Who maintains genetic diversity and
how: Implications for on-farm
conservation and utilisation
A. Subedi, P Chaudhary, B K Baniya,
R B Rana, R K Tiwari, D K Rijal
and B R Sthapit
Background
We know that:
• Different levels of diversity exist in
most non-commercial production areas
• Farmers are conserving and managing
diversity
• Informal seed system is one of the
important management strategies that is
creating diversity on-farm
But, what we still need to know is:
• Mechanism of informal flow of genetic
materials in a community
• How the diversity is maintained onfarm?
• Who and what type of community
members play significant role in informal
seed flow and in maintaining diversity?
A Study was, therefore, carried out to:
• Understand the informal flow of genetic
materials and processes involved in
maintaining diversity on-farm
• Identify key farmers who maintain
diversity on-farm so as to strengthen onfarm conservation and utilisation
• Case of Rice crop
Study Area
Begnas (Middle
hill)
Bara
(Plains)
Methodology
• Network analysis
• Sociometric survey
• Snowball sampling
- three stages
´First stage sampling: 24
(stratified random sampling based on
wealth and gender categories)
´ Second stage: 30 (identified after 1st stage)
´ Third stage: 24 (identified after 2nd stage)
´Total sample size: 78 in each study site
n = 203 (Begnas) & 206 (Kachorwa)
• Data analysis:
´ Network mapping - manual
´Key (nodal) farmers identified
using criteria such as seed source,
knowledge source, diversity
status and network position
´ Simple statistical analysis
Findings
1. Number of cultivars involved in the flow
Site
Landrace
MVs
Total
Begnas
32 (76%)
10 (24%)
42 (100%)
Kachorwa
10 (29%)
25 (71%)
35 (100%)
2a. Means of seed flow
Mechanisms
% Flow of genetic materials
Begnas
Kachorwa
Exchange*
53
64
Gift
31
17
Purchase
16
9
Others
-
10
* Exchange involved bartering with grain for seed
Or seed for seed
2b. Number of flows of landrace and MVs in rice crop through
farmers' networks
Mechanisms
% Flow
Begnas
Landrace
Kachorwa
MV
Landrace
MV
6
94
Exchange
67
Gift
79
21
3
97
Purchase
84
16
14
86
Others
100
0
0
100
Overall
74
26
6
94
33
Rice landraces grown in large area by
many households
Thulo Gurdi (24)
6.4%
Pahenle (23)
7.0%
Jetho Budho (43)
8.6%
Rice landraces grown in
large area by few households
Jhinuwa Ghaiya (23)
3.5%
Ekle (87)
32.0%
Gurdi (9 )
49.6%
Sano Madhise (6
50.4%
Kathe Gurdi (47)
10.5%
Mansara (43)
14.3%
Madhise (48)
17.8%
Jyele Rato ghaiya (1)
1.1%
Basmati (5)
1.1%
Ramani (4)
1.2%
Seto Anadi (54)
31.4%
Rato Anadi (71)
34.9%
Naltumme (3)
1.3%
8 Others
6.3%
Kaude (1)
Lahare Gurdi (7)
1.6%
12.3%
Gauriya (1)
1.6%
Thulo Madhise (4)
Pakhe Jarneli (2)
10.2%
1.7%
Manamuri (2)
1.9%
Sano Gurdi (4)
10.1%
Gurdi ghaiya (4)
2.0%
Kalo Gurdi (2)
Bicharo Ghaiya (4)
5.7%
2.4%
Naulo Madhise (3)
Seto Gurdi (1)
Jarneli (16)
12.0%
Anga (9)
10.0%
3.0%
Tunde (7)
Bayarni (11)
11.7%
5.7%
2.5%
Rato Ghaiya (4)
3.2%
Jhauri (2)
5.2%
Ghaiya (3)
5.0%
Seto Ghaiya (4)
3.3%
Jire ghaiya (3)
Rice landraces grown in small area
by many households
Rice landraces grown in
small area by few households
Figure 1. Categorization of rice landraces of Begnas Kaski based on area coverage and number of
farmers growing them. (figures in the parenthesis represent number of households)
Percentage distribution of seed flow of cultivars by area coverage
and households (n=203 in Begnas & 223 in Kachorwa)
