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Global Perspectives
on Energy Policy
Moritz Gathmann,
Russia
Johannes Wamberg Andersen,
Denmark
Carsten Germis,
Japan
Justin Gerdes,
USA
Ward Pincus,
Saudi Arabia
Reinaldo José Lopes,
Brazil
Andrea Spalinger,
India
Justus Krüger,
China
Letters from Our Correspondents
A nation’s energy policy is determined by many factors, including its level of industrialization, its demographics, its national economy, and its technological sophistication.
In recent years, the global financial crisis, growing electrification, and the fight against
CO2 emissions have had, and continue to have, an increasing impact on the energy
market, while technical innovations have suggested new ways of dealing with these
Photo: NASA/Corbis
issues. Eight correspondents from very diverse regions report exclusively for Living
Energy on recent trends in their country’s energy policy.
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Brazil: a Clean Energy Giant at a Crossroads
A country of contrasts: Yaulapiti indigenous people generate
solar power on the Xingu River in northern Brazil.
“Brazil’s leaders must
balance the hunger for
rapid economic growth
with the country’s role
as an environmental
superpower.”
Photo: Ricardo Funari / Alamy / Aurora Photos
By Reinaldo José Lopes
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10 POWER MATRIX
Saudi Arabia: More
than Just Oil
Skyrocketing energy consumption: Saudi men look out over
the city from the top of the Kingdom Tower in Riyadh.
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“Saudi Arabia is aggressively building both
conventional and alternative capacity to
keep up with rapidly
growing demand.”
Photo: Shawn Baldwin / The New York Time/Redux / laif
By Ward Pincus
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USA: Staying the Course
Photo: Jim Richardson / National Geographic Stock
Open for business: The lights of Chicago burn brightly
at night under a blanket of clouds.
“Though nuclear power
and coal still form the
energy backbone of the
USA, their share is being
eroded by a boom in
the renewables market.”
By Justin Gerdes
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India: Fueling Rapid Growth
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“Many remote villages still lack electricity in India, where the energy
deficit is compounded by transmission and distribution losses.”
By Andrea Spalinger
Photo: Redux / laif
Local power: biogas production units used to fuel
stoves at a cheese factory
in Pondicherry, India.
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Photo: Sarah Leen / National Geographic Stock
Denmark: Catching Up
with the Green Image
Turbines at Middelgrunden Wind Park:
Denmark aims to be CO2-neutral by
2050, including by increasing offshore
wind power generation.
“Although the share of renewables
in the energy mix, at 20 percent,
is relatively high, that is less than
Denmark’s image may suggest.”
By Johannes Wamberg Andersen
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China: More Power – How Can Beijing
Meet Growing Energy Demands?
“China aims to complement its reliance on
coal with renewable energy, set to increase to
15 percent of overall consumption by 2020.”
Photo: Ryan Pyle
By Justus Krüger
Going green: A set of solar panels supplies energy
to the village of Subash, near Karakol Lake.
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Japan: Confidence in Nuclear
Shaken after Fukushima
Photo: Franck Guiziou / hemis.fr / laif
“The question of continued reliance
on nuclear energy has become a
political and economic battlefield.”
By Carsten Germis
Seeking alternatives: Beppu
on the Japanese island of
Kyushu is famous for its hot
springs (onsen).
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Russia: Energy Efficiency
and Nuclear Power
Drive for modernization: An engineer checks the interior
of the Nord Stream pipeline near Leningrad.
Photo: PhotoXPress / VISUM
“The Russian government
wants to double the country’s
energy generation by 2030,
but must enhance efficiency.”
By Moritz Gathmann
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Brazil:
Saudi Arabia:
A Clean Energy Giant at a Crossroads
More than Just Oil
Traditionally a bastion of hydropower, Brazil has become a player on
the oil market. Which path will it choose in powering GDP growth?
Saudi Arabia faces two challenges: increasing installed capacity,
including nuclear and renewable sources, and reducing demand.
By Reinaldo José Lopes
By Ward Pincus
a significant strain on the biodiversity and indigenous communities of
Amazonia.
