dispersal during high tide
4) combinations of the above techniques
PLEC-Amazonia demonstration activities conducted in the three PLEC sites have helped
farmers and communities to find solutions to specific problems. For instance, farmers
from the three sites who participated in demonstration activities have applied the
enrichment and other systems to restore land degraded by buffalo and other extensive
land-use activities. The application of demonstrated techniques is helping farmers from
Santarém to recuperate the fertility of levee soils by planting murin grasses. Similarly,
farmers from all three sites are enriching their house gardens with species that are flood
tolerant and produce fruit that are the main source of food for fish during flood periods
and for agouties and other wild life. Since the implementation of enrichment systems
there has been a major increase in fruits, timber and other resources in the landholdings
of ribeirinhos. Similarly, the recovery of soil fertility in degraded lands by planting murin
grass have let to the increase of the production of beans and other annual crops that is
helping farmers to increase their household income.
Another important result of demonstration activities is the planning and execution
of collective actions in the communities that aim to restore degraded vegetation around
lakes as well as floating meadows. For instance, farmers from the villages located in Ilha
Ituqui have successfully restored lake vegetation in their communities. Similarly, farmers
from Ilha Marajo had enlarged and diversified their agroforestry sites. Perhaps the most
relevant result of collective or community actions that emerged as a result of
demonstration activities is the establishment of family, village or inter-village lake and
forest reserves in the three PLEC sites. Farmers have used these reserves for the
protection and reproduction of endangered, over-exploited or rare wildlife, birds and
plant species. Some of the most relevant results of these activities is the reintroduction of
the giant river turtle in the lakes of the communities in Ilha Ituqui from Ilha Sao Miguel.
In Amapá farmers protected and managed the resting and reproduction grounds of
migratory and resident aquatic birds locally known as “ninhaes”.
Farmers participation in demonstration activities was greatly facilitated by
keeping a very flexible structure and direction of demonstration activities. For instance,
excessive formality in establishing partnerships with expert farmers limited the success of
demonstration activities at the beginning of the project. We learned that exchange of most
knowledge and experiences among farmers takes place in an informal environment.
Based on the success of the demonstration activities conducted in the three sites,
PLEC-Amazonia organized demonstration activities at the regional level. Four regional
demonstration activities were successfully conducted in the three sites. Ribeirinhos from
varzea regions as far as Peru participated in these events. Residents from protected areas
such as the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve also participated in regional
demonstration activities.
VI. Demonstration and other capacity building activities.
Beginning in the second year of the project PLEC-Amazonia conducted
demonstration activities for youths at community based “family schools” and other
publicly run schools in and near the PLEC sites. Over the last two years a series of
demonstration activities for rural extension agents, students from Amazonian universities,
researchers and politicians were successfully conducted. Demonstration activities such as
visits to demonstration sites, sessions with expert farmers and data collection were an
important component of student training over the five years. PLEC-Amazonia trained
more undergraduate students from Amazonian universities than graduate students (Table
9).
Table 9: Number of people trained in the last five years
BA
MA
Brazilian
PhD
Foreign
PhD
Santarém
6
2
2
2
Amapá
36
5
4
2
Marajo
15
3
1
0
Total
57
10
6
4
Students
Theses
PLEC-Amazonia also organized training activities for supervisors working in
environmental agencies, rural extension agents, politicians and researchers. The training
activities included: on-farm training based on visits to demonstrations sites, sessions
with expert farmers and the carrying out of household surveys and in-field observations,
weeklong training sessions in field methods and data analysis, including how to organize
a database; and workshops. The majority of the training activities were organized for
rural extension agents and supervisors (Table 10). Since the PLEC’s demonstration
method is field oriented we conducted more on-farm training activities than other types
(Table 10).