Area
Begnas
%
Kachorwa
Landrace
43
MV
Few
HH
Small Area
Begnas
%
Kachorwa
3
11
1
0
65
0
0
Landrace
6
0
14
2
MV
18
1
8
28
HH
Many
HH
Large Area
Cultivar
Type
%
%
3. Reasons for seed exchange
• Poor quality in own’s retention seed
• Shortage of seed
• Observed better cultivar elsewhere so
keen to test
• To overcome problem in existing
cultivar
• Wanted to grow additional cultivar
4. Farmers’ networks
• A few larger networks involving
several individuals
• Many smaller networks
• Mixed men and women farmers in the
same network
• Mixed wealth category members in the
same network
su
li
Pu
rch
as
e
M
an
wa
np
Gi
ft
7
Radha
se
Purcha
121
116
le
Ek t
f
Gi
188
171
a7
dh
Ra hase
rc
Pu
Exchange
Radha 7
Ekle
Exchange
60
43
Wage
95
li
mansu
Naulo
ge
n
a
h
c
x
E
Madhese
Mansuli
Exchange
Exchange
Madhese
97
OS
se
he
ad e
m
g
lo
an
au xch
E
96
Ekle
Purchase
e
hang
Exc
le
Ek
ase
rch
MP
aduhe
Purch se
ase
56
177
Ekle
GiftM
Gi
ft
an
sa
189
ra
186
155
N
OS
P
178
Gift
180
146
190
52
ti
Madhese
Gift
le ase
Ek urch
ma
Bas
e
Exchang
K. gurdi
12
le
Ek t
if
G
wa
eg
ur
di
an
v
ge
Anga
Gift
do
o bu
Jeth change
x
E
179
Mansara
57
e
Ekl
ge
han
Exc
117
147
e
P. jarnel
i
Gift
45
Ex
ch
71
Ka
th
Exchange
ch Ekl
e
an
g
Exch
ange
eli
Pakhe jarn
118
Ex
Ekle
Exchange
ati e
s m an g
a
B
ch
Ex
99
Gift
OS
M
ad
he
ha
ng se
e
Mansuli
Exchange
OS
Gift
J. budho
20
112
19
6
li
nsu ange
Ma
h
Ex c 9
Radha
62
Ex Ekle
cha
ng
e
Ma
nsa
ra
Ex
cha
ng
e
Jhinu
49
191
127
Exchange
Ex
c
ge
an
ch
x
E
J hi nu
wa
Ex c h
ange
rdi
gu
ge
e
an
th
ch
x
161Ka
E
Ekle
74
39
Exchange
di
194
Pakhe jarneli
162
ur
eg
Rato anadi
Exchange
58
adi
An
nge
cha
Ex
113
dh o
J. bu hange
JE. bxcud
ho
Excha
nge
61
eli
rn
Ja
54
th
Ka
Makwanpur
Exchange
i
mat
B as
t
f
i
G
184
98
de
ge
an
ch
Ex
183
Pu Gur
d
rc
ha i
se
Gurdi
Exchange
h
a
Madhese nge
Exchan
ge
119
Ba
sm
ati
Ex
ch
an
ge
OS
un
M
ak
Ex
c
OS
ur
193 T
an
M
Radha 9
Ma
Exchange
n su
li
Gi
ft
M
a
Ex dhes
ch
e
an
ge
32
OS
su
li
ase
rch
PuMadhese
Exchange
Ra
Ex
dh
ch
a7
an
ge
107
106
169
170
Fig 2a. Farmers’ network on rice seed flow in Begnas eco-site (Network I)
Exchange
Seto gurdi
K. gurdi
Exchange
Mad
hese
Purc
hase
m
m
e
G
i ft
ad
h
Gi e
ft
OS
205
dh
a9
Ex
ch
an
ge
M
Ra d
h
Ex c a 9
han
ge
204
Ra
Exc
han
ge
Thu
Gift
Radha 9
Purchase
N
al
tu
su
li
163
a
M
an
Gi
ft
OS
g ra
in
h
Rad
207
han
ge
R
ad
Ex
ha
ch
an
ge
78
OS
ri
Sabit
Gift
Radha 9
41 R
ad
Exchange
ha
Ex
9 Food grain
ch
an
Fge
ge
76 EExcxchan ood
ge
han
Exc
Naltumme
Gift
ge
206
Ex Man
ch
s
an uli
ge
OS
4
al
um
h
K
ft
Gi
a9
16
90
dh
Ex c
han
ge
an
ch
111
lo m
ansu
li
Mansuli
Exchange
Exchange
OS
Ra
i
jarnel
Pakhe
nge
Excha
199
167
38
126
110
Madhese
Exchange
Ex
9
Gift
a
Panhele
Exchange
67
Exchange
151
9
8
ch
Ex
mad
hese
Purc
hase
ha
Rad
t
Gif
ese
adh
m
lo
Thu
t
Gif
dha
Ra
nge
Mana muri
159
Exchange
37
Mans
u li
158
nge
Madhese
Kathe gurdi
23
Sano
47
R
Exc adha
han
ge
157
Ra
Ex
dh
a
ch
an
Mix ge
ed g
rain
Exc
ha
i
nel
jar
e
h
Pak
ase
rch
Pu
156
144
rdi
Kath
OS
125
152
Ekle t
GifGurdi
Excha
gne
26
e gu
OS
173
Exchange
nge
dho
Gift
o bu
ft
Gi
Jeth
OS
he
53
i
ad
an
to
ft
Gi
k
Pa
ese
Madh
e
h
rc as
EPku
l
Pu e
rch
ase
Ra
se
Purcha
172
adi
, an
e
l
e
Ek
ang
chMadhese
x
48 E
Kathe gurdi
Gurdi
115
Exc
ha
Pu
rch Ekle
ase
Mansara
182
Purchase
181
Du
dh
ea
na
Gi
di
ft
81
40
Radh
a9
Exch
ange
164
165
Fig 2b. Farmers’ network on rice seed flow in Begnas eco-site (Network II)
Ma
Exch sula
ange
OS
Ind
S.