Though Brazil may not repeat the
stunning 7.5 percent growth in GDP
of 2010 anytime soon, the country
is still voracious for infrastructure
growth and building development
in preparation for hosting the 2014
football World Cup and the 2016 Olympics. Besides, economists estimate
that since 2003, almost 40 million Brazilians have joined a fledgling middle
class. Short-term thinking has long
been the bane of political and economic life in Brazil. It remains to be seen
whether current leaders will be able to
balance the hunger for rapid economic growth with Brazil’s role as an
environmental superpower.
Reinaldo José Lopes is the science
and health editor at Folha de S.Paulo,
Brazil’s leading daily newspaper.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
2,201
Gross electricity generation (2009)
466.5 TWh
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
1.74
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
193
million
2%
Coal
3%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
3%
Gas
3%
Nuclear
84 % Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
5%
Renewables
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
Illustrations: Masao Yamazaki, Graphics: independent
Brazilians learn at elementary school
that they live in “a country of contrasts,” and another familiar cliché says
that this is the “country of the future.”
Both phrases are apt descriptions of
where the nation stands in terms
of its energy policy, and where it will
probably go in the near future.
Let’s start with the contrasts. Among
the world’s major economies, Brazil
has the cleanest energy matrix, with
almost 80 percent hydropower. At
the same time, the country is the
fourth-largest carbon emitter, overwhelmingly due to deforestation.
This means relatively little economic
growth comes out of each deforested
acre, since forests are usually cut
down or burned to become sparsely
used pastureland, as a rule abandoned after a few years. At the same
time, after decades as one of the global leaders in biofuel development
and consumption (largely using sugarcane ethanol), Brazil is now a net
exporter of oil, and set to exploit the
fabled presalt layer of hydrocarbons
recently discovered off the southeastern coast.
That brings me to the “country of
the future” label. Brazilian hydropower
still costs less than US$40 per MWh,
around half the cost of thermal energy.
But construction of controversial
new dams is advancing in the Amazon
basin. The new projects flood a much
smaller area than dams built during
the 1970s and 1980s. Still, they put
It is perhaps no surprise that the
world’s largest oil exporter has an electricity market with some unusual
contours, but the extent of its “uniqueness” is staggering. One example:
Most Saudi residential customers pay
the equivalent of just over one US
penny per kilowatt-hour.
As might be expected, consumption
is skyrocketing, with peak demand
growing by 8 percent a year. And it’s
the kingdom’s 4.9 million residential
customers that are driving this. They
account for a remarkable 51 percent
of the total power supplied in 2010.
With a home-building initiative under
way to meet the needs of Saudi Arabia’s young, fast-growing population
(over 25 million people, 30 percent
of whom are under 15 years old), residential demand will only increase,
while an economic diversification
effort will drive industrial demand
for power.
In response, the kingdom is aggressively building both conventional and
alternative capacity, including with
nuclear and renewables. It’s also gingerly attempting to curb demand
growth. The Saudi Electricity Company
(SEC), the kingdom’s sole electricity
provider, expects to spend US$80
billion over ten years to add around
30 GW of additional capacity and is
also seeking private funding for five
independent power projects. Three
of them are under construction or have
been awarded.
While all electricity generation today
comes from fossil fuels, that will
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
change. Saudi Arabia is planning
to build 16 nuclear reactors over the
next 20 years.
While no national renewables target
has been set, tentative steps are under
way with a handful of solar projects
and other efforts to explore solar desalination and PV plants for remote
villages.
Saudi Arabia also aims to reduce power demand growth to 5 percent a year
within five years through efficiency
measures that include new standards
for air conditioners, which account
for about 70 percent of residential electricity consumption.
Unchecked demand growth and the
costs of fueling this growth with
25
an ever-greater share of valuable
crude oil and gas seem to limit policy
choices. But a senior executive of
national oil company Aramco recently
said the kingdom’s vast shale oil reserves could be tapped if technology
costs continue to fall.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
7,842
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
16.17
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
25.4
million
Gross electricity generation (2009)
217.1 TWh
0%
55 %
Coal
0%
Nuclear
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
0%
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
0%
Renewables
45 % Gas
Ward Pincus (Dubai) is a Middle East expert who
writes on science, technology, health, and business
issues for publications in North America, Europe, and
the Middle East. He is a former correspondent for
the Associated Press (AP) in the United Arab Emirates.