Table 10: Number of participants in training courses (A) and Number training
sessions per social group (B)
Table 10A
No of participants
On-farm training
14
No of participants
week long sessions
38
No of participants
Workshops
22
Extension agents
52
36
44
Politicians
11
14
27
Researchers
7
4
42
No of on-farm
training per
participant group
12
No of week long
sessions per
participant group
12
No of workshops
per participant
group
5
Extension agents
22
15
3
Politicians
3
2
9
Researchers
2
2
19
Groups
Supervisors
Table 10B
Groups
Supervisors
Based on the results of these experiences we plan to expand training activities to
other regions of Amazonia as part of the new phase of PLEC in Amazonia. As part of
training we will participate in curriculum writing for undergraduates, technical schools,
high schools and schools in the villages. Our plan is to test how the PLEC-Amazonia
demonstration model can be expanded to train technicians and other people working in
rural extension and conservation programs.
VII. Agrobiodiversity in a dynamic landscape: PLEC-Amazonia continued
monitoring changes in agrodiversity throughout the five years that are reported on here.
The picture of the varzea as a very dynamic environment was confirmed and these data
were stored in the database as part of project reporting.
Although data were collected for only five years, we can clearly see trends in the
levels of agrobiodiversity that is produced, managed and conserved by the residents of
the three varzea sites. Farmers in the sites are continually responding to environmental
and socio-economic changes by varying what they plant, manage and conserve. For
instance farmers are responding to market changes in grains, banana and other staple
crops by increasing the diversity of species and varieties of crops in their fields.
Agrobiodiversity inventories conducted in the fields of 40 expert farmers showed an
increase in the number of species and crops planted from to 2001 (Table 11).
Table 11: Changes in agrobiodiversity, number and size of fields.
Categories
1998
2001
Species planted by the 40 sampled families
18
33
Varieties planted by the 40 sampled families
49
72
Avg. Number fields made by the 40 sampled farmers
3
1
Avg. size of fields made by the 40 sampled farmers
2.8
0.5
In the same period the residents of the three sites made fewer and smaller fields
(Table 11). By planting more species and varieties of crops in their small fields
ribeirinhos were responding to the loss of markets fortheir Amazonian goods as the
products of agroindustries in Southern Brazil flood the markets of Amazonian cities with
cheap and high quality rice, beans, corns and other staple crops. Thus local farmers
increased agrobiodiversity and reduced field number and size. Although the residents of
the three sites are not able to compete with the large agroindustries, they are introducing
to the market new and fresh products. For instance, we observed that farmers brought
large number of species and varieties of spices, fruits, roots, grains and other products
that are not sold in the supermarkets.
Rural Amazonians are planting and managing large numbers of fruit, timber,
medicinals and other tree crops in their house gardens, fallows and forests. Results of
inventories (all individuals with dbh greater than or equal to 2.4cm) conducted in 20 ha of
managed fallows and 20 of unmanaged fallows showed a larger number of species in
managed fallows than in unmanaged fallows (Table 12). Similar variation were found
when managed and unmanaged forests were inventoried (all trees with dbh greater than
or equal to 10cm) in the landholdings of 48 families (Table 12).
Table 12: Average species per one ha of managed and unmanaged fallows and
forests
Management Regime
FALLOW FOREST
Unmanaged
41
55
Managed
72
84
The general trend observed and reflected in the biodiversity inventory data is that
smallholders tend to increase levels of biodiversity as part of a strategy to increase the
number of outputs available in the fallows and forests. The aggregated use-values explain
the differences in species composition among managed and un-managed fallows and
forest. Based on these and other results, we found that despite widespread assumptions to
the contrary, ribeirinhos, are increasing rather than reducing levels of biodiversity in
varzea environements.
Diverse and complex agroforestry and forest management systems are continually
developed by rural Amazonians to change the composition and structure of forests and
fallows. Such transformation of the vegetation and innovation of technologies is
facilitated by the increased value of forest and fallow products in the markets. Many
farmers manage and extract some timbers and conduct pre-harvest operations to avoid
excessive damage to the forests, thus enhancing production. Ribeirinhos tend to remove
vines a least three months before cutting a tree for timber. In addition, farmers broadcast
seeds or plant seedlings of valuable species in areas where timber was extracted. In all
three sites farmers are making small openings (clareiras) in their fallows for planting
semi-perennial species such as bananas.