Ex man
c h su
an li
ge
ps
e
ng
ha
24
u la g e
as
M han
c
Ex
Basmati
Exchange
118
113
Ind
Mas
ula
Excha
nge
Sabitri
Exchange
ang
e
Exc
h
Sab
it
ri
170
58
49
4
i na ow
Ch Borr
Jiri
Borrow
li
nsu
ma
.
ift
K
BG
Ex asma
cha ti
ng
e
169
168
OS
OS
OS
77
Gift
P
Sona
68
suli
Exchan
ge
B 44
Gift
S. man
OS
P
Ind
lli
c
Ex
a4
Chin ange
Exch
OS
i
Ph
114
Lalsar
Exchange
ti
ma
bas
e
h as
urc
Ind
116
115
mans
uli
Pur
cha
se
Rad
ha 3
2
ch
as
e
14
42
Pu
r
BG
RS
li
S. mansu
Gift S. m
a
Gi nsul
i
ft
45
Son
a
man
s ul i
Exch
ange
pur mansuli
RS Ram Trial
e
44
ng
B
ha
xc 4
ChEina
S. m
S. Exchange
ans
Exman
Gift uli
s
ch u l
an i
ge
u li
ans
S. m hange
Exc
RS
154
K.
Ex mans
cha
u
ng li
e
Sabitri
Purchase
li
an s u
S. m chase
r
u
P
Borrow
OS
u sa
Exchange
100
Kan
chh
im
ansu
li
Gif
t
Chin
a
ang
e
Ex
ch
a4
Ch
in
Borrow
84
Ind
2
171
172
159
u la
Mas change
Ex
Masula
Gift
81
Kanchhi mansuli
e
ang
h
Exc
Ma
173
OS
70
83
174
54
OS
e
ram hang
Fa
RampExc
ur ma
n
Gift suli
3
129
li
ansu
K. m
ange
li
su
an
m
ge
na
an
So
ch
E17
xch Sabi Ex
ang tri
e
82
130
Masula
ange
Exch
BG
14
Gi
42
ft
Exch
itri
am
Sab
an s
nge
u li
P ur
ch a
c ha
Ex
se
Sab
itri
Exc
han
ge
Masula
s
Pu
rc
h
ip
ill
Ph
as
e
u
s la
56
101
la
if t
a
LGajhi
N60
e
SPurchas
Bo abitri
rro
w
Sab
it
Bo ri
rro
w
China 4
OS
ina
Chandange
Exch
u
as
tm
OS
tri
bi
e
Sa ang
ch
Ex
Exch
ange
64
179
195
a4
Chin
ange
Exch
China
4
Jaya
Exchange
16
la
su
e
ma
ng
t
a Ch cha
N
x
Ex
i
n
E
a4
ch
an
ge
34
120
Mutmur
Exchange
75
97
Gift
su
ge
an
an
m
. m xch
SS.
an
E suli
Exchange
119
OS
Masula
li
Nat
mas
Exc
ul a
han
ge
a
l
as u g e
tm
an
Na xch
E
4
Exc
hang
e
e
Masula
50
25
197
Exchange
Gift
Masula
Ch
Ex ina
ch 4
an
ge
41
Ind
90
196
s
Ind
illip
, Ph
na 4 ift
i
h
C
G
Na
uli
tm
mans
asu
Ex
Sona
ch a
la
ge
n
a
h
ng
e
11 ExcSabitri
Exchange
li
Gift
4
88
li
n su
Ma
nge
cha
Ex
Son
Masula
e
Exchang
S. mansuli
Exchange
li
su
an
m
ft
S.