26 POWER MATRIX
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USA:
27
India:
Staying the Course
Fueling Rapid Growth
In the USA, nuclear power and coal still form
the nation’s energy backbone, but their share is
eroding as renewables experience a market-based
boom. Until green technology breaks through,
shale gas will most likely bridge the gap.
India seeks alternatives to fossil fuels for powering its economic boom.
While coal and nuclear power will continue to be used, renewables offer
new opportunities.
By Andrea Spalinger
By Justin Gerdes
fers energy projects a cash grant in
lieu of tax credits, expires at the end
of 2011. Nevertheless, the renewables
sector is booming. The USA does not
have a federal energy policy; instead,
30 states have in place Renewable
Portfolio Standards mandating that
a percentage of power sent to the grid
must be from green sources. This
combination of steady demand, falling prices (prices for solar panels
have plunged 30 percent since the beginning of 2010), and smart policy,
such as the DoE’s SunShot Initiative,
which aims to drive down the in-
Justin Gerdes, Concord, California, is an
author specializing on energy and climate
change. His work has been published in
chinadialogue, Mandag Morgen (Monday
Morning), Earth2Tech.com, and MotherJones.com.
stalled cost of solar by 75 percent by
2020, has produced a veritable surge
for the industry: As of September
2011, 24 GW of utility-scale PV projects alone had been installed.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
11,849
Gross electricity generation (2010)
4,336.5 TWh
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
16.9
tonnes CO2 per capita
45 % Coal
Population (2009)
307
million
1%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
23 % Gas
19 % Nuclear
6%
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
5%
Renewables
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
Illustrations: Masao Yamazaki, Graphics: independent
Nuclear energy remains a mainstay
of energy policy here in the USA.
In a speech at the IAEA in Vienna on
September 19, 2011, Energy Secretary
Steven Chu reiterated US support for
the technology. The fact that nuclear
power continues to account for only
20 percent of the current electricity mix
is likely due to its cost. After all, it took
US$8.33 billion in loan guarantees
from the Department of Energy (DoE),
announced February 16, 2010, to persuade a consortium to build two new
reactors in Georgia; this is expected to
be the first new US nuclear plant to
be constructed in 30 years.
The sectors to watch are shale gas
and renewable energy, which promise
to erode the market share of coal,
still 45 percent of the electricity mix
in 2010. Coal prices are currently
rising, while pending Environmental
Protection Agency rules are likely to
force the nation’s dirtiest coal-fired
power plants offline. In this situation,
domestic shale gas – expected to reach
47 percent of US natural gas production by 2035 – will be the transition fuel
as renewables reach scale. Congress
is offering only fickle and fleeting
support for renewable energy; the US
Treasury’s 1603 program, which of-
In many smaller towns and villages
of India, despite the subcontinents
economic surge, lack of electricity
means that sunset marks the onset of
darkness. A new development strategy is needed, and nuclear power will
play a crucial role. The government
aims to supply 25 percent of electricity
from nuclear reactors by 2050, up
from 2.6 percent today. Five reactors
are currently under construction;
18 more are to be built by 2025.
In recent years, India’s energy consumption has been increasing at a fast
rate due to rapid economic growth
and a huge population of over a billion.
The subcontinent is expected to be
the second-largest driver of global energy demand by 2035. In 2008, India
produced 830 million MWh, more
than triple the output of 1990. Despite
the huge increase, India’s per capita
consumption is still one of the lowest
worldwide (2010: 500 kWh).
In addition to the burgeoning energy
deficit, transmission and distribution
losses are estimated to be as high as
30 percent. Many remote villages still
lack electricity, but even big cities
suffer from intermittent power and frequent power cuts. This imposes a
heavy burden on the fast-growing industry and service sectors and is one
of the major constraints for growth.