PLEC-Amazonia found that the forest areas that are part of the landholdings of
smallholders reflect successive management operations that begin at the field stage and
continue into fallow and forest stages. Under this Amazonian land use system agriculture,
agoforestry and forest activities are closely linked and difficult to differentiate. Expert
farmers explained on several occasions that this integrated and multi-phased system
allows them to produce and conserve resources in varzea environments. By
understanding the farmer’s logic of production PLEC-Amazonia managed to look beyond
the use-values of biodiversity and incorporate various ecological values particularly the
multiple functions of maintaining healthy and productive varzea ecosystems and
landscapes.
The patterns of spatial and temporal variation in agrobiodiversity and other forms
of biological diversity are clearly shown by such multi-stage land use system practiced by
the varzea residents. The fallows, forests and house gardens of expert farmers and other
selected farmers contain a great diversity of herbs, shrubs, vines, grasses and tree species.
Biodiversity indices estimated for selected forests, fallows and house gardens show that
ribeirinhos maintain biodiversity rich landholdings (Table 13).
Table 13: Biodiversity indicators per land use stages in ribeirinho’s landholdings.
All individuals greater than or equal to 2.5 cm were inventoried.
Land use
stages
Fallows
Number of
samples
110
Avg. sample
size (ha)
0.3
Avg. #
individuals
1108
Avg. #
species
69
Shannon
Index (H’)
0.92
Forests
22
1.5
862
105
1.05
House gardens
125
0.5
743
53
1.16
Based on the estimated diversity indices, fallows have higher values (H’= 0.92) than do
forests and house gardens. The presence of a large number of semi-perennial crops such
as banana, yams, pineapples and others is one of the reasons why managed fallows are
richer than other land-use units. In addition, inventory data showed that people maintain
a low number of individuals of several non-commercial species to create habitat for
wildlife particularly agoutis and several species of land birds. While the levels of
biodiversity in fields, fallows and forests are strongly dependent on the intensity and
frequency of production and management technologies, the number of species in house
gardens depends more on its uses. For example, house gardens that are composed of
orchards, nurseries and gardens have a greater number of species than the ones that are
composed of only one of the above field types.
PLEC-Amazonia found great variation in agrobiodiversity and other forms of
biological diversity produced, managed or conserved by smallholders. Each riberinho’s
landholdings contain different numbers of species and density of individuals. Such
diversity is an important resource for PLEC demonstration activities. One of the
advantages is that farmers not only see the use-values of biodiversity but also its multifunctionality in the ecosystem and landscape. PLEC-Amazonia found that the presence of
several pioneer species in fallows and house gardens are mainly playing the role of
controlling light intensity for the regeneration and growth of several shade tolerant
species. In addition, the management of fallows is critical to the composition and
structure of forests. House gardens are some of the most important sources of germplasm
and are places with enormous conservation value because most of them contain
individuals of tropical cedar and other over-exploited species. Managing fallows, house
garden and forest vegetation for income and for ecological services explains why
riberinho landholdings contain high levels of biodiversity in contrast to other uses such as
ranching.
Species richness estimated for a sample of fallows and house gardens showed
ribeirinho landholdings are very diverse (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2: Variation in species richness among housegardens (2a) and Fallows (2b)
Fallows and house gardens with low values have high densities of one species
such as açai in the case of Amapa,and Ilha Marajo, and mango trees in the case of
Santarem. PLEC-Amazonia selected the house gardens and fallows with high values of
species richness as demonstration sites. The owners of the species-rich fallows and house
gardens were also, in most cases, selected as expert farmers. By quantifying the levels of
biodiversity in the landholdings, PLEC-Amazonia recognized smallholders as stewards of
biodiversity in varzea environments. Results of the inventories and field observations
helped PLEC-Amazonia to look at biodiversity beyond a simple summation of numbers,
and understand its economic and ecological meaning for ribeirinhos. Access to species
rich house gardens, fallows and forests helps ribeirinhos to conduct enrichment planting
and restoration of areas that were degraded by cattle ranchers and other social groups.