Gi
121
li
su
an
m
na
ge
So han
c
Ex
OS
65
184
se
a
ya ase
s ul a
, ma
Ja
h
nsulage
a
rc
m
u
P
Sona Exchan
So
na
Ex
m
ch
an
an
su
ge
li
Ex
ch
an
g
e
Gift
China 4
127
OS
102
Ind
ha
144
sul
nsu
ma
S.
5
Sabit
ri
Exch
ange
on
i si
e
l ev
e
ng
181T
ha
c
Ex
160
Ex J a
ch ya
an
. masula ge
182 ENxc
hange
Jaya ange
183
Exch
eli masino
CPhokhr
i
na Exchange
Gi
4
ft
91
180
126
146
Ma
e
ng
cha
Hy
cha brid
se
China 4
Gift
4
ina
Ch Gift
u rc
Ex
Ind Pur
89
a
Chin
OS
Excha
ng
K. ma
ns
Ind
a
ul nge
a
as
M x ch
E
145
P
6
Jay
a
Mansuli
Purchase
31
uli
Exchange
K
OSEx . mansuli
chang
e
aj
nk
pa t
i
n Gif
Ra
Gift
China 4
e
Exchang
OS
a4
Chin
Gift
China 4
China 4
71
OS
4
i na t
Ch Gif
37 Exchange
China 4
Ind
a
sul
Ma
nge
cha
Ex
136
Chin
Excha a 4
nge
4
ina ge
Ch chan
Ex
137
OS
OS
itri
Sab ange
h
Exc
OS
119
188
121
120
Fig 3a. Farmers’ network on rice seed flow in Kachorwa eco-site (Network I)
Nat
man
s u li
Gif
t
Masula
Exchange
Ind
18
148
li
su
an
ft
M
Gi
China 4
Exchange
102
117
Sabi
tri
163
nge
22
128C
112
China 4
Exchange
118
122
106
ite 2
Cha ift
G
125
30
Ch
Purch andina
ase
Jaya
ange
Ex c h
Masula
Exchange
la
Ma s u e
an g
h
c
x
E
111
hina 4
se
Purcha
33
124
ina
164
nge
28
110
Ch
Pu Soka
rch n
ase
Exch
a
u li
ans
am
n
o
t
S
Gif
200
N. mansuli
Exchange
Exch
a
Excha
nge
Ja
ya
Ex
ch
an
ge
Jaya change
x
xch E Jaya
ang
e
72
Shop
Chia
n4
106
Jaya
a
ge
Jay
han
c
x
E
Sabi
tri
OS
165
57 E
64
199
166
a
Jay
ge
han
Exc
Jaya
Exchange
Purc
hase
108
109
tri
bi ge
Sa han
c
Ex
27
103
ina
C ha nd
ase
Purch
ya ge
Ja han
c
Ex
N. s a
ro
Purc
hase
20
167
Jaya
ange
Ex c h
107
Mansuli
Gift
Chandina
Exchange
21
Jaya
ange
Exch
N
Ex at m
ch
ag an s u
ne
li
n
io
evis
Tel
nge
1099 Excha
96
li
R. Mansu
change
Ex ExChi
ch na
an
4
ge
78
104
105
Masula
Exchange
4
Ex
ch
an
ge
RS
19
99
e
ansu
li
hang
e
Exc
43
149
la
Masu
ange
Ex c h
a
ul ge
as
M han
c
Ex
S. M
li
n su
ma
S.