At the moment, 65 percent of India’s
generation capacity comes from fossil
fuels. Coal accounts for 54 percent,
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
followed by natural gas (9 percent)
and crude oil (1 percent). India ranks
third among the coal-producing countries in the world. But despite an increase in production, demand still exceeds supply. As India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports, it has
shown great interest in developing
renewable sources – wind power, solar energy, small hydropower, and
biomass. Altogether, renewables contribute 11 percent to the energy
generation. Big hydropower projects
account for 21 percent.
Coal will still dominate the coming
decade. But the shortage of fossil fuels will continue to drive investments
in nuclear and renewable energies.
Andrea Spalinger (Delhi) is the
Neue Zürcher Zeitung’s political
and economics correspondent
for South Asia.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
597
Gross electricity generation (2009)
899.4 TWh
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
1.37
tonnes CO2 per capita
69 % Coal
Population (2009)
1.15
billion
3%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
12 % Gas
2%
12 %
2%
Nuclear
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
Renewables
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Denmark:
China:
Catching Up with the Green Image
More Power – How Can Beijing Meet
Growing Energy Demands?
Denmark’s reliance on hydrocarbons belies its green image, but the
new government is determined to reduce the nation’s CO2 footprint.
After decades of growth, China is now the world’s second-largest economy.
As the boom continues, so does China’s energy consumption.
By Johannes Wamberg Andersen
and investments in renewables, depriving the wind turbine industry of
the home market that had given Denmark an edge and turned wind turbines into an export hit.
Although the share of renewables in
the energy mix, at 20 percent, is relatively high, that is less than Denmark’s
green image may suggest, and even
that level is partly due to imported
pellets and hydroelectricity.
Renewables are, however, expected to
increase rapidly in the midterm. The
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
5,721
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
8.47
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
5.5
million
Gross electricity generation (2010)
36.3 TWh
Johannes Wamberg Andersen (Copenhagen) is an independent analyst and
journalist specializing in the energy trade
between Eastern and Western Europe.
His work has been published in various
media, including the BBC and the Danish
Broadcasting Corporation (DR).
49 % Coal
3%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
18 % Gas
0%
Nuclear
0%
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
30 % Renewables
government is launching an ambitious
change of energy paradigm aimed at
heavy reductions in CO2 emissions
(40 percent by 2020), eliminating the
decreasing but still heavy use of coal
(20 percent of the energy mix) in the
energy-efficient combined production
of electricity and district heating. The
goal of a CO2-neutral Denmark by 2050
is mainly to be reached by increasing
offshore wind power generation and
residential energy savings.
Energy efficiency has allowed the Danish GDP to expand by more than 40
percent from 1990 to 2008 while consumption remained constant. Dependence on hydrocarbons, including imported coal for production of electricity
(due to rejection of nuclear power),
puts Denmark’s CO2 emissions well
above the EU average. Indeed, Denmark
has the lowest energy intensity among
the EU states, but its high CO2 emissions defy the perception of Denmark
as a green country and reflect the failure to clean the black smoke from
central district heating power plants.
Decreasing production will make Denmark an importer of oil and gas by
2020. With natural gas, playing a bridging role in the transition from oil (currently 40 percent of primary energy
consumption) and coal, Denmark is
partly dependent on gas from Russia.
Having witnessed the failure of the
Copenhagen summit to set binding international agreements, the new center-left government aims to show that
energy savings and the transition to
renewables not only benefit the environment, but are also cost-efficient.
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
By Justus Krüger
Illustrations: Masao Yamazaki, Graphics: independent
With its North Sea oil and gas, Denmark is the only net energy exporter
among EU members. Originally seen
as safeguard for energy supply reducing dependency on Mideast oil, the
use of domestic hydrocarbons has effectively slowed the transition from
fossils to renewables and frozen the
development of solar power, geothermal heat pumps, and other sustainable technologies.
In the past decade, the former centerright government cut most incentives
29
Energy production in China is a
mix of continuity and novel elements
designed to control emissions. New
and cleaner fossil energy technologies
are crucial. Increasing market penetration of renewables is another key
factor.
Coal, the only fuel of which China
has plenty, covers two thirds of China’s
energy demand (oil is at 20 percent).
In order to keep emissions in check,
China is increasingly investing in highly efficient coal plants which raise the
efficiency grade to 45 percent, requiring far less coal to generate the same
amount of energy. The world’s most
efficient coal plant, core parts of which
have been designed and built by
Siemens, is located in Shanghai.
The share of gas is set to rise from 4
percent currently to 8 percent by 2015.
Nuclear energy will also continue to
be developed. So far, it accounts for
just above 1 percent in the energy mix.
But nearly half of all nuclear reactors
now under construction worldwide
are situated in China. By 2020, the output of nuclear power is expected to
increase from 10.8 to approximately
80 GW.
Equally or more important is the further development of renewables. They
constitute 7 percent of Chinese power
generation today. Overall, the share
of energy from nonfossil sources is to
rise to 15 percent of total consumption by 2020.
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
Justus Krüger (Hong Kong) has been living in
China for six years, covering its economic transformation with special attention to energy
issues. He has written for the Financial Times
Deutschland, GEO, the South China Morning
Post, the Berliner Zeitung, and McK Wissen.
One challenge is that renewable
sources are often remote from consumers. Conventional transmission
methods are not efficient enough
to link remote wind or hydroplants
to the industrial centers.
This has now changed. Siemens has
developed a new type of high-voltage,
direct-current-based (HVDC) transmission technology that raises long
distance transport to a new level of
efficiency. The longest HVDC connection in the world, designed and built
by Siemens in 2010, connects the
Chuxiong hydroplant in the remote
province of Yunnan with the Pearl
River Delta. Conventional coal plants
delivering the same amount of energy
would blow 33 million tonnes of CO2
into the atmosphere every year. The
Chuxiong plant produces exactly zero
CO2. More HVDC lines are under construction throughout the country.
China is thus building the infrastructure further to increase the role of
green energy.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
2,648
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
5.13
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
1.33
billion
Gross electricity generation (2009)
3,695.8 TWh
79 % Coal
0%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
1%
Gas
2%
17 %
1%
Nuclear
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
Renewables
30 POWER MATRIX
Japan:
Russia:
Confidence in Nuclear Shaken after Fukushima
Energy Efficiency and Nuclear Power
In the aftermath of Fukushima, the public mood has
as turn
turned
ned
d against nuclear
power, and plans to foster alternative energy are gaining
aining traction.
Russia’s buzzword these days is “modernization,”
and one of the greatest challenges is modernizing
the country’s energy sector. What is certain is that
nuclear power will continue to play a crucial role.
By Carsten Germis
By Moritz Gathmann
Carsten Germis is the Japan
correspondent for the Frankfurter
Allgemeine Zeitung.
The issue has become a political
and economic battlefield. The nuclear
lobby remains strong and the country’s ten power supply companies,
which enjoy monopolies in their respective supply districts, oppose
change and shun competition. This
is another reason why energy costs
are considerably higher in Japan
than in most comparable countries.
Meanwhile, the risk of electricity
shortages is increasing. Safety concerns will prevent many nuclear
plants from connecting to the grid
this year, too. Last summer, power
cuts were avoided. Work shifts were
moved to weekends and employees
worked from home, while air-conditioning was largely banned despite
hot weather.
The government intends to present
plans for the promotion of renewables
this year. Much will depend on fostering alternatives through compensatory feed-in tariffs. Certainly, renewables, especially solar, will become
increasingly significant. Nevertheless,
nuclear power will continue to play
a central role. At present, a nuclear
phaseout lacks majority support both
in the government and the opposition.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
7,339
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
8.58
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
127
million
Gross electricity generation (2010)
1,079.9 TWh
27 % Coal
9%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
27 % Gas
27 % Nuclear*
7%
Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
3%
Renewables
*Less generation due to events in Fukushima
Living Energy · Issue 6/February 2012
Illustrations: Masao Yamazaki, Graphics: independent
It was a sight the officials at Tokyo’s
Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry had not seen in a long time. In
early November, antinuclear activists
thronged the sidewalks outside the
ministry, collecting signatures in favor
of phasing out nuclear power. “We’ve
surprised ourselves,” said one of
the activists, staring at the hordes in
disbelief as petitions filled rapidly.
How important will nuclear power in
Japan remain in the wake of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster? It is
unlikely to enjoy majority support
among the Japanese population again.
Mistrust is huge due to the catastrophic aftermath of the March 11, 2011,
tsunami and the ambiguous information policy of the Tokyo Electric Power
Company (Tepco). Irradiated beef and
milk and grave errors at Fukushima
have left public advocates of expanding
nuclear power rather thin on the
ground.
Nuclear power has figured prominently in the energy strategies of all
recent Japanese governments. It was
to cover over 40 percent of the country’s energy requirements by 2020, and
almost half by 2030. Pre-Fukushima,
it supplied just over a quarter of Japan’s
energy. Renewables, not including
hydropower, currently account for
just 1 percent of generation. However,
this summer, the parliament decided
to promote the expansion of renewable energies. Solar, wind, and biomass
will gain in importance, even if the
country continues to rely on nuclear
power.
The population of the worlds biggest
country is 141 million. Because of
low birth rates and bad health, Russia’s
population is expected to shrink by
11 million until 2025. The country is
already urbanized, having 164 cities
with more than 100,000 inhabitants.
Russia has seen a double-digit rise
in GDP in the last decade, but its economy depends heavily on gas, oil, and
other commodities. President Medvedev has proclaimed a big push to
modernize the country, but small and
medium-sized companies are still
finding it very hard to succeed.
Russia is already a consumer society,
and the growing middle class is
buying more and more cars, fridges,
computers, and electronic devices.
In 2010, the country consumed 1,009.2
billion kWh, but the Ministry of Energy
expects consumption to double by
2030. At the same time, prices for electricity are growing at a double-digit
rate. In 2011, it cost 2.2 rubles (5.5 euro
cents) per kWh.
According to the government’s energy
strategy, the country must double its
energy generation by 2030, but two major problems remain: increasing energy efficiency and reducing dependence
on gas for power production.
One of Medvedev’s first priorities after
becoming president was to make the
country’s power consumption 40 per-
cent more efficient by 2030. The Russian parliament adopted a law on energy efficiency that prohibits filament
lamps and requires energy-saving insulation in new houses (and in the
renovation of existing houses). The energy companies are investing billions
of rubles in the modernization of the
antiquated transmission network.
And Russia is planning to change its
energy mix: Solar and wind energy
dont play a significant role, but the
country inherited several enormous
Soviet-era hydroelectric stations,
which today account for 18 percent of
the energy mix. Fourteen percent
come from nuclear power stations,
and 68 percent from fuel-burning
plants. Specifically, 47 percent of the
country’s electricity is generated by
natural gas.
The main goal of the government is to
limit the use of gas in electricity production to 43.1 percent by 2030 while
increasing the share of coal and nuclear energy. Russia wants to add 26
new nuclear power plants to the 10
existing ones by 2030. The share of nuclear in the energy mix is supposed to
increase to 30 percent, and Medvedev
has proposed several new security
conventions for nuclear plants to the
International Atomic Energy Agency.
The calculation is very economical:
Russia’s state nuclear corporation
Statistics: IEA Key World Energy Statistics, 2008–2011.
Fractions researched by the editors; sum of percentages may diverge from 100 due to rounding differences.
Moritz Gathmann has been working in
Moscow since 2008 as a correspondent for
various German magazines and newspapers.
His articles have appeared in DER SPIEGEL
magazine, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Frankfurter
Allgemeine Zeitung, and others.
Rosatom estimates that the envisaged
increase of nuclear energy will enable
the country to save 135 billion cubic
meters of gas annually – that can be
sold to the energy-hungry European
states and China.
Statistics
Electricity total final consumption (2009)
6,133
kWh per capita
CO2 emissions / population (2009)
10.8
tonnes CO2 per capita
Population (2009)
141
million
Gross electricity generation (2009)
990.0 TWh
17 % Coal
2%
Others
(e.g., oil, fuel cells)
47 % Gas
17 % Nuclear
18 % Hydro
(incl. pump storage)
0%
Renewables