Available biodiversity in demonstration sites and technologies developed by expert
farmers facilitated the selection and implementation of demonstration activities.
VIII. Impacts of demonstration activities:
Although the results are still preliminary, PLEC demonstration activities had
major impacts on household income and other aspects of the livelihood of riberenhos.
PLEC activities also increased local appreciation for the agrodiversity and specific
technologies used by ribeirinhos by functionaries in governmental and non-governmental
agencies. In addition, results of demonstration activities are changing how experts,
politicians and other decision making groups define conservation and development in
varzea environments and communities. For instance, politicians are appreciating the link
between biodiversity and the livelihoods of rural populations. The following are some of
the major impacts that PLEC-Amazonia is monitoring and evaluating:
A) Impacts on biodiversity levels: An increase on the levels of agrobiodiversity and
other forms of biological diversity in the landholdings of ribeirinhos is one of the main
impact produced by the demonstration activities conducted in the last five years. The
adoption and adaptation of farming technologies and conservation practices demonstrated
by expert farmers are having direct impacts the number of species and varieties that are
produced, managed and conserved by smallholders in the three PLEC sites. Results from
biodiversity inventories conducted in the landholdings of farmers that participated in
demonstration activities show an increase in number of species and varieties as a result of
the application of the techniques learned from expert farmers (Table 14).
Table 14: Increase in levels of biodiverstiy in the landholdings of 72 ribeirinhos that
participated in demonstration activities.
Land Use Type
Fields
1998
Species Varieties
14
45
2001/02
Species Varieties
31
83
Fallows
27
39
58
92
Forests
78
95
117
134
House gardens
22
42
46
92
The 72 sample ribeirinho family were selected among the participants on demonstration activities where
expert farmers demonstrated the 19 selected production and management systems.
An exchange of germplasm among expert farmers and participant farmers has
facilitated the increase of agrobiodiversity in the landholdings. In addition, participant
farmers incorporated new species in their landholdings (particularly from the forests)
during the implementation of the systems learned from expert farmers.
Another important impact of the promotion of biologically friendly and
economicaly rewarding ribeirinho technologies is the enrichment of young and old
forests with valuable species, including the over-exploited tropical cedar. Forest
inventories conducted in a sample of 15 ha of managed young and old forests and in an
equal sample area of unmanaged young and mature forests owned by 48 families, showed
a higher number of species in managed as compared to unmanaged forests (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Avg. number of tree species per ha found in managed and unmanaged young
and mature forests.
90
80
70
60
50
managed
unmanaged
40
30
20
10
0
Young
Mature
The implementation of PLEC demonstration activities have also major impact on
the conservation of varzea resources. Results of demonstrating conservation practices
have increased the number of areas protected by villagers (Table 15).
Table 15: Changes in number and area of protected areas from 1998 to 2001/02
Protected areas
1998
2001/02
Number Area (ha)
Family forest reserves
Number Area (ha)
9
68
52
260
Lakes
7
305
32
940
Forests
4
212
14
507
Village & Inter-village reserves
Visits to protected areas that were organized as part of demonstration activities
have helped to disseminate the experience of expert farmers and successful villages in
protecting and restoring varzea environments and resources. The establishment of family
and village reserves is helping to restore the population of several over-exploited and
endangered species. For instance, in a sampled of 9 lake reserves the adult population of
the endangered giant pirarucu fish (more than 1.5 m size) and giant river turtle (more than
45 kg.) have greatly increased in 2001.02 in comparison to 1998 (Table 16). Similarly,
the average number of juveniles per ha of the over-exploited tropical cedar and virola
have increased in the sample of 15 forests reserves (Table 16).
Table 16: Changes in adult population of endangered and over-exploited species
from 1998 to 2001/02
Species
1998
2001/02
Giant pirarucu fish (endangered)
32
170
Giant river turtle (endangered)
19
220
Tropical cedar
24
72
Virola tree
18
125
The impact of demonstration activities on conservation, management and production of
biodiversity was recognized by local authorities and members of non-governmental
institutions operating in the three sites.
B) Impacts of Household Income: The adoption and adaptation of farming technologies
and conservation practices demonstrated by expert farmers are having direct impacts on
household economies and livelihoods. In the three PLEC sites farmers are making more
money by practicing technologies taught by expert farmers. The assimilation or
adaptation of the “enriquecimento de capoeira agroforestry system”, for instance, has had
a distinct impact on the household economy of ribeirinhos. Based on data collected and
analyzed for a sampled of 32 families who are practicing the enriquecimento de capoeira
system, their income more than tripled from 1999 to 2001/02 (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4: Average annual income (US$) from harvesting fruits, construction materials
and other products
2002
2000
1999
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Note: From 68 managed fallows owned by 32 families that participated in demonstration activities where
the enriquecimento de capoeira forest system was demonstrated by the expert farmer. Average was
estimated from data collected between January 1999 and January 2001.
An increase in household incomes creates a major impact upon their neighbors. In
the three PLEC sites most ribeirinhos consider fallows to be unproductive therefore they
never expected to earn money by managing them. However, this perception is gradually
changing after expert farmers demonstrated the enriquecimento de capoeira system. The
participant ribeirinhos in demonstration activities are learning that by practicing the
enriquecimento de capoeira system fallows can produce a large number of products.
Before the system was demonstrated by the expert farmer most farmers extracted the
fruits of açai palms and some construction materials from their fallows. The enrichment
system learned from the expert farmers allows them to produce several fruits, medicinals
and even timber in their fallows.
The promotion of the banana emcapoeirada agroforest system has also had a
major impact on the household incomes of ribeirinhos in the PLEC sites. Data collected
from a sample of 34 families shows an increase of more than 7 times in their income
from selling bananas that are produced in their agroforestry fields using the banana
emcapoeirada system (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5: Avg. annual income of 34 household that participated in demonstration
activities where expert farmers demonstrate the banana emcapoeirada
system.
2001/02
2000
1999
1998
0
500
1000
The demonstrated agroforestry system is helping farmers to produce banana by
managing the Moko disease rather than by trying to eliminating it. In addition, farmers
are increasing the levels of agrobiodiversiy and other forms of biodiversty in their
landholdings by producing bananas in agroforest plots rather than in agricultural fields.
By increasing agrobiodiversity, farmers are also augmenting the numbers of products for
their consumption and the market. For instance, we recorded that the 34 sample families
are making a considerable amount of cash by selling bananas, sugar cane, yams, palm
leaves and other products that are harvested from their agroforestry fields. The banana
emcapoeirada agroforest system is also helping farmers create and maintain habitat for
large rodents such as agoutis and capybaras. These large rodents and other wildlife
constitute an important source of protein for ribeirinhos.
The promotion of the banana emcapoeirada system has also had major impacts on
a regional scale by increasing the production of bananas. Data collected in Amapá show a
major increase in the production of banana from the region since the banana
emcapoeirada system was promoted in demonstration activities by the expert farmers
(Fig. 6).
Fig. 6: Avg. tons of banana produced using the banana emcapoeirada system in
Amapá.
2001/02
2000
1998
1996
0
20
40
60
80
100
The Amapá varzea region was the main center for banana production in
Amazonia until moko disease destroyed all banana plantation approximately 15 years
ago. For instance, banana production in the state of Amapá in the late 1970s averaged
150 tons/month. Since moko disease appeared in the early 1980s production declined to
an average of 16 tons per month. Currently we registered that the average monthly
production of bananas is more than 90 ton per month, which nearing pre- moko disease
levels.
C) Impacts on Behavior: PLEC-Amazonia’s demonstration activities have impacted on
the behavior of farmers, extension agents, politicians and other social groups in relation
to varzea environments and biodiversity. For instance, the promotion of expert ribeirinho
technologies is changing the patterns of land use among smallholders in the three sites
(Fig. 7).
Fig. 7: Changes in area of fields, managed fallows and forests in the landholdings
12
10
8
1998
1999
2000
6
4
2
0
fields
fallows
forests
Note: Sample of 78 farmers who participated in demonstration activities where the natural regeneration
system was demonstrated by the expert farmer. The average property was 28 ha which include managed
and managed areas of fallows and forests.
Ribeirinhos are making smaller and fewer fields and managing their fallows and
forests more for the production of a variety of products. By converting their landholdings
into forested agroforestry plots and managed forest areas farmers are increasing habitats
for wildlife, fish, shrimp and other organisms. In addition, there are lest forest areas that
are converted in agriculture fields therefore lest burning of the slash vegetation reducing
the levels of CO2 in the air.
The promotion of economically rewarding and biodiversty-friendly systems has
also impacted in the number of farmers engaged on sustainable uses of varzea
biodiversity. For instance, the promotion of the enriquecimento de capoira system is
increasing the number of ribeirinhos families adapting this biodiversity-friendly and
economic rewarding enrichment system. Since the system was demonstrated by the
expert farmer, the majority of farmers from the three PLEC sites are practicing it. Based
on data collected from monitoring 300 sample families that participated in demonstration
activities the majority have adopted the system (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8: Families that adapted the enriquecimento de capoeira system after
participating in demonstration activities.
300
250
200
practicing
no-practicing
150
100
50
0
1999
2000
2001/02
Note: The number were recorded from a sample of 300 households that are monitored since 1999.
The majority of farmers who adapted the enriquecimento de capoeira system in
1999 were close friends and family members of the expert farmer. When their neighbors
saw that they were making money they quickly adopted the demonstrated system.
Currently almost all of the 300 sample families are managing their fallows and producing
a variety of valuable products for their consumption and the market.
PLEC-Amazonia work has also major impacts on conservation and development
agencies. For instance, the model of environmental education programs conducted as part
of demonstration activities by PLEC members in Santarém has been adopted by
governmental and non-governmental agencies. Similarly, government agencies in the
state of Amapá are adopting the demonstration model for conducting rural extension.
PLEC-Amazonia had also impacted on how politicians think to develop rural Amazonia.
Members of the team are know consulted by politicians and government officials on
development and conservation issues that affect bioidversity and the livelihood of rural
populations. For instance, PLEC-Amazonia has presented several proposals to politicians
and experts proposing smallholder technologies and conservation practices as a basis for
development and conservation activities in varzea communities.
PLEC-Amazonia had also impacted on the academic and research community.
Projects results were published in several scientific and popular articles. Following are
some of the ones that have had a major impact on the public.

Pinedo-Vasquez, M; D.J. Zarin, K. Coffey, C. Padoch & F. Rabelo. 2001. Post boom
logging in Amazonia. Human Ecology, vol. 29 (2):219-239.

Zarin, D; V.F.G. Pereira, H. Raffles, F. Rabelo, M. Pinedo-Vasquez & R.G.
Congalton. 2001. Landscape change in tidal floodplains near the mouth of the
Amazon River. Forest Ecology and Management 154: 383-393.

Padoch C; M. Ayres, M. Pinedo & A. Henderson (eds.). 1998. Varzea: Diversity,
Conservation and Development. Advances in Economic Botany 13. New York
Botanical Garden Press.