e
ng
cha
Ex
4
ge
OS
Ind
u li
ans
S . m if t
G
R. m
asuli
Purc
hase
a
in
n
ha
ge
han
Exc
Masula
Exchange
a4
Purchase
Ch
c
Ex
OS
P
98
1)
m (7
Fara ange
Ex c h
OS
10
92
Ex
ch
an
g
7
15
12
K. m
ans
u li
Exc
han
ge
87
OS
a bi
anj
8
Ch
in
Purc
hase
Cha
ndi
na
B or
r ow
Rampur masuli
Gift
masu
li
Nat
79
201
ro
h i sa
Nak ange
h
Exc
ina
ow
Ex
ch
an
ge
M
as
ul
a
4
80
Ind
86
a
n d in
Cha ow
r
r
Bo
and
Ch
Ind
1
la
Masu
ange
Ex c h
202
85
a
ul ge
as
M han
c
Ex
na 4
Chi ift
G
59
ite 4
Ch a
Gift
67
OS
a
iy
e
ah
ng
ip
D
ha
c
Ex
rr
Bo
187
RS
li
su
an
im
hh
nc
Ka
ge
an
ch
Ex
S. m
a s ul i
Exch
ange
Masula
186
OS
62
Chaite 2
Trial
Fig 3b. Farmers’ network on rice seed flow in Kachorwa eco-site (Network II)
RS
5. Nodal farmers in the networks
• Certain individuals occupying key
positions in the network - “Nodal Farmers”
• Mainly from rich wealth category
• Some of them are women farmers
• They are spatially distributed within
the community
• Mainly High Diversity Maintaining group
- “Diversity-Minded”
Exchange
Seto gurdi
K. gurdi
Exchange
Mad
hese
Purc
hase
m
m
e
G
i ft
ad
h
Gi e
ft
OS
205
dh
a9
Ex
ch
an
ge
M
Ra d
h
Ex c a 9
han
ge
204
Ra
Exc
han
ge
Thu
Gift
Radha 9
Purchase
N
al
tu
su
li
163
a
M
an
Gi
ft
OS
g ra
in
h
Rad
207
han
ge
R
ad
Ex
ha
ch
an
ge
78
OS
ri
Sabit
Gift
Radha 9
41 R
ad
Exchange
ha
Ex
9 Food grain
ch
an
Fge
ge
76 EExcxchan ood
ge
han
Exc
Naltumme
Gift
ge
206
Ex Man
ch
s
an uli
ge
OS
4
al
um
h
K
ft
Gi
a9
16
90
dh
Ex c
han
ge
an
ch
111
lo m
ansu
li
Mansuli
Exchange
Exchange
OS
Ra
i
jarnel
Pakhe
nge
Excha
199
167
38
126
110
Madhese
Exchange
Ex
9
Gift
e
ang
Panhele
Exchange
67
Exchange
151
9
8
ch
Ex
mad
hese
Purc
hase
ha
Rad
t
Gif
ese
adh
m
lo
Thu
t
Gif
Ra
dha
Mana muri
159
Exchange
37
Mans
u li
158
nge
Madhese
Kathe gurdi
23
Sano
47
R
Exc adha
han
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• Nodal farmers are also perceived as
the most knowledgeable persons in the
community in terms of:
- Seed related matters
- Selection of planting materials
- Production environments for
different cultivars in the area
- Research mindedness
• They are playing important role in
the flow of genetic materials
- Bringing in materials from
within and outside the community
- Giving out materials to others in
the community
• Constantly looking for new cultivars
for their variable farm environments
6. What do we understand from these
results?
• Farmers’ seed flow systems occurring
through social networks play important
role in maintaining the dynamic process
of crop diversity on-farm
• Along with the genetic materials,
knowledge-based non-material
information also flows in the community.
This helps in conserving the associated
knowledge of the cultivars
• Certain members of the community act
as nodal farmers in the maintenance of
crop diversity on-farm and managing
the processes involved in it
• They also influence other network
members on the decision making
processes for crop diversity maintenance
• Nodal farmers tend to address diversity
Needs of the community members
• Network analysis as an effective
approach to trace the flow of genetic
materials and associated knowledge along
with the identification of nodal farmers
7. Implications for on-farm
conservation and utilization strategy
A. Diversity deployment
- Expertise of the nodal farmers in
selection and maintenance of genetic
materials can be effectively used in
diversity deployment/PPB while
enhancing natural farmer-to-farmer
dissemination of PPB materials
B. Strengthening on-farm conservation
of crop diversity
- A network of nodal farmers can be
conservation farmers and act as
“Community Gene Bank”, effectively
involve in CBR, and involve in public
awareness
C. Strengthening seed supply system
- Nodal farmers can be involved in
strengthening informal seed systems
including seed production and distribution
D. Training and development
• Nodal farmers can be effectively
involved as resource persons for farmer
- to - farmer training and source of
information on local crop diversity
• They can be used in the development
of training and extension materials on
local cultivars and their associated
knowledge
And Finally
The informal seed systems of crop diversity are
based on barter economy. As the cash-based
economy develops, such systems may decline.
Hence, ways to strengthen the local informal
system (such as CBR, diversity fair) through
farmers networks and nodal farmers should be
